Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Systems
Chapter 6
Electrical Systems and
Electromechanical Systems
A.
Bazoune
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The majority of engineering systems now have at least one electrical
subsystem. This may be a power supply, sensor, motor, controller, or an acoustic
device such as a speaker. So an understanding of electrical systems is essential to
understanding the behavior of many systems.
dq
dt
q ) and current i
or
is
q t i dt
The unit of charge is the coulomb (C) (in recognition of Charles Augustin
Coulomb, French physicist and mathematician, 1736-1806), which represents
6.24 1018
electrons.
The unit of current is the ampere, or simply, amp (in recognition of Andre Marie
Ampere, French physicist and mathematician, 1775-1836) which is defined as a
coulomb per second:
Ampere = coulomb / second
Thus, 1 amp is
second.
6.24 1018
Circuit
elements
may
be
Figure 6.1
(a) Voltage source; (b) constant voltage source; (c) current source
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Resistance elements.
The resistance
of a linear
resistor is given by
R
where
eR
i
e R is the voltage across the resistor and i is the current through the
, where
volt
ohm=
ampere
Resistances do not store electric energy in any form, but instead dissipate it as
heat. Real resistors may not be linear and may also exhibit some capacitance and
inductance effects.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES: Pictures of various types of real-world resistors are
.found below
Wirewound Resistors in Parallel
Wirewound Resistors
Capacitance Elements.
C
where
q
ec
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F , where
farad
ampere-second coulomb
volt
volt
or
i dq dt and ec q C , we have
de
i C c
dt
dec
1
i dt
C
Therefore,
t
1
ec i dt ec 0
C 0
Although a pure capacitor stores energy and can release all of it, real capacitors
exhibit various losses. These energy losses are indicated by a power factor ,
which is the ratio of energy lost per cycle of ac voltage to the energy stored per
cycle. Thus, a small-valued power factor is desirable.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES: Pictures of various types of real-world capacitors are
.found below
Inductance Elements.
The unit of inductance is the henry (H). An electrical circuit has an inductance of 1
henry when a rate of change of 1 ampere per second will induce an emf of 1 volt:
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henry
The voltage
Where
by
volt
weber
i L is the current through the inductor. The current i L t can thus be given
t
1
i L t e L dt i L 0
L0
Because most inductors are coils of wire, they have considerable resistance. The
energy loss due to the presence of resistance is indicated by the quality factor
Q,
which denotes the ratio of stored dissipated energy. A high value of Q generally
means the inductor contains small resistance.
Mutual Inductance refers to the influence between inductors that results from
interaction of their fields.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES: Pictured below are several real-world examples of
.inductors
TABLE 6-1.
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The following set of symbols and units are used: v(t) = V (Volts), i(t) = A (Amps), q(t) =
Q (Coulombs), C = F (Farads), R = (Ohms), L = H (Henries).
i
were i is the current (amperes),
(ohms).
e
R
e is the
is the resistance
Series Circuit.
The combined resistance of series-connected
resistors is the sum of the separate resistances. Figure 6-2 shows a simple series
circuit.
Figure 6-2
Series Circuit
e e1 e 2 e 3
where
e1 i R 1 ,
e2 i R2,
Thus,
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e3 i R 3
e
R1 R 2 R 3
i
R R1 R 2 R 3
In general,
n
R Ri
i 1
Parallel Circuit.
Figure 6-3
i1
Since
e
,
R1
e
,
R2
i3
e
R3
i i 1 i 2 i 3 , it follows that]
i
where
i2
Parallel Circuit
e
e
e
e
R1 R 2 R 3 R
1 1
1
1
R R1 R 2 R 3
or
1
R1R 2R 3
1
1
1
R1R 2 R 2 R 3 R 3R1
R1 R 2 R 3
In general
n
1
1
R i 1 R i
node in
an electrical circuit is a point where three or more wires are joined together.
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) states that
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The algebraic sum of all currents entering and leaving a node is zero.
or
Figure 6-4
Node.
i1 i 2 i 3 i 4 i 5 0
or
i1 i 2 i 3
14 2 43
Entering currents
i4 i5
{
Leaving currents
Kirchhoffs
The algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop in an electrical circuit is zero.
or
The sum of the voltage drops is equal to the sum of the voltage rises around a loop.
