Yisak

SENIOR PROJECT ON:
PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF LOW COST HOUSES

A CASE IN KUIHA CONSTRUCTION SITE
Submitted in partial fulfillment of B. sc. Degree in civil engineering
Advisor: V. A. Raffi
Done by: Yisak

Ttesfaye
Date June 18, 2008 G. C
Candidates Declaration
This paper is written for the fulfillment of Bachelor of Science Degree in Industrial
Engineering .No part of the work may be produced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by
any information storage or retrieval system, without the prior written permission
of the respected owners.
June 16, 2008
1. Abdulhakim Mohammed
signature
2. Bemnet Nadew
signature
Advisors Declaration
This is to certify that the above statements made by the candidates are correct to
the best of my knowledge.
Advisor name
Ato Hailekiros Sibhatu (B. Sc)

Ass. Lecturer
Industrial Engineering department
Mekelle University
Signature
Acknowledgments:
First and for most we want to thank our project advisor, ATO HAILEKIROS
SIBHATU (Bsc. in IE.), for his support and advise and also our co-advisor ATO
2
AWOTAHEGN. We would like to pass our heartfelt gratitude to Mekelle housing

development workers providing information and technical assistances for us
throughout the conduction of the project. Special tanks are offered to Bereket
G/Mariam. (office eng.), Samuel Wolde. (site eng.) for helping us in every respect
for the realization of this project.
Acronyms
CPM
Critical path method
EF
Earliest finish time
ES
Earliest start time
F. W
Form work
G. beam
Ground beam
F. column
Footing column
r. bar
reinforcement steel bar
G. slab
Ground slab
PERT
program evaluation and review technique
St
standard deviation
te
expected time
tm
Most likely time
to
Optimistic time
tp
pessimistic time
ts
scheduled time
Vt
variance
Standard normal distribution function
Ls
latest start time
LF
latest finish time
Abstract
Currently Low-Cost house constructions are spreading over different areas of the
country. While the ministry of foreign affairs is the owner of this project, it works in
collaboration with different regional states. The National Regional States of
Tigray is one of the regions that work with the Ministry of National affairs, in this
region there are a number of sites for implementing low-cost housing projects.
Even though these projects are designed to offer affordable houses with
reasonable prices, they have got certain obstacles through their implementation.
These obstacles arise from the usage of less advanced project management
tools and techniques, improper supply chain system, and lack of awareness
towards quality. And our study aimed at devising advanced scheduling technique
with its application by taking a case at Kuiha construction site, imparting
improvements over the existing supply system by using 7s and business models
as a framework, and to clearly identify the construction materials and assess
their quality by undertaking certain laboratory tests to maintain the balance
between making the construction low-cost and being in line with quality
requirements. And finally we draw certain conclusion from the results of our
study, that is through the application of advanced scheduling technique of project
management for constructions has a great value for utilizing available physical
resources (man power, equipment, material) efficiently and effectively, and as an
alternative the contractors can minimize the time of construction with the optimal
cost to achieve the contractual time of the project and also the discussions that
we have made from the results of lab tests will make the regional housing agency
to see the quality standard of the construction materials that they are using in the
current time. At the end we point out certain areas that are in need of further
study as a recommendation.
List of figures
Figure 2.1
Chapter one
Introduction
6
The low cost housing project is established, based on the bilateral agreement
between the federal democratic republic of Ethiopia and the federal republic of
Germany. It is implemented by the Ethiopian ministry of federal affairs with the
support of GTZ (German technical co-operation). After the first phase (2/1999
1/2002) the project has entered into a second phase which ends in July, 2006 E.
C. the objective of this low cost house project is:
To alleviate the housing problem with affordable price
To create job opportunities
To promote small and medium-sized construction companies
Cost efficiency is one of the most crucial points of low cost housing. It is achieved
by standardization of building elements and reducing the number of different
items needed. Prefabrication and the use of machines and special tools to
produce these standardized elements maximize productivity resulting in lower
cost per unit. The new technologies that are introduced are u-shaped block,
reinforcement for column inside, combined strip-and slab foundation and prefabricated slab system (beams and hollow blocks).
The importance of this study is to develop a project management plan to
enhance the productivity, reduce the cost, and to achieve the effective scheduling
of material, manpower, time etc.
1.1 Background and Justification of the study

The Tigray province is one of the regions that work together with the Ministry of
Federal Affairs, which is the owner of the low-cost housing projects. Like other
regions the Tigray national state region executes this project by imparting three
entities, namely the contractor, the client (the housing agency), and the MSEs.
All the entities have their own part while constructing the building. The contractor
is responsible for accomplishing the phase I of the construction, the MSEs are
responsible for phase II of the construction and construction materials production
like HCB production, aggregate production, and precast production, and the
client is responsible for managing activities of the contractor & MSEs,
coordinating material distribution, and to maintain smooth integration between
the two entities.
Despite this region is executing the project at different sites of the region, it has
got certain problems that delays the construction and even that makes the
constructions to be stopped at certain sites. These problems are the results of
improper planning of time and resource and lack of smother material flow
between the entities.
The kuiha construction site is one of the low cost house construction sites which
is now constructing 6 apartment buildings and the contractor is ACTION
engineering P.L.C. the model of these apartment buildings are M-2, T-3, and T-9.
1.2 Objective of the study

1.2.1 General objective
This study is aimed at developing a construction plan for low cost house projects
taking a case at kuiha construction site, by applying project management tools
and techniques that enable to optimize time, effective use of resources and
reduce the cost of construction and assure the quality of the construction
material.
1.2.2 Specific objectives

