CHAPTER 1: Intro to

Invertebrates
NOMEN + CELARE = nomenclature
Systematic way of assigning
names to particular organisms
Relative identifiable themes:
1. ground plan thematic
variations
2. phylogeny evolutionary
history of group; phylogenic
tree/cladogram = actual
depiction = subject to testing &
change
3. functional principles physics,
chemistry, biology as factors
that control design
CLADISTIC METHOD
- arrangement of species by
hierarchical pattern of
relationships
- phylogeny = pattern of
evolutionary kinship
relationship
- phylogenetic systematics =
cladistics
taxa = 2 groups ( taxon =
singular )
character = trait
synapomorphy = shared
derived character
autapomorphy = self-derived
monophyletic = one origin
symplesiomorphy = shared
ancestral trait
paraphyletic = contains some,
but not all descendants of the
stem species

polyphyletic = includes
descendants of more than one
ancestor
o results from
convergence
o homology = common
genetic inheritance
o homoplasy = superficial
similarity that arises
o outgroup comparison =
extension of analysis
Parsimony = simplest = fewer
number of character changes

CHAPTER 2: Intro to Protozoa

unicellular eukaryotes
Protista = large subgroup of
protest = protozoa (first
animals)
No organs = organelles
o Nucleus
o Mitochondria = aeroic
resp
o Chloroplast =
photosynthesis
o Endoplasmic reticulum
= synthesis of carbo,
lipids and
proteins(when
ribosomes present)
o Golgi body = package
system
o Lysosomes= golgi
derived, vesicles that
contain enzymes
Has cytoskeleton = protein
filaments
Not static/permanent
Polymerization of cytoskeleton
is reversible

1. Actin filaments
(microfilaments)
2. Microtubules
also for cell motility
treadmilling
Motor molecules = change
shape in presence of ATP
1. Myosin binds to actin
2. Dynein microtubules
Cytoplasm = fluid that
surrounds organelles and
cytoskeleton
Cell membrane = encloses
o Bilayered structure = 2
phospholipid layers
compose it
o Regulates internal
condition
Glycocalix = extracellular
surface coat
CELLMOTILITY
1.
Ameboid movement

Cell crawling

Actin

Pseudopodia = flowing
exensions of cell

Ectoplasm = stiff gel

Endoplasm = fluid sol

Cytoskeleton disassembly =
gel into liquid cytoplasm
(trailing end)

Contracts with presence of

calcium and atp
2.
Flagella and Cilia

Flagella = long and whip-like

undulations

Cilia = short; stiff/oar-like

motion

Consists of axoneme =
microtubular core

Axoneme anchored to basal

body

Microtubule Organizing Center

(MTOC) = basal body +
centrioles = controls
polymerization of microtubules

Cilia = short, numerous,

densely arranged

Metachronal waves
CELL UPTAKE
1. Pinocytosis = drinking
2. Phagocytosis =
engulfing/eating
3. Cyclosis = directional
transport within
cell/pseudopodium
CELL SECRETIONS
1. Mucus = adhesive,
protective cover, lubricant
2. Chitin = exctracellular
skeletal material
CELL COMMUNICATION
responds to chemical and
physical cues
each protozoan cell = receptor
& effector
SYMBIOSIS
zoochlorellae = green
unicellular/diatom algae
zooxanthellae = yellow/brown
endosymbiosis theory = Lynn
Margulis

CHAPTER 3: PROTOZOA
animalcules/infusoria
possession of motility
polyphyletic taxon
properties of some: funguslike, animal-like, plant-like
FORM AND FUNCTION

can be individual cell or

colonial
enclosed by cell membrane
cytoskeleton = rigidity/flexibility
of body
cytoskeleton + cell membrane
= pellicle (protozoan body
wall)
cytoskeleton = actin filaments,
microtubules, vesicles or all 3.
o Vesicles/alveoli = below
cell membrane
Test = skeleton
May have locomotor
organelles = flagella(bears
mastigonemes),cilia,
pseudopodia
All nutrition occur
Cytostome = definite mouth
Cytophraynx = mictroubular
tract
Bidirectional shuttling = forams
& actinopods
Cyclosis = paramecium
Diffusion
Osmoregulation = freshwater
o Contractile vacuole
complex = spongiome +
contractile vacuole
REPRODUCTION&LIFE CYCLE
clonal repro = mitosis
fission = 2 or more daughter
cells
o binary = results in 2
progeny cells
o budding = one progeny
cell is smaller than the
other
o schizogony = multiple
fission

DIVERSITY OF PROTOZOA
Phylum Euglenozoa (Euglenoidea
and Kinetoplastida)
1. Class Euglenoidea
body is elongate
invagination = reservoir at
anterior end
cytostome lies at base of
reservoir
cytophraynx
contractile vacuole = 2 flagella,
reservoir wall
eyespot = shades
photosensitive bulge
paraflagellar body = base of
long flagellum
euglena one flagellum is
very short and terminates at
base of long flagellum
peranema both flagella are
long
paramylon stored food
energy
2. Class Kinetoplastida
Kinetoplast = conspicuous
mass of DNA
Undulating membrane
Anterior flagella bears on row
of mastigonemes
Pellicle = thick glycocalix
o Trypanosoma
o Leishmania = kala-azar;
sand fly
o Cruzi = Chagas
disease; blood-sucking
bugs
o Brucei rhodesiense =
African sleeping
disease; tsetse fly

