Semiconductor lasers and LEDs

read Agrawal pp. 78-116

Objectives, understand the following:
Stimulated emission, spontaneous emission, and absorption in
semiconductors
Design of an LED and laser diode: injection mechanism, optical cavity,
waveguide, electron & hole confinement, and materials
Efficiency and modulation response of LEDs
Efficiency, threshold, modulation response and relative intensity noise
of laser diodes
important semiconductor laser cavity designs for narrow linewidth or
tuning (WDM sources)

Fundamental emission and absorption processes in a 2-level system.

Where does optical gain come from?
E2
h

E2

E2
h In

h
Out
h

E1

(a) Absorption

E1

E1

(b) Spontaneous emission (c) Stimulated emission

Absorption, spontaneous (random photon) emission and stimulated

emission.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Uses in semiconductor optoelectronic devices:

Absorption: detectors and modulators
Spon. Emis.: light emitting diode (LED), incoherent light
Stim. Emis. (source of optical gain): laser diode (LD, coherent light),
semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA), and superluminescent diode
(SLD)

What does the energy level system look like in a semiconductor?

Many levels: energy bands called the conduction (CB) and valence bands (VB).
Energy
Optical gain

EF n EF p

CB
EF n
Ec

Electrons
in CB

eV

Eg

Holes in VB
= Empty states

Ev
EF p

At T > 0

VB

At T = 0

Optical absorption
Density of states
(a)

(b )

(a) The density of states and energy distribution of electrons and holes in
the conduction and valence bands respectively at T 0 in the SCL
under forward bias such that E Fn E Fp > E g . Holes in the VB are empty
states. (b) Gain vs. photon energy.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Equations for spontaneous emission, stimulated emission and

(stimulated) absorption rates in semiconductors (Agrawal, pp. 78-80)
Rspon ( ) =

A(E , E ) f (E )[1 f (E )]
1

cv

dE 2

Ec

A(E1, E 2 ) = Einstein spontaneous emission coefficient

f c (E 2 ) = probability of an electron in the CB at E2

[1 f v (E1)] =

probability of a hole in the VB at E1

cv = joint density of (electronic) states

Rstim ( ) =

B(E1, E 2 ) f c (E 2 )[1 f v (E1 )] cv em dE 2

(2mr )
cv =
2 3

32

(h E g )
2 h
mr = mc mv /(mc + mv ) = reduced mass
mc = electron effective mass in the CB
mv = hole effective mass in the VB

Ec

B(E1, E 2 ) = Einstein stimulated emission coefficient

f c (E 2 ) = probability of an electron in the CB at E2

[1 f v (E1)] =

probability of a hole in the VB at E1

cv = joint density of (electronic) states

em = the spectral density (Planck's blackbody formula)
Rabs ( ) =

B(E , E ) f (E )[1 f (E )]
1

cv

{ [
]}
f (E ) = {1+ exp[(E E ) k T ]}

f c (E 2 ) = 1+ exp (E 2 E fc ) kB T

B(E1, E 2 ) = Einstein stimulated emission coefficient

f v (E1 ) = probability of an electron in the VB at E1
probability of a hole (empty state) in the CB at E2

cv = joint density of (electronic) states

em = the spectral density (Planck's blackbody formula)

fv

E fc = quasi Fermi level in the CB

E fv = quasi Fermi leve in the VB

em dE 2

Ec

[1 f c (E 2 )] =

Fermi - Dirac Distribution function (probabilities)

em =

8h 3 c 3
exp(h k B T ) 1

The population inversion condition in semiconductors

Energy

Optical gain
stim

CB
EF n
Ec

Electrons
in CB

eV

results in :

Eg

Holes in VB
= Empty states

Ev
EF p

>EFRn abs
yields optical gain)
EF(this
p

E fc E fv > E 2 E1 > E g
At T > 0

VB

At T = 0

Optical absorption
Density of states
(a)

(b )

(a) The density of states and energy distribution of electrons and holes in
theNote
conduction
and
valence
bands respectively
at T 0 in the SCL
that
at
equilibrium
in
a
semiconductor
that E = Efv.
under forward bias such that E Fn E Fp > E g . Holes in the VB are empty fc
We(b)need
to photon
pumpenergy.
energy into the semiconductor from an
states.
Gain vs.

external source. The most compact and efficient way of

doing this is to inject current from a forward biased p-n
junction.