The projects specific objectives include:
To identify major construction activities and create precedence and

followers
To determine the economic time of the whole project
To establish the cost of the project with the economical time
To allocate resources in effective way
To familiar the contractors with time cost trade off which is the time
minimization tool at the optimal cost
To improve the material supply system
To identify the design, construction, and production faults and make
corrective action
To test the quality of the major construction materials
1.3 Methodology
1.3.1 Data collection
For this project the methods used for the data collection include :
Interviewing persons who are responsible for that specific area
Direct observation at the construction sites
From Recorded organizational documents
1.3.2 Data analysis

Project and construction management tools and techniques implemented for the
data analysis are:
PERT used for project scheduling
Resource smoothing
Project time cost trade offs
Material testing tools and techniques
1.4 Scope of the study

Our study is mainly focused on the project and construction management tools
and techniques on low cost house constructions. And specifically the study
concentrates its effort on enhancing the efficiency of low cost house construction
projects by devising advanced scheduling technique, by improving the material
supply system and by assessing the quality of the construction materials to aid
the process of making the house low cost and at the same time to meet the
quality requirements.
1.4. Problem statement

Currently low cost house projects are not finished at the due date and have a
number of problems on project planning and quality assurance some of them are:
Time and resource planning:
Currently employed scheduling method is Gantt chart, which has many
drawbacks as
The chart does not give any data about what exactly is completed and
what is not as the chart does not show events between bars
The chart does not show the dependencies or relationship between the
activities
The chart also fails to show the critical path for the overall activities.
Overloading and under loading of manpower resources in the construction
site.
10
Material supply system:

Shortage and improper timing of construction materials in the construction
site because the material supply system is very beurocratic.
Quality assurance:
Use of construction material without checking and testing their quality,
and
Lack of quality control mechanism in the construction process
11
Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1 Project Management in construction
Project Management is a set of principles, methods, tools, and techniques for the
planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling of related activities to
achieve an objective with time, cost and performance constraints. Since a Project
is a task with defined objective and a collection of several activities that have a
definite beginning and end time, these activities must be performed in a proper
sequence to meet the required objectives.
In construction industry time is the basic factor. So to complete the project on
time and to manage the project effectively proper schedule is needed. Besides
these the resources must be planned properly. In addition one should know
which are the critical activities for completion of the project, if critical activities are
delayed the entire project is disturbed.
2.2 Project scheduling techniques

Time is the major
Project scheduling techniques that frequently used in the construction industries
are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Bar (Gantt) chart

CPM/PERT
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
Critical path method (CPM)
2.2.1 Bar (Gantt) charts

A Gantt chart also known as the Bar chart was developed by Henry L Gantt
around1900 and used to deal with complex activities. Out of the various tools and
techniques of project management, Gantt chart was probably one of the earliest
one. A Gantt chart consists of two coordination axis, one (usually important axis)
represented the time elapsed and the other (vertical axis) represents the jobs or
activities to be performed each bar represents one specific job or activity of the
12
project. The beginning and end of each bar represents the time start and time
finish of those activities. The length of the bar shows the time required for the
completion of that job or activity. Mostly, in every project there are some
jobs/activities which can take place concurrently, while there are some activities
that succeeds a preceding activity is complete, hence in a Gantt chart, some of
the bars are run parallel or overlap each other time wise and some run serially
with one bar beginning after another bar starts.
2.2.2 CPM and PERT
CPM/PERT are used to plan, schedule, organize, and control tasks within the
project. CPM/PERT were originally developed in 1950s to meet the needs of the
age of massive engineering where the techniques of Taylor and Gantt were
inapplicable. The U.S Navy, concerned with performance trends on large military
development programs, introduce, introduce PERT/CPM on its polar system.
In the early 1960s, the basic requirement of PERT/CPM as established by the
Navy were as follows:
All of the individual tasks to complete a project must be clear enough
to be put down in a network, which comprises events and activities;
i.e., follow the work breakdown structure.
Events and activities must be sequenced on the network under a
highly logical set of ground rules that allow the determination of critical
and subcritical paths.
The activities or operations must have definite commencement and
completion
Network Definitions
Before studying the development of network, it is essential to have an idea about
the basic concepts and terms involved in the technique as explained below:
Project: It is a task with defined objective.
13
Network: A network is a graphic representation of all activities and events that

must be completed to reach the end objective of a project, showing the planned
sequence of their accomplishments, their precedence relationships and
interdependencies. Thus the basic components of a network are events and
activities.
Event: An event is a specific accomplishment, physical or mental, in a project.
Activity: An activity represents a job or a project element to be completed. It is a
relationship between two events and usually devotes the efforts required to
perform a task measured in terms of elapsed time.
Dummy activities: Dummy activities are activities which consume no resource
or time. They are used:
i. To maintain the logic in the network diagram.
ii. To show interdependencies between events, and
iii. To give a unique number or activity reference to an activity.
Dummies are also often used to tie the completion of several activities to the
beginning of a single activity or vice versa.
Predecessor Event: An event which restricts or precedes another. It establishes
the starting point of an activity.
Successor Event: An event which succeeds another. It establishes the
termination point of an activity.
Activity Duration: The time required to perform an activity on a network is
termed as activity duration. It is the time estimated for performing that activity. It
is desirable that the time estimates of an activity should be:
made by personnel most familiar with the individual activities and

