Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

FOCUS ON ESSAY
BIOLOGY SEMESTER 3
Chapter 3: Control and Regulation
Learning objective:
Organisation of nervous system.
1.
Explain the organisation of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems and their relationship with the central nervous system.
[9]
-

Sympathetic nervous system consists of visceral spinal reflex (i.e autonomic

nervous system for internal organs).
It composes of spinal nerves with motor neurons to visceral muscles or glands.
Its ganglia are located near spinal cord away from the effectors.
Preganglionic nerves of the sympathetic nervous system are shorter than
postganglionic nerves.
Parasympathetic system composes of branches of cranial nerves numbers 5, 7, 9
and 10 and branches of the sciatic spinal nerves.
Its ganglia are far away from spinal cord and nearer to the effectors.
Its preganglionic nerves are longer than the postganglionic nerves.
Its ganglia are not connected to form a larger ganglion called plexus.
This is the autonomic nervous system which is part of the peripheral nervous system,
which is under the control of central nervous system.
The centre of these two nervous systems is located in the medulla oblongata.

Learning objectives:
Formation of resting potential and action potential.
Characteristics of nerve impulses.
2.
(a) Explain how resting potential and action potential are generated on an
axon.
[8]
(b) State the mechanism presents in the nerve to allow only unidirectional
impulses and prevent fatigue.
[7]
-

Resting potential refers to the difference in charge (electrical potential difference)

between the inside and the outside of the axon membrane.
Resting potential is maintained by:
- The sodium and potassium voltage gated channels are both closed.

SMKSI Kulai Johor | 1

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

While the sodium-potassium pumps (Na+/K+ ATPase) are always working. For
every 2K+ pumped into the cell, 3Na+ will be actively transported out of the cell.
- The axon membrane is more permeable to K+ than Na+ due to the presence of more
K+ non-voltage gated dependent channels than Na+ non-voltage gated channels.
More K+ diffuse out of the cell faster than Na+ can diffuse back in.
- The net result is the outside of the membrane is more positive compared to the inside
of axon. The axon membrane is polarised.
Formation of action potential:
- Some sodium gated channels in the stimulated region of the axon open.
- Na+ diffuse into the axon (facilitated diffusion) down an electrochemical gradient.
- When the potential difference across the membrane reaches a threshold value, many
more sodium gated channels open, results in influx of Na+.
- The sodium-potassium pump is inactive.
- The influx of Na+ leads to a sudden increase in the cell potential difference which
becomes positive (+40 mV).
- The reversal in the potential difference is known as depolarization, an action
potential is generated.
-

After an action potential for about 5 to 10 ms, the portion of axon undergoes a
refractory period.
Refractory period allows impulses to travel only in one direction and limits the
frequency at which successive impulses can pass along an axon.
During the absolute refractory period (~ 1 ms), the axon membrane is unable to
respond to another stimulus, no matter how strong it is.
An action potential cannot be produced due to a conformational change in sodiumgated channels which are still in a closed, inactive state. This also prevents the
action potential from travelling backwards.
Following the absolute refractory period, there is relative refractory period (~ 5 ms).
During this period, the resting potential is gradually restored by the Na+/K+ pumps
and the relative permeability of membrane of facilitated diffusion of ions is also
restored.
A new action potential then can be produced if the stimulus is greater than the usual
one.
The refractory period is also a limiting factor in the speed of conduction of the nerve
impulses.
Under the all or nothing law, an action potential can only be generated after the
threshold value is exceeded.

SMKSI Kulai Johor | 2

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

After the threshold is reached, the size of the action potentials produced remains
constant and is independent of the intensity of the stimulus. All action potentials are
of the same amplitude.

Learning objective:
Structure of a synapse.
3.

With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe the structure of a synapse. [8]

Synapse is the junction between two neurons with the presynaptic knob located at
the end of the axon.
In each synaptic knob, there are many mitochondria and sac-like vesicles.
These vesicles contain neurotransmitters which play an important role in the
transmission of impulses across synapse, eg: acetylcholine.
Between the end of the synaptic knob and the neuron membrane that connects to it,
is a small space called synaptic cleft.
This cleft is bordered by the presynaptic membrane of the synaptic knob and
postsynaptic membrane of the neuron that connects to it.
The postsynaptic membrane contains many receptors which allow the
neurotransmitters from presynaptic knob to bind to them.
This results in the sodium-potassium gated channels found on the postsynaptic
membrane to open and allow influx of Na+ leading to depolarisation of postsynaptic
membrane.