1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

The p-n homojunction: injection mechanism for sustaining

population inversion (weve got gain)
p+

Junction

n+

Ec
Eg
Ev
EF p

eV o
Ho les in V B
Electro ns

Electro ns in C B

n+

p+
Ec
EF n
Ec

EF n

In v ers io n
reg io n

Ec

Eg

eV
EF p

(a)

Ev

(b )

V
The energy band diagram of a degenerately doped p-n with no bias. (b) Band
diagram with a sufficiently large forward bias to cause population inversion and
hence stimulated emission.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Degenerate doping in GaAs is NI > mid 1017 cm-3

The diode equation: I = IS[exp(qV/nkBT)-1]

Next, we need
feedback and an
optical waveguide
to construct the LD

To convert an amplifier to an oscillator feedback is needed

The Fabry-Perot Resonator

Relative intensity

Optical Gain
Doppler
broadening

(a)

(c )

Allowed Oscillations (Cavity Modes)

m(/2) = L

(b )

Stationary EM oscillations
Mirror
Mirror

(a) Optical gain vs. wavelength characteristics (called the optical gain curve) of the
lasing medium. (b) Allowed modes and their wavelengths due to stationary EM waves
within the optical cavity. (c) The output spectrum (relative intensity vs. wavelength) is
determined by satisfying (a) and (b) simultaneously, assuming no cavity losses.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Cleaved crystal facets for mirrors!

Current
Cleaved surface mirror

Electrode

GaAs

p+
L

n+

GaAs
Electrode
Active region
(stimulated emission region)

A schematic illustration of a GaAs homojunction laser

diode. The cleaved surfaces act as reflecting mirrors.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

This is a vintage 1970s

LD with cleaved mirrors
forming a Fabry Perot
Resonator and a p-n
homojunction for injection.
However, there is a
problem with this optical
and electrical confinement
in this cavity design.

The separate confinement heterostructure (SCH)improved

electron, hole, and optical confinement

(a )

AlGaAs

GaAs

AlGaAs

(a) A double
heterostructure diode has
two junctions which are
between two different
bandgap semiconductors
(GaAs and AlGaAs).

(~0.1 m)
Electrons in CB

Ec

Ec

Ec

2 eV
1.4 eV

2 eV

(b)

Ev

Ev
Holes in VB

Refractive
index
(c )

Photon
density

Active
region

n ~ 5%

(d)

1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

(b) Simplified energy

band diagram under a
large forward bias.
Lasing recombination
takes place in the pGaAs layer, the
active layer
(c) Higher bandgap
materials have a
lower refractive
index

(d) AlGaAs layers

provide lateral optical
confinement.

Light-Current Curve and Spectrum of an LD

Optical P ower

Laser

Optical Power

Optical P ower

LED
Stimulated
emission

Optical P ower

Laser

Spontaneous
emission

I
Ith

Typical output optical power vs. diode current (I) characteristics and the corresponding
output spectrum of a laser diode.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Material Choices for LEDs and LDs

Indirect
bandgap

GaAs1-yPy
x = 0.43

In1-xGaxAs1-yPy

AlxGa1-xAs
In0.49AlxGa0.51-xP

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7 0.8
Infrared

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

Free space wavelength coverage by different LED materials from the visible spectrum to the
infrared including wavelengths used in optical communications. Hatched region and dashed
lines are indirect Eg materials.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

1310-1550 nm is dominated by InGaAsP/InP materials

850 nm is based on the GaAs/AlGaAs system

Eg (eV)
Quaternary alloys
with indirect bandgap

2.6
2.4

Direct bandgap

GaP

Indirect bandgap

2.2
2

It is very desirable that

the various materials
used to fabricate an LD
be lattice-matched. That
is have the same lattice
constant.

Quaternary alloys
with direct bandgap

1.8
1.6
1.4

GaAs

InP

1.2
1
0.8

In1-xGaxAs
In0.535Ga0.465As

0.6

0.4

InAs

0.2
0.54

0.55 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.6

Lattice constant, a (nm)

0.61

0.62

Bandgap energy Eg and lattice constant a for various III-V alloys of

GaP, GaAs, InP and InAs. A line represents a ternary alloy formed with
compounds from the end points of the line. Solid lines are for direct
bandgap alloys whereas dashed lines for indirect bandgap alloys.
Regions between lines represent quaternary alloys. The line from X to
InP represents quaternary alloys In1-xGaxAs1-yPy made from
In0.535Ga0.465As and InP which are lattice matched to InP.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Indirect vs. direct bandgap semiconductors

E

CB
Direct Bandgap

Ec
Eg

Indirect Bandgap, Eg
Photon

CB

Ev

kcb

VB
k

k
(a) GaAs

VB kvb
(b) Si

Ec

CB
Er

Ev

Ec
Phonon
Ev

VB
k

k
(c) Si with a recombination center

(a) In GaAs the minimum of the CB is directly above the maximum of the VB. GaAs is
therefore a direct bandgap semiconductor. (b) In Si, the minimum of the CB is displaced from
the maximum of the VB and Si is an indirect bandgap semiconductor. (c) Recombination of
an electron and a hole in Si involves a recombination center .
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Direct bandgap semiconductors have much stronger optical transitions

(stimulated emission) than indirect gap materials