responsible for their accomplishments
based on normally available and expected resources, and
14
Expressed in suitable times such as days/weeks.
Earliest start time (EST):-it is the earliest possible time at which an activity can
start, and is calculated by moving first to last event in the network diagram.
Earliest finish time (EFT):-it is the earliest possible time at which an activity can
finish, and it is given by:
EFT=EST + duration of the activity
Latest start time (LST):-it is the latest time by which the activity can start without
delaying the date of completion of the project, and it is given by:LST=LFT - duration of that activity
Latest finish time (LFT):-it is the latest time by which the activity must be
completed so that they scheduled date for the completion of the completion of
the project may not be delayed. It is calculated by moving backward i.e. from last
event to first event of the network diagram.
Float /slack: - Slack is defined as the difference between an earliest possible
occurrence time for an event and its latest allowable occurrence time. This
difference expressed in time units indicates how the occurrence of the event can
be delayed without delaying the end event in the network
Float /slack = (time available for completion of the activity)-(time
necessary to complete the same activity)
Total float: - It is the amount of time an activity could be delayed without
affecting the overall project duration.
Total float= (LST-EST) or (LFT-EFT)
Note: slack is used with PERT and float with CPM
15
If the float is
Positive = even if the performance of the activity is delayed by a period
equal to its total float, it will not delay the completion of the project.
Zero = the activity is critical and if it is delayed it will delay the whole
project by the same period.

Negative = it is bound to delay the completion of the project by that time.
2.2.2.1 Rules for Network Development
No event can occur until all the activities leading into that event have been
completed.
An activity succeeding an event cannot be started until that event has

occurred.
There should not be any close loop in the network, that is, an event cannot
occur more than once.
All activity heads should be marked with an arrow to indicate the direction
of flow.
All events should be numbered and so this number should be unique, as to

give an activity reference.
All activities should have unique reference number, i.e. between two events
there should be only one activity.
In a network, flows are from left to right, that is, activity lines with arrow
heads that point to the left should be avoided.
Identification of Critical Path

Once we have determined the slack values attached to various events and
activities in the network, the critical path is identified. Critical path can be defined
as the longest sequence of activities leading to the end objective. It is the path
with the lowest slack value. When a network contains negative slack, the path
with the most negative slack is identified as the critical path.
2.2.3 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
16
Find application in planning and control of complex set of activities, function and
relationships. By controlling the critical activities the project can be computed
within the scheduled time limited, PERT gives a way of identifying critical
activities right at the planning stage so that management is aware of this
potential trouble some areas and exercise proper control over them so as to
complete the project within the scheduled time
Application of PERT
marketing programs and advertising programs

Long range planning
Research and development products
Construction programs
Maintenance and overhaul of airplanes or oil refinery.
Instituting inventory control

Designing and manufacturing prototype products
Steps in PERT planning method
The project is broken down into different activities
The activities are arranged in a logical sequence
The network diagram is drawn, event and activities are numbers
Using three time estimates, the expected time for each activity is
calculated
Standard deviation and variance of each activity are calculated
EST and LFT are calculated and marked in the network diagram
Slack is calculated, critical path is identified and marked on the
network diagram
Length of critical path or total project duration is found out
Lastly, the probability that the project will finish at the due date is
calculated
Analyze of network for the point of view of resource and if it is deficient,
find alternative ways to use the resources efficiently
The main objective in the analysis through PERT is to find out the completion of a
particular event within specified date. If yes what are the chances of completing a
job? The PERT approach takes into account the uncertainties. In this approach,
three time values are associated with each activity the optimistic value (t o), the
17
pessimistic value (tp) and the most likely value (tm). These three time values
provide a measure of uncertainty associated with that activity.
1. The optimistic time (to) is the shortest possible time in which the activity
can be finished. It assumes everything goes very well.

2. The most likely time (tm) is the estimate of the normal time the activity
would take. And it will represent the highest frequency of occurrence.

3. The pessimistic time (tp) represents the longest time an activity could
take if everything goes wrong

Calculating the mean and variance of activity duration
In PERT calculation, all three time values are used to obtain the percent
expected value. The beta distribution is widely accepted as a reasonable model
for the above duration distribution. In the case, the PERT method provides for the
mean and variance of the activity duration as follows:
4. Expected time (te) is the average time the activity will take if it were to be
repeated on a large number of times and is based on the assumption that

the activity time follows beta distribution. This is given by the formula:
Expected time (t e) = (to+ 4*tm+ t p)/6
to
tm
te
tp
5. The variance for the activity is given by the formula:
Variance (V t) = ((t p to)/6)2

Calculating the mean variance of project duration
Assuming that all the activities in the network are probabilistically independent
and that the critical path contains a large number of activities, we can apply the
central limit theorem to analyzing the length of the critical path, and moreover,
the mean of the length is equal to the sum of individual means of activities
contained in the critical path, and the variance of the length is equal to the sum of
individual variances of those activities.
Probability of achievement completion of date
By the use of factor Z derived from the standard deviation, expected time and
scheduled time and by reference table produced from the beta distribution
18
curve, it is possible to determine the probability of an activity being completed by

the scheduled time
Z = (scheduled time expected time)/standard deviation
Z = (t s t e)/St
From the table corresponding to the computed value of Z, the probability of
achieving the scheduling can be estimated.
= ((St1)2 + (St2)2 + (St3)2 + + (Stn) 2)1/2
2.2.4 Critical Path Method (CPM)
Critical Path Method (CPM) charts are similar to PERT charts and are sometimes
known as PERT/CPM. In a CPM chart, the critical path is indicated. A critical path
consists of that set of dependent tasks (each dependent on the preceding one)
which together take the longest time to complete. Although it is not normally
done, a CPM chart can define multiple, equally critical paths. Tasks which fall on
the critical path should be noted in some way, so that they may be given special
attention. One way is to draw critical path tasks with a double line instead of a
single line.
Tasks which fall on the critical path should receive special attention by both the
project manager and the personnel assigned to them. The critical path for any
given method may shift as the project progresses; this can happen when tasks
are completed either behind or ahead of schedule, causing other tasks which
may still be on schedule to fall on the new critical path.
2.3 Schedule-Related Project Costs