Learning objective:
Impulse transmission along axon and across a synapse.
4.

(a)
(b)

axon.
(c)

Describe the transmission of an impulse along a myelinated axon. [7]

Describe how an action potential is transmitted along a non-myelinated
[7]
Explain how a nerve impulse is transmitted across a synapse.
[8]
SMKSI Kulai Johor | 3

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

When the node of Ranvier of a myelinated axon receives a strong stimulus, it causes
the sodium gated-channel to open and allow the influx of sodium ions into the axon.
This causes the axon membrane at the node to depolarise and generate an action
potential.
Once initiated, the action potential is self-propagating.
During depolarisation, the axoplasm at a particular node is more positive relative to
the axoplasm of the adjacent node which is at its resting potential.
The difference in potential causes ions to flow in the axoplasm between the nodes.
The flow of sodium ions into the adjacent nodes induces the opening of sodiumgated channels and causes the influx of sodium ions.
This action is repeated in a wave of depolarisation till the end of the myelinated
axon with depolarization only occur at the nodes.
The impulse seems to leap from one node to another during its transmission along
a myelinated axon.
Such a transmission is known as the salutatory conduction which helps to spped up
its transmission.
When a non-myelinated neurone is sufficiently stimulated, an action potential is
generated.
This sets up a local current which depolarizes the adjacent region.
The influx of sodium ions from the extracellular fluid into one region of the axon
creates a local circuit in that region.
The increase in sodium ions in the axoplasm repels the cations to move to the
adjacent region which is more negatively-charged.
This increases the membrane potential in the adjacent region and open up sodiumgated channels.
Sodium ions diffuse into the neurone and the membrane is depolarized.
When the threshold level is exceeded, a new action potential is generated.
The local current at one region, therefore, induces a new action potential in the
adjacent region which keeps moving in a forward direction.
When a nerve impulse arrives at the synaptic knob, calcium gated channels in the
presynaptic membrane open.
Ca2+ ions diffuse quickly from the synaptic cleft or extracellular fluid into the
synaptic knob.
The influx of Ca2+ ions causes the synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic
membrane.
The vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis.
Neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft and bind to the receptors on postsynaptic
membrane.
SMKSI Kulai Johor | 4

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

The binding triggers the opening of sodium gated channels on postsynaptic

membrane.
Na+ ions diffuse into the postsynaptic neurone, thus depolarizing the postsynaptic
membrane.
A new action potential, known as the excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is
generated.
If the EPSP is large enough to exceed the threshold potential, an action potential is
generated and is transmitted along the postsynaptic neurone.

Learning objective:
Structure of a neuromuscular junction (NMJ) and sarcomere.
5.

By drawing a labelled diagram, describe the structure of s sarcomere. [10]

The sarcomere is the basic unit of the myofibril between two Z lines.
The myofibril is made up of thick filament of myosin and thin filaments of actin.
The thick filament corresponds to the dark band, and the thin filament corresponds
to the light band as seen in the electron micrograph.
The thick and thin filaments overlap to form the darker band.
The darker inner part of H zone indicates the presence of entirely thick filaments,
explaining this zone is darker than the outer part of the dark band.
During muscle contraction, the position of thick filaments remains unchanged.
The thin filaments slide pass one another.
Myofibril becomes shorter and shorter.
During muscle relaxation, the position of thick filaments remain unchanged.
The thin filament slides out to the original position.
The muscle reverts to its original position.