Binary fission; no sexual

reproduction observed

Phylum Chlorophyta
1. Order Volvocida
taxon of green algae
permanently flagellated
2,4, or 8 flagella
lacks mastigonemes
has eyespot
2 contractile vacuoles
cells enclosed in gel matrix
composed of glycoproteins
Chlamydomonas, Gonium,
Pandorina, Eudorina,
Pleodorina, Volvox
Volvox = has gonidium = large
aflagellated cells capable of
sexual and asexual repro
Haploid dominant life cycle
Phylum Choanoflagellata
single flagellum
flagellum bears bilateral vane
of mastigoneme-like filaments
surrounded by cylindrical
collar of microvilli
may be colonial or solitary
attached/free swimming
vase-like test = siliceous
Proterospongia
Phylum Retortamonada and
Axostylata
four to thousands of flagella
mostly free living
most live anaerobically in guts of
vertebrates and insects
Retortamonads
o Giargia Lamblia
Bloody diarrhea
o Four flagella

3 leading, 1 trailing
lack Golgi bodies and
mitochondria
1. Retortamonadae
a. 2 to 4 anterior flagella
2. Diplomonadae
a. 8 flagella
b. 2 cytosome, 2 nuclei
c. Giargia
Axostylata
o Trichomonas vaginalis
Parasite
Four anterior
flagella
Inhabit urogenital
tract of humans
STD
Greenish yellow
discharge
o Axostyle bundle of
microtubules, extends
length of whole cell
o lack mitochondria
Phylum Alveolata
- similar ribosomal DNA
- pellicular alveoli
1. Dinoflagellata
Chloroplasts
Primary producers
Xanthophill pigment = peridinin
= red/brown/gold color
Most = 2 flagella
One longitudinal = in sulcus
One located in cingulum =
transverse flagella
Pusule = contractile vacuole
Theca = complex skeleton =
contain skeletal cellulose
o Gymnodinuim
Naked
Red tide
o Noctiluca
o
o

Planktonic
bioluminescence
Pfiesteria piscicida
Fish kill
Skin lesion on fish

2. Ciliophora
monophyletic
heterotrophs
most are solitary and motile
somatic & oral ciliature
cilia in rows = kinety
kinetids make up kinety
kinetodesma runs whole length of
row
kinetid fibers = skeletal function
covered in complex pellicle
membranous sacs = alveoli =
outer membrane
alveoli = skeletal function + stores
Ca2+
Extrusomes = excretory body
o Trichocysts
defense
o Toxicists
attack
o mucocysts
mucous
adhesive for prey
capture
moves faster than flagellates
metachronal waves = controlled
by water motion
avoidance reaction =
paramecium
vorticella & stentor = sessile +
highly contractile
o contraction = shortening
of mynomenes
o stentor = whole body
o vorticella = stak = single
fiber = spasmoneme
cytostome = endocytotic area
free of cilia

oral structures = cytostome +

cytopharynx
preoral chamber = vestibule
buccal cavity/peristome
each tentacle is supported
internally by microtubules
bears attachments = haptocysts
TWO TYPES OF NUCLEI
o Micronucleus
Active only during
cell division
o Macronucleus
Genome
Clonal reproduction = budding
Sexual repro
o Direct exchange of genes
o Conjugation
Conjugants
3. Apicomplexa (Sporozoa)
apical complex attaches to or
penetrates into host cell
micropores = feeding pores
o sporozoite motile
infective stage
o gamont gamete
producing cell
o male + female = cyst
o gametes fuse forming
diploid zygote = secretes
protective capsule =
spore
o gamogony
o sporogony
monocystis lumbrici seminal
vesicles of earthworm
o infected = ingesting soil
containing spores
o spores hatch in gizzard
o releases sporozoites
o sporoziotes penetrate circ
sys
o enters seminal vesicles

transform to trophozoites
= gamonts
o other gregarines =
merozoites = reinfective
stage, additional
hematozoan Plasmodium
o malaria
o Anopheles mosquito
o Inject saliva + sporozoite
to capillaries
o Sporozoite reaches liver
cells
o Becomes feeding
trophozoite
o Undergoes merogony =
produces merozoites
o Merozoites leave liver and
invade RBC
o Transforms to
trophozoites again
o Then merogony again for
reinvasion
o Periodic release of
merozoites
Gregarinae
o One host
o Multiple fission
Hematozoa
o Blood parasite
o Vertebrate to arthropod
host
AMEBOID PROTOZOA
- pseudopodia
- paraphyletic/monophyletic
- simplest protozoa
AMEBA
may be naked or enclosed in test
o

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

pseuodopodia
o lobopodia wide, blunt
round tips
o filopodia filamentous,
slender, branching but
doesnt form nets
o reticulopodia forming
extensive nets
o axopodia long needlelike stiff planktonic
test = silicieous, organic
Foraminifera
reticulopodia
calcium carbonate test
actinopodia
spherical planktonic cells
axopodia
prey capture, floating, locomotion,
attachment
pseudopodial shroud = cortex
cell body medulla
Radiolaria
siliceous test
crystal startburst
most elegant
Acantharea
planktonic marine
radial symmetry
intracellular spines radiate
outward project beyond periphery
of cell
Heliozoa
spherical
filopodia
siliceous spicules