The cost of a project is due to the direct costs associated with individual activities
and the indirect expenses such as managerial services, indirect supplies,
equipment rentals etc. Normally the direct costs related to an activity will increase
if we crash that activity. On the other hand, the indirect costs decrease if the
activity is shortened.
The relationship can be expressed by a straight line on a graph plotting job
duration versus cost. The steeper the slope of this line, the higher the cost of
expediting the activity. A horizontal line, then, indicates that crashing the job
19
would result in no decreased efficiency shortening is possible (either because the

job duration cannot be reduced further or because some other job has become
critical on a parallel path). If there are parallel critical paths, then one job in each
of them must be chosen for crashing. The improvements are made in a stepwise
fashion and the new schedules are continued as long as the jobs can be crashed
with a net reduction in total costs.
2.4 Cost Accounting by Work Packages

If a project has been broken down into activities small enough to be used for
purposes of detailed planning and scheduling, many such activities would be too
small to be used and, therefore no added cost. If a job cannot be shortened
regardless of extra resources applied to it, the line would be vertical. All the three
possibilities are represented in figure below
There is probably a minimum duration which cannot be reduced no matter what
the expenditure of resources (vertical portion of line). Similarly, slowing the job
will decrease the costs only up to a certain point; beyond this no additional
savings are obtained (horizontal portion of line).
20
Cras
h
Norm
al
Job
duration
Figure 2.1 Time-Cost Trade-off Relationships for a Typical Job

The Lowest-Cost schedule
The CPM model specifies a method for finding the optimum point representing
the lowest-cost schedule. A preliminary schedule is generated in which all jobs
are assigned at their early start times and with normal resources. The length of
this maximum duration schedule can be reduced only by expediting one or more
of the critical path activities at an extra cost.
At each step of the process, the cost-time slope of each critical job is examined,
and the job with least slope is determined. This job is expedited up to the point
where no further conveniently for cost-control purposes. If so, several related
activities may be grouped together into larger "work packages". These represent
particular units of work for which responsibility can be clearly defined and which
are still small enough to be manageable for planning and control purposes. The
work packages formed at the lowest level of breakdown, then, constitute the
basic unit in the PERT cost system by which actual costs are (1) collected and
(2) compared with estimates for purposes of cost control.
21
2.5. Quality control and assurance

2.5.1. Quality Control
Quality is defined as 'fitness to purpose', i.e. providing a product (a building)
which provides an appropriate quality for the purpose for which it is intended. The
price to be paid for a building is a reflection of the expectations of quality - A
cheaper building probably uses inferior materials and is likely to be less attractive
and less durable. The quality is also related to the timing of when it is delivered.
Quality control in the construction industry can be looked at as having
three elements:
To produce a building which satisfies the client
To produce a building where quality is related to the price.
To produce a building in which sufficient time is allowed to obtain the

desired quality.
Like most other aspects of construction management quality control has to be

planned. Planning seeks 'order' and a quality control system for a construction
project reflects this sense of order. It may be seen to be in five basic stages:
Setting the quality standard or quality of design required by client.
Planning how to achieve the required quality, construction methods,

equipments, materials and personnel to be employed.
Construct the building right first time.
Correct any quality deficiencies.
Provide for long term quality control through establishing systems and developing
a quality culture
2.5.2. Quality Assurance QA
22
Quality assurance is a mechanism for ensuring that the construction process

takes place within the framework of a quality management system. This suggests
that quality assurance defines the organization structure, tasks and duties for
implementing quality management.
In 1987, the Building research establishment surveyed the quality problems on
Britain's construction sites. They found that half of the faults were design related,
and 40% of the problems arose from faulty construction. 10% were production
failing.
Design faults
misunderstanding the client's brief to develop the design
using information which is incorrect or out of date
misunderstanding of the client's expectations of quality standards
Lack of co-ordination between the designers.
Loose or inappropriate specifications
Construction faults
Not building to drawings or specifications
poor supervision leading to bad workmanship
Insufficient management of the quality of construction.
In order to eliminate those potential problems many clients have looked to

quality assurance to reassure them that they will get the right building
without undue quality problems.
23
CHAPTER 3
Result and discussion
In developing a construction plan for low cost house projects, the primary
emphasis are to adopt on either cost oriented or schedule oriented planning as
illustrated in the Fig. below Some projects are primarily divided into expense
categories with associated costs. In these cases, construction planning is cost or
expense oriented. Within the categories of expenditure, a distinction is made
between costs incurred directly in the performance of an activity and indirectly for
the accomplishment of the project
Construction
planning
Schedule oriented
Cost oriented
Direct cost
Indirect
cost
24
Time
oriented
(critical
path
problem)
Resource
oriented
(job
shop
schedule)
Figure 3.1 Alternative Emphases in Construction Planning
And Low cost house projects require consideration of both cost and scheduling
overtime. So the planning, monitoring and controlling of each activity should
consider both.
In selecting a strategy for the construction plan, the contractor capacity and the
number of projects he has taken must be taken into consideration. Most of the
time the duration given by the client for the construction of low cost houses is 7
month for four and five buildings. So the contractor must plan its activities to
meet the day.
The role of time in managing the construction project is central to the discipline
because it allows efficient use of Money, Equipment, Material and Labour.
Managing a programme involves:
Decomposing a projects into different detail and manageable activities
Preparing the logic between these activities.
Adding time to the logic (scheduling).
3.1 Project scheduling