SMKSI Kulai Johor | 5

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

Learning objective:
Explain the mechanism of muscle contraction using the sliding filament
theory.
6. Describe the sequence of events occurring during skeletal muscle contraction,
starting from when a motor neurone is stimulated.
[10]
-

When motor neurone is stimulated, the motor neurone releases neurotransmitter

into the synaptic cleft at the neuromuscular junction.
The neurotransmitters bind to their specific receptors on the motor end plate.
The binding of neurotransmitters depolarizes the motor end plate, action potential
is generated and spread along the sarcolemma.
The action potential enters sarcoplasm via T-tubule.
This stimulates the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the
sarcoplasm.
Calcium ions bind with troponin, causing the troponin to change its conformation.
The conformational change pushes the tropomyosin away from the binding site of
myosin head on the actin filament, exposing the binding site.
ATPase on the myosin head is activated, causing the bound ATP to be hydrolysed.
The myosin head is in high energy conformation
This enables the formation of cross bridge.
The release of the ADP from the myosin head is accompanied by large
conformational change, thus pulling the actin about 10 nm towards the centre of
sarcomere.
A power stroke is generated and the muscle contracts.
The release of ADP and Pi returns the myosin head back to low energy conformation.
The binding of new ATP molecule to the myosin head releases the myosin head
from the actin filament.

Learning objective:
Compare sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
7.

(a)
(b)
system.
-

List three characteristics of the autonomic nervous system.

[3]
Differentiate between the two components of autonomic nervous
[12]

The autonomic nervous system controls the involuntary activities in body.

The autonomic nervous system is mainly regulated by the medulla oblongata and
hypothalamus.
SMKSI Kulai Johor | 6

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

It consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Both systems contain motor (efferent) nerves originating from central nervous
system and are connected to the effectors.
The effects produced by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are
antagonistic.
Each involuntary structure controlled by the autonomic system is provided with
both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves.

Sympathetic nervous system

Prepare the body for emergencies to
produce fight or flight response
Ganglia located near the spinal cord,
away from effectors
Preganglionic neurone is short,
postganglionic neurone long
Use noradrenaline as neurotransmitter in
postganglionic neurone
Nerves emerge from thoracic and
lumbar regions of CNS
The effect is more widespread, ganglia
may grouped together to form plexus
Increase the heartbeat rate, decrease
peristalsis and dilates pupil etc

Parasympathetic nervous system

Prepare the body for relaxation and
energy conservation
Ganglia located far from the spinal cord,
buried in the effectors.
Preganglionic neurone is long,
postganglionic neurone short
Use acetylcholine as neurotransmitter in
postganglionic neurone
Nerves emerge from cranial and sacral
regions of CNS
The effect is more localized, ganglia do
not grouped together to form plexus
Decrease the heartbeat rate, increase
peristalsis and constrict the pupils etc

Learning objective:
Effects of cocaine and curare.
8.

(a)
(b)

Explain the effect of curare on the contraction of skeletal muscle. [5]

Describe the effects of a stimulant drug on the nervous system.
[6]

Curare binds to the receptors on motor end plate where acetylcholine supposed to
bind to.
Depolarization of the motor end plate is prevented.
No sodium gated channels in the motor end plate are stimulated to open.
Impulse transmission across the neuromuscular junction is blocked.
No impulse is transmitted to the skeletal muscle.
This results in paralysis of muscle.
A high concentration of curare might be fatal as the breathing process is blocked.

SMKSI Kulai Johor | 7

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

Cocaine presents in the synaptic cleft.

Cocaine binds to the transporter molecules that responsible in removing dopamine.
Cocaine delays the breakdown of noradrenaline and dopamine by blocking the
reuptake of noradrenaline and dopamine from the synaptic cleft.
Noradrenaline and dopamine accumulate in the synaptic cleft, continue binding
with the receptors found on the postsynaptic membrane.
The impulses are generated repeatedly and firing of impulse occurs.
It causes continuous euphoria and intense pleasure.

Learning objective:
Mechanism of action of steroid and non-steroid hormones.
9.
(a) Name two main types of human hormones and give an example for
each.
[2]
(b) Explain the mechanism of action of a non-steroidal hormone, taking
adrenaline as example.
[13]
(c) Describe the differences in mechanism of action between both types of
human hormones.
[10]
-

Steroid hormone: oestrogen, progesterone, testosterone

Non-steroidal hormone / peptide hormone: adrenaline, glucagon, insulin

Non-steroid hormones are insoluble in lipid and thus cannot diffuse across the
plasma membrane.
Non-steroid hormone act via the activation of cyclic AMP pathway.
The hormone acts as first messenger and binds to a specific receptor protein in the
plasma membrane of a particular cell.
The binding of hormone to the receptor triggers a conformational change of the
receptor.
The hormone-receptor complex formed increases the affinity of the receptor to bind
with and activate G protein.
Once G protein is activated, it stimulates enzyme adenylyl cyclase.
Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP into cAMP.
cAMP acts as a second messenger, which then activates other enzymes.
The cascade effect occurs to produce a large amount of cAMP from a small amount
of non-steroid hormone.
cAMP catalyzes the conversion of inactive protein kinase A into active protein
kinase A via the cascade effect.