Figure 6-5
Diagrams showing voltage rises and voltage drops in circuits. (Note: Each
circular arrows shows the direction one follows in analyzing the respective circuit)
r
R
is the
is the
A B C
or
A , we have
r
r
r
r
e AB e BC eCA 0
E iR ir 0
Figure 6-6
Electrical Circuit.
E
R r
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Eo s Ei s
Consider
Figure 6-18
Electrical system
R1i1
Loop1
1
i1 i2 dt ei
C1
(6-
17)
Loop2
1
1
i1 i2 dt R2i2
i2 dt 0
C1
C2
(6-
18)
Outer Loop
1
i 2dt e o
C2
(6-19)
1
I1 s I 2 s Ei s
C1s
(6-20)
1
1
I2 s 0
I1 s I 2 s R2 I 2 s
C1s
C2 s
(6-21)
R1I1 s
1
I 2 s Eo s
C2 s
From Equation (6-20)
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(6-22)
R1 I1 s
I1 s
Substitute
I1 s
1
1
I1 s
I 2 s Ei s
C1s
C1s
1
I2 s
C sE s I 2 s
C1s
1 i
R1C1s 1
R1C1s 1
C1s
Ei s
Eo s
1
2
E i s R1C 1R 2C 2s R1C 1 R 2C 2 R1C 2 s 1
1 R1C 1R 2C 2
R C R 2C 2 R1C 2 s 1
s2 1 1
R1C 1R 2C 2
R1C 1R 2C 2
n2
s 2 2n s n2
1
R1C 1R 2C 2
2n
and
R1C 1 R 2C 2 R1C 2
R1C 1R 2C 2
or
Complex Impedance.
the complex impedances 1 and 2 in a series circuit while Figure 6-19 shows the
transfer function between the output and input voltage. Remember that the
impedance is valid only if the initial conditions involved are all zeros.
The general relationship is
E (s ) Z (s) I s
corresponds to Ohms law for purely resistive circuits. (Notice that, like
resistances, impedances can be combined in series and in parallel)
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Figure 6-19
Electrical circuit
assume that the voltages i and o are the input and output of the circuit,
respectively. Then the TF of this circuit can be obtained as
Z 2 (s) I s
E ( s)
Z 2 ( s)
Ei ( s) Z1 ( s ) I s Z 2 ( s ) I s Z1 ( s ) Z 2 ( s )
For the circuit shown in Figure 6-21,
Z1 Ls R,
Figure 6-20
Z2
Electrical circuit
1
Cs
E ( s )
E ( s ) , is
Hence, the transfer function i
1
E ( s)
Z 2 ( s)
1
Cs
2
Ei ( s) Z1 ( s) Z 2 ( s) Ls R 1
LCs RCs 1
Cs
1. The solution of the equation describing one physical system can be directly
applied to analogous systems in any other field.
2. Since one type of system may be easier to handle experimentally than
another, instead of building and studying a mechanical system (or a
hydraulic system, pneumatic system, or the like), we can build and study its
electrical analog, for electrical or electronic system, in general, much easier
to deal with experimentally.
Mechanical-Electrical Analogies
Mechanical
systems
can be studied through their electrical analogs, which may be more easily
constructed than models of the corresponding mechanical systems. There are two
electrical analogies for mechanical systems: The Force-Voltage Analogy and The
Force Current Analogy.
d 2x
dx
b kx p
2
dt
dt
(6-24)
di
1
Ri idt e
dt
C
d 2q
dq 1
R
qe
2
dt
dt C
(6-25)
Comparing equations (6-24) and (6-25), we see that the differential equations for
the two systems are of identical form. Thus, these two systems are analogous
systems. The terms that occupy corresponding positions in the differential
equations are called analogous quantities, a list of which appear in Table 6-2
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TABLE 6-2
Mechanical Systems
Electrical Systems
Force p (Torque T )
Voltage e
Inductance L
Viscous-friction coefficient b
Resistance R
Spring constant k
Reciprocal of capacitance, 1 C
Charge q
&
Velocity x&(angular velocity )
Current i
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