Objective
To device how to determine the economical time of the whole project
To device how to determine the logical and systematic break down of the
project into well defined or manageable set of activities or jobs.
25
The technique used for the project scheduling is PERT which has a number of
advantages over the other techniques some of the advantages are:
Assigns three values to the activity duration
A probabilistic model with uncertainty in activity duration
An event oriented technique
Uses assumptions about the shape of the probability distributions of both
the activity and the project.
Effective scheduling using program evaluation and review technique (PERT) will
help:
To Clearly know what to do and to supervise
To Know the starting and finishing dates for each activity so that he will
control for any delay
To easily estimate the cost for each activity
To know the critical activities in the construction process
The construction of low cost house consists of two phases
Phase I which the contractor takes, and consist three major activities:
Excavation and earth work
Sub- structure and
Super structure
Phase II which the MSEs take, and consists 6 major activities:
Block work
Roofing
26
Painting external and internal
Sanitary installation
Electrical installation
Door and window work
Plumbing external and internal
In order to analyze we take block T-3 which is under construction, as a model

for the detail analysis.
3.1.1 Analysis on phase I of Block T-3

The steps for analyzing Block T-3 are the following
Step one
Identifying and Breaking down the construction process of Block T-3 into
different detail and manageable activities.
These activities are:
27
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
Description
Site clearing and removing of top soil
Bulk excavation in ordinary soil
Footing and beam foundation layout
Obtaining & Shaping stone for masonry work
Cutting and bending r. bars for footing pad
Excavate in ordinary soil for trench foundation
Excavate in ordinary soil for isolated footing
Stone masonry work for trench foundation
Cutting and bending r. bars for F. column
Lean concrete
Installing F.W and r. bars for footing pad
pouring concrete for footing pad
Cutting and bending r. bars for G. beam
Installing F.W and r. bars for F. column
Pouring concrete for F. column
Cutting and bending r. bars for G. slab mesh
Backfill around footing & trench foundation
Installing F.W and r. bars for G. beam
Pouring concrete for G. beam
Backfill under hardcore
Sanitary work for G. slab
Cutting and bending r. bars for column (1)
Placing and blinding hardcore
Cutting and bending r. bars for slab mesh(1)
Installing r.bar mesh with expansion joints
Pouring concrete for G. slab
Cutting and bending r. bars for beam(1)
Installing prop and joists for slab(1)
Installing F.W and r. bar for column(1)
Pouring concrete for column(1)
Cutting and bending r. bars for stair(1)
Installing F.W and r. bars for beam(1)
Installing F.W and r. bars for stair(1)
Placing precast beams(1)
Placing slab HCB(1)
Sanitary and electrical work(1)
Cutting and bending r. bars for column(2)
Installing r.bar mesh for slab(1)
Pouring concrete for stair(1)
Pouring concrete for slab(1)
Cutting and bending of r. bars for beam(2)
Installing prop and joists for slab(2)
Placing precast beams for slab(2)
Placing slab HCB for slab(2)
Installing r.bar mesh for slab(2)
28
Table 1 detail construction activities of block T 3
Step 2
Arranging activities in a logical sequence, by first identifying the dependency
between each activity.
No
Activiti
Description
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
es
(1-2)
(2-3)
(3-4)
(3-5)
(3-6)
(4-5)
(4-8)
(5-7)
(6-8)
(6-10)
(7-8)
(7-14)
(8-9)
(9-11)
(10-11)
(10-13)
(11-12)
(12-14)
(13-15)
(13-19)
(14-15)
(15-16)
(16-17)
(17-18)
(17-20)
(17-22)
(18-20)
(19-20)
(19-34)
(20-21)
(21-23)
(22-24)
(22-26)
(23-24)
Site clearing and removing top soil

Obtaining &Shaping stone for masonry work
Dummy
Lean concrete
Dummy
pouring concrete for footing
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Installing r.bar mesh with expansion joints
Dummy
Dummy
Preced
To
Tm
Tp
1
1
1
2
3
2
4
5.5
0
2
1
0
4
1
0
3
4
1
0
1
4
4
1
1.5
1
2
1
0
1
1
1
0
3
0
1
2
1
3.5
4.5
2.5
5
6.5
0
3
1
0
4.5
1.5
0
4
4.5
1.5
0
1.5
5
5.5
1.5
2
2
3
1.5
0
1.5
1.5
1.5
0
4
0
1
3
2
5
6
3.5
7
8
0
4
1
0
6
2
0
5
5.5
2
0
2
6
7
2
3
3
4
2
0
2
2
2
0
5
0
ence
29
1
2
2
2
3
3
4,6
5
5
8
8
7,9,11
13
10
10
14,15
17
16
16
12,18
19,21
22
23
23
23
24
20
20
25,27,28
30
26
20
31
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
(23-31)
(24-25)
(25-27)
(26-27)
(26-29)
(27-28)
(28-30)
(28-31)
(29-30)
(29-50)
(30-36)
(31-32)
(32-33)
(33-35)
(34-35)
(34-38)
(35-37)
(36-39)
(37-39)
(38-39)
(38-41)
(39-40)
(40-42)
(41-43)
(41-45)
(42-43)
(42-47)
(43-44)
(44-46)
(44-47)
(45-54)
(45-46)
(46-52)
(47-48)
(48-49)
(49-51)
(50-51)
(50-57)
(51-53)
(52-55)
(53-55)
(54-55)
(54-66)
(55-56)
(56-58)
(57-59)
(57-61)
Installing props and joists for slab(1)

Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Placing slab HCB(1)
Dummy
Installing r. bar mesh for slab(1)
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
30
31
32,34
36
33
33
37,38
40
40
39
39
41,43
35,42
46
47
29
29
48,49
45
51
50
50
52,53,54
56
55
55
57
57
58,60
62
62
59
59
63,66
61,64
68
69
42
42
70,71
67
73
63
63
74,75,76
78
72
72
4
4
2
0
1
4
0
0
0
1
1.5
1
1
1
0
2
1
0.5
1
0
3
4
2
0
1.5
0
4
4
0
0
2.5
0
2
1
1
1
0
3.5
1
1
1.5
0
1
4
2
0
2.5
5
5
2.5
0
2
5
0
0
0
1.5
2
1
1.5
2
0
3
1.5
1
1.5
0
4
5
2.5
0
2
0
6
5.5
0
0
3
0
2.5
1.5
1.5
2
0
4
1.5
1
2
0
1.5
5.5
2.5
0
3
7
6
3
0
3
6
0
0
0
2
2.5
1.5
2
4
0
4
2
1.5
2
0
5
6
3
0
3
0
7
6.5
0
0
5
0
3
1.7
2
4
0
5.5
2
1.5
2.5
0
2
7.5
3
0
3.5
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
(58-59)
(58-63)
(59-60)
(60-62)
(60-63)
(61-62)
(61-70)
(62-68)
(63-64)
(64-65)
(65-67)
(66-67)
(66-73)
(67-69)
(68-71)
(69-71)
(70-71)
(70-82)
(71-72)
(72-74)
(73-75)
(73-77)
(74-75)
(74-79)
(75-76)
(77-78)
(77-86)
(76-78)
(76-79)
(78-84)
(79-80)
(80-81)
(81-83)
(82-83)
(82-88)
(83-85)
(84-86)
(85-86)
(86-87)
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Cutting and bending r. bars for top tie beam
79
79
80,82
84
84
81
81
85,87
83,86
90
91
77
77
92,93
89
95
88
86
96,97,98
100
94
94
101
101
102,104
103
103
106
106
107,109
105,112
114
115
99
99
114,115
111
117
108,118,
0
6
4.5
0
0
0
3
2
1.5
1.5
1
0
3.5
1
1
1.5
0
1
5
2.5
0
2.5
0
6
5
0
3
0
0
2
1.5
1.5
1
0
2
1
1.5
2
5.5
0
7
6.5
0
0
0
4
2.5
2
2
2
0
5
1.5
1
2
0
1.5
6
3
0
3
0
8
7
0
4
0
0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
0
3
1.5
2
2.5
6.5
0
8
7
0
0
0
5
3
2.5
2.5
4
0
6
2
1.5
2.5
0
2
8.5
3.5
0
3.5
0
9
8.5
0
5
0
0
3
3.5
3.5
4
0
5
2
3
3
9
121.
122.
123.
(87-88)
(88-89)
(89-90)

Installing F.W and r. bars for top tie beam
Pouring concrete for top tie beam
119
120
116,121
122
2.5
4
2
3
5.5
2.5
3.5
7
3
Table -2 precedence activities and time estimation of Block T 3
31
Step three
Drawing the network diagram
See fig 3.2
Step four
Estimating the time for each activity
The time estimation for each activity should be based on:
1. past construction times
2. curing time needed for concert works
3. The amount of resources assigned for each activity

Note: the time for each activity is in day
See table 2
Step five
Calculating the expected times,
Expected time (t e) = (to+ 4*tm+ t p)/6
Expected time for activity (2-3)
t e = (1 + 4*2 + 3)/ 6
=2
See table 3, for the expected time of all the activities
Step six
32
Calculating standard deviation and variance,

Standard deviation (s t) = (t p t o)/6
Variance (v t) = (St) 2
For activity (2-3)
St = (3 1)/6 = 0.333
V t = (0.333)2 = 0.111
See table 3, for the St and Vt of all activities
Step seven
Calculating Es, LF, EF, Ls and the SLACK
To calculate Es and EF, forward path computation is used
1. Forward pass computation (for earliest event time)
Before starting computation, the occurrence time of initial network is fixed. Then,
the forward path computations yields the earliest start and earliest finish time for
each activity (i, j), and indirectly the earliest expected occurrence time for each
event. This is manly done in two steps.
Step 1 the computation begins from the start node and move towards the end
node. For easiness, the forward pass computation starts by assuming the earliest
occurrence time of zero for the initial project event.
Step- 2
I. Earliest start time of activity (i, j) is the earliest event time of the tail
end event i.e. Es) ij= E i
II. Earliest finish time of activity (i, j) is the earliest starting time + the
activity time. (EF) = (Es) ij + Dij
33
III. Earliest event time for event j is the maximum of the earliest finish
times of all the activities ending into that event that is E j = max j or
E j = max [Ei + Dij ]
To calculate Ls and LF, backward path computation is used
2. Backward path computation (for latest allowable time)
The latest event time (L) indicates the time by which all activities entering into
that event must be completed without delaying the completion of the project.
There can be computed by reversing the method of calculation used for earliest
event times. This is done in the following steps
Step 1 for ending event assume E=L remember that all Es have been
computed by forward
Path computation
Step 2 latest finish time for activity (i, j) is equal to the latest event time of event
j that is
(LF) ij =Lj
Step 3 latest start time of activity (i, j) = the latest completion time of (i, j) the
activity time of
(Ls) ij = (LF)ij - Dij
Step 4 latest event times for event (i) is the minimum of the latest start times of
all activities originating from that event. Li = min [(LF)ij Dij] .
For activity (2 3)
ES = 1
EF = 3
LF = 3
Ls = 1
See table 3 for all activities