SMKSI Kulai Johor | 8

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

The active protein kinase A then activates phosphorylase kinase via the cascade
effect.
Phosphorylase kinase then further activates glycogen phosphorylase, which will
then catalyses the phosphorylation of glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate.
The effect of non-steroid hormone is fast but last for a short duration.

Steroid hormone
Can easily pass through the lipoprotein
membrane of target cells
Binds to receptor in the cytoplasm or
nucleoplasm
The complex formed does not activate
adenylyl cyclase
No cAMP is produced
No cascade effect occurs

Non-steroid hormone
Cannot pass through the lipoprotein
membrane of target cells
Bind to receptors found on the plasma
membrane of cell
The complex formed activates adenylyl
cyclase
cAMP is produced
Cascade effect occurs and effects take
place immediately
The complex enters the nucleus
The complex does not enter the nucleus
Gene transcription is accelerated by the No gene is involved by the complex
complex
Transcription takes place followed by No transcription take place and no
protein production
protein is produced
Effects take place through the protein Effects take place through the activated
formed
enzymes and their products
Effects are usually long term such as Effects are short term such as in blood
muscular body by testosterone
glucose level by insulin and adrenaline

Learning objectives:
Roles of plant hormones.
Plant growth regulators.
9.

(a)
(b)

Name five plant hormones and explain the functions of each hormone.
[10]
Explain how phytochrome regulates flowering in plants.
[5]

- Auxin, gibberellins, cytokinin, abscisic acid, ethane

Auxin:
- Promotes cell division and elongation of cells
- Promotes the development of adventitious root.
- Inhibits abscission of fruits and leaves.
SMKSI Kulai Johor | 9

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

- Stimulates fruit growth and parthenocarpy.

- Causes phototropic and geotropic responses.
- Promotes lateral buds dormancy (apical dorminance).
Gibberellins:
- Promotes growth of stems / elongation of internode / bolting in rosette plants (eg:
cabbage).
- Inhibits root growth.
- Promote growth and development of lateral buds.
- Promotes fruit growth.
- Breaks seed and bud dormancy.
Cytokinin:
- Promote cell division in the presence of auxin.
- Inhibits apical dominance, that is promotes the development of lateral buds.
- Promote seed germination in some plants.
- Delays leaf senescence.
Abscisic acid:
- Slow down metabolism and inhibits growth in most plant parts.
- Promote senescence and abscission of leaves and fruits.
- Stimulate stomata closure under condition of water stress.
- Induces dormancy of seeds and buds.
Ethene:
- Promotes ripening of fruits.
- Breaks bud dormancy in some plants.
- Induces flowering in pineapples.
-

Phytochromes are photoreceptors found in very low concentration in plants.

It exists in interconvertible forms.
Red light (sunlight)
Rapid conversion
PR(inactive)

PFR
Far red light
(rapid conversion)

Darkness / night (slow conversion)

PR or P660 is a blue phytochrome which absorbs red light, and PFR or P730 is a bluegreenish phytochrome which absorbs far red light.
During day time, red light predominates. PR absorbs red light and changes rapidly
to PFR.

SMKSI Kulai Johor | 10

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

The active PFR form converts an inactive hormone precursor in the leaf into
hormone florigen.
Florigen is transported by phloem to the floral buds. This promotes flowering in
long day plants.
In dark, PFR is converted to PR.
Increase in concentration of PR and decrease in concentration of PFR promotes
florigen production causing flowering in short day plants.

10.

(a) Describe the roles of auxin and gibberellin in plant growth.