Activities Te
ES
LF
LS
34
EF
Slack
St
Vt
(1-2)
(2-3)
(3-4)
(3-5)
(3-6)
(4-5)
(4-8)
(5-7)
(6-8)
(6-10)
(7-8)
(7-14)
(8-9)
(9-11)
(10-11)
(10-13)
(11-12)
(12-14)
(13-15)
(13-19)
(14-15)
(15-16)
(16-17)
(17-18)
(17-20)
(17-22)
(18-20)
(19-20)
(19-34)
(20-21)
(21-23)
(22-24)
(22-26)
(23-24)
(23-31)
(24-25)
(25-27)
(26-27)
(26-29)
(27-28)
(28-30)
(28-31)
(29-30)
1
2
1.167
3.5
4.5
2.583
5.17
6.583
0
3
1
0
4.67
1.5
0
4
4.583
1.5
0
1.5
5
5.5
1.5
2.083
2
3
1.5
0
1.5
1.5
1.5
0
4
0
5.17
5
2.5
0
2
5
0
0
0
0
1
3
3
3
4.17
4.17
6.75
7.5
7.5
13.33
13.33
14.33
19
10.5
10.5
20.5
25.08
14.5
14.5
26.58
31.58
37.08
38.58
38.58
38.58
40.66
16
16
42.16
43.66
41.58
41.58
45.16
45.16
45.16
50.16
45.58
45.58
52.66
57.66
57.66
47.58
1
3
4.17
6.75
14.33
6.75
14.33
13.33
14.33
20.5
14.33
26.58
19
20.5
20.5
31.58
25.08
26.58
31.58
42.16
31.58
37.08
38.58
40.66
42.16
45.16
42.16
42.16
62.41
43.66
45.16
45.16
52.66
45.16
57.66
50.16
52.66
52.66
62.41
57.66
62.41
57.66
62.41
0
1
3
3.25
9.83
4.167
9.163
6.747
14.33
17.5
13.33
26.58
14.33
19
20.5
27.58
20.49
25.08
31.58
40.66
26.58
31.58
37.08
38.57
40.16
42.16
40.66
42.16
60.91
42.16
43.66
45.16
48.66
45.16
52.49
45.16
50.16
52.66
60.41
52.66
62.41
57.66
62.41
35
1
3
4.17
6.5
7.5
6.75
9.337
13.33
7.5
10.5
14.33
13.33
18.997
20.5
10.5
14.5
25.08
26.58
14.5
16
31.58
37.08
38.58
40.66
40.58
41.58
42.16
16
17.5
43.66
45.16
41.58
45.58
45.16
50.33
50.16
52.66
45.58
47.58
57.66
57.66
57.66
47.58
0
0
0
0.25
6.83
0
4.993
0
6.83
10
0
13.25
0
0
10
17.08
0
0
17.08
26.16
0
0
0
0
1.58
3.58
0
26.16
44.91
0
0
3.58
7.08
0
7.333
0
0
7.08
14.83
0
4.75
0
14.83
0
0.33333
0.16667
0.5
0.5
0,25
0.5
0.11667
0
0.33333
0
0
0.33333
0.16667
0
0.33333
0.25
0.16667
0
0.16667
0.33333
0.5
0.16667
0.25
0.33333
0.33333
0.16667
0
0.16667
0.16667
0.16667
0
0.33333
0
0.5
0.33333
0.16667
0
0.33333
0.33333
0
0
0
0
0.11111
0.02778
0.25
0.25
0.0625
0.25
0.17361
0
0.11111
0
0
0.11111
0.02778
0
0.11111
0.0625
0.02778
0
0.02778
0.11111
0.25
0.02778
0.0625
0.11111
0.11111
0.02778
0
0.02778
0.02778
0.02778
0
0.11111
0
0.25
0.11111
0.02778
0
0.11111
0.11111
0
0
0
(29-50)
(30-36)
(31-32)
(32-33)
(33-35)
(34-35)
(34-38)
(35-37)
(36-39)
(37-39)
(38-39)
(38-41)
(39-40)
(40-42)
(41-43)
(41-45)
(42-43)
(42-47)
(43-44)
(44-46)
(44-47)
(45-54)
(45-46)
(46-52)
(47-48)
(48-49)
(49-51)
(50-51)
(50-57)
(51-53)
(52-55)
(53-55)
(54-55)
(54-66)
(55-56)
(56-58)
(57-59)
(57-61)
(58-59)
(58-63)
(59-60)
(60-62)
(60-63)
1.5
2
1.083
1.5
2.17
0
3
1.5
1
1.5
0
4
5
2.5
0
2.083
0
5.83
5.417
0
0
3.25
0
2.5
1.45
1.5
2.17
0
4.17
1.5
1.083
2
0
1.5
5.583
2.5
0
3
0
7
6.25
0
0
47.58
57.66
57.66
58.74
60.24
17.5
17.5
62.41
59.66
63.91
20.5
20.5
65.41
70.41
24.5
24.5
72.91
72.91
72.91
78.33
78.33
26.58
26.58
78.33
78.75
80.25
81.75
49.08
49.08
83.92
80.83
85.42
29.83
29.83
87.42
93
53.25
53.25
95.5
95.5
95.5
101.75
101.75
83.92
64.41
58.74
60.24
62.41
62.41
65.41
63.91
65.41
65.41
65.41
73.33
70.41
72.91
73.33
83.84
73.33
78.75
78.75
83.84
78.75
87.42
83.84
86.34
80.25
81.75
83.92
83.92
96.25
85.42
87.42
87.42
87.42
108.67
93
95.5
96.25
108.17
96.25
102.5
102.5
108.59
102.5
82.42
62.41
57.66
58.74
60.24