[10]
(b) Discuss the ways in which plant performance can be improved by using
plant regulators.
[5]
-

Auxin induces growth by cell expansion resulting in elongation of organs such as

the stem, coleoptile, root, leaf and flowers.
It is produced in very dilute concentration in the tips of shoot, coleoptile, root and
cells of leaves and floral primordial.
It causes tropism, especially phototropism.
Auxin stimulates production of meristem.
Auxin inhibits the development of lateral buds.
Auxin induces root initiation from cuttings and calluses.
Auxin promotes fruit growth and inhibits abscission of young fruits
Promote more fruiting and even parthenocarpy.
Auxin inhibits abscission of leaves and flowers.
Gibberellin promotes stem elongation and vegetative growth in plants in the
presence of auxin.
Break dormancy in seeds and buds, especially after winter.
Can promote fruiting and parthenocarpy in certain plants.
Promotes fruit growth
Stimulate leaves growth.
Inhibits root dormancy.
Promotes flowering in long day plants
Inhibits apical dormancy and promotes growth of side shoots.
Auxin can be used to prolong the storage life of potato tuber.
Gibberellins are used in agriculture to strengthen stem of wheat and to produce more
and bigger grapes.
Gibberellins can space grape flowers by extending the internode length so that the
fruits have more room to grow.
Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and indolebutyric acid (IBA) can be used as active
ingredients in rooting powder.
SMKSI Kulai Johor | 11

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

Auxin and gibberellins help in stimulating fruit development and increase fruit yield.
Promotes parthenocarpy (seedless tomatoes and citrus fruits), seedless grape.
Auxin prevents premature fruit drop.
Ethene is used to stimulate ripening of some commercial fruits such as bananas,
papayas, mangoes and apples are often picked green and unripe.
Cytokinin spray is used on cut flowers, vegetables and fruits to keep them fresh and
to extend shelf life.
Cytokinin and gibberellins break dormancy.
Abscisic acid can be sprayed on fruit trees to regulate fruit drop at the end of the
season.

Copyright: ccy/SMKSI/2015

SMKSI Kulai Johor | 12

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

STPM-format Question
1.

(a)

Draw a labelled diagram to show a neurone found in mammals. [4 marks]

(b) The graph below shows the generation and transmission phases of an
impulse along an axon.
Membrane
potential /
mV

+50

0
Q
-50
|
2.5

P:

Q:

|
5

|
7.5

|
10

Time / ms

Explain what happen in P and Q.

[6 marks]
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

SMKSI Kulai Johor | 13

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

2.

The graph below shows the potential difference across an axon membrane.
+60
+40
+20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100

X
Z

Time / ms

(a)

Explain what happens to the axon between

(i) X and Y.
[2 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) Y and Z.
[3 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) Describe the role of Ca2+ ions in the transmission of impulses across a
synapse.
[1 mark]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(c) Explain why the concentration of Ca2+ ions in cytosol of the synaptic knob
remains low, despite frequent openings of channels.
[2 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(d) Describe how the neurotransmitters cause depolarization of the
postsynaptic membrane.
[2 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Johor 12
SMKSI Kulai Johor | 14

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

3.
Different plants require different daylengths or period of daylight for flowering.
These plants can be classified into three groups.

Percentage of plant that

flowers

(a)
(i) Using a suitable example, explain what is meant by day-neutral
plants.
[2 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) An experiment was carried out to investigate the relationship between
the period of daylight and flowering on a particular plant. The results of the experiment
are as below.

100

50

10

12

14

16

Period of daylight

Which photoperiod group does this particular plant belongs? Give a

reason for your answer.
[2 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
(b) The diagram below shows three different treatments of light and dark
periods on a plant.
A
B
C

No flowering
Flowering
No flowering
0

6
12 18
Time / hours

24

Keys:
Dark
Light
(i) From the data given, state which is crucial in determining flowering:
light period or dark period?
[1 mark]
_____________________________________________________________________
(ii) Use the results from the experiment to deduce the photoperiodic
group to which this plant belongs.
[1 mark]
_____________________________________________________________________

SMKSI Kulai Johor | 15

Focus on Essay (Semester 2)

STPM Biology

(b) In a further experiment, the 15 hours of dark period is interrupted by flashes

of red light (R) or far red light (F).

What is your conclusion about the effects of the two types of light on
flowering?
[4 marks]
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

SMKSI Kulai Johor | 16