62.41
62.41
62.41
64.41
63.91
65.41
69.33
65.41
70.41
73.33
81.76
73.33
72.92
73.33
83.84
78.75
84.17
83.84
83.84
78.8
80.25
81.75
83.92
92.08
83.92
86.34
85.42
87.42
107.2
87.42
93
96.25
105.2
96.25
95.5
96.25
108.59
102.5
36
49.08
59.66
58.74
60.24
62.407
17.5
20.5
63.91
60.66
65.41
20.5
24.5
70.41
72.91
24.5
26.58
72.91
78.74
78.327
78.33
78.33
29.83
26.58
80.83
80.2
81.75
83.917
49.08
53.247
85.42
81.91
87.42
29.83
31.33
93.01
95.5
53.25
56.25
95.5
102.5
101.75
101.75
101.75
34.84
4.75
0
0
0
44.91
44.91
0
4.75
0
44.91
48.83
0
0
48.83
57.27
0.42
0
0.423
5.51
0.42
57.59
57.26
5.51
0
0
0
34.84
43.003
0
5.5067
0
57.59
77.34
0
0
43
51.92
0.75
0
0.75
6.84
0.75
0.16667
0.16667
0.08333
0.16667
0.5
0
0.33333
0.16667
0.16667
0.16667
0
0.33333
0.33333
0.16667
0
0.25
0
0.5
0.41667
0
0
0.41667
0
0.16667
0.11667
0.16667
0.5
0
0.33333
0.16667
0.08333
0.16667
0
0.16667
0.58333
0.16667
0
0.16667
0
0.33333
0.41667
0
0
0.02778
0.02778
0.00694
0.02778
0.25
0
0.11111
0.02778
0.02778
0.02778
0
0.11111
0.11111
0.02778
0
0.0625
0
0.25
0.17361
0
0
0.17361
0
0.02778
0.01361
0.02778
0.25
0
0.11111
0.02778
0.00694
0.02778
0
0.02778
0.34027
0.02778
0
0.02778
0
0.11111
0.17361
0
0
(61-62)
(61-70)
(62-68)
(63-64)
(64-65)
(65-67)
(66-67)
(66-73)
(67-69)
(68-71)
(69-71)
(70-71)
(70-82)
(71-72)
(72-74)
(73-75)
(73-77)
(74-75)
(74-79)
(75-76)
(77-78)
(77-86)
(76-78)
(76-79)
(78-84)
(79-80)
(80-81)
(81-83)
(82-83)
(82-88)
(83-85)
(84-86)
(85-86)
(86-87)
(87-88)
(88-89)
(89-90)
0
4
2.5
2
2
2.17
0
4.917
1.5
1.083
2
0
1.5
6.25
3
0
3
0
7.83
6.917
0
4
0
0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
0
3.17
1.5
2.083
2.5
6.75
3
5.5
2.5
56.25
56.25
101.5
102.5
104.5
106.5
31.33
31.33
108.67
104
110.17
60.25
60.25
112.17
118.42
36.25
36.25
121.42
121.42
121.42
39.25
39.25
128.33
128.33
128.33
129.25
131.75
134.25
61.75
61.75
136.75
130.83
138.25
140.75
147.5
150.5
156
108.59
112.17
111.09
104.5
106.5
108.67
108.67
122.34
110.17
112.17
112.17
112.17
136.75
118.42
121.42
122.34
136.17
122.34
129.25
129.25
136.17
140.75
136.17
129.25
138.67
131.75
134.25
136.75
136.75
150.5
138.25
140.75
140.75
147.5
150.5
156
158.5
108.59
108.17
108.59
102.5
104.5
106.5
108.67
117.42
108.67
111.09
110.17
112.17
135.25
112.17
118.42
122.34
133.17
122.34
121.42
122.33
136.17
136.75
136.17
129.25
136.17
129.25
131.75
134.25
136.75
147.33
136.75
138.67
138.25
140.75
147.5
150.5
156
56.25
60.25
104
104.5
106.5
108.67
31.33
36.247
110.17
105.08
112.17
60.25
61.75
118.42
121.42
36.25
39.25
121.42
129.25
128.34
39.25
43.25
128.33
128.33
130.83
131.75
134.25
136.75
61.75
64.917
138.25
132.91
140.75
147.5
150.5
156
158.5
52.34
51.92
7.09
0
0
0
77.34
86.09
0
7.0867
0
51.92
75
0
0
86.09
96.92
0.92
0
0.913
96.92
97.5
7.84
0.92
7.84
0
0
0
75
85.58
0
7.8367
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.33333
0.16667
0.16667
0.16667
0.5
0
0.41667
0.16667
0.08333
0.16667
0
0.16667
0.58333
0.16667
0
0.16667
0
0.5
0.58333
0
0.33333
0
0
0.16667
0.33333
0.33333
0.5
0
0.5
0.16667
0.25
0.16667
0.58333
0.16667
0.5
0.16667
0
0.11111
0.02778
0.02778
0.02778
0.25
0
0.17361
0.02778
0.00694
0.02778
0
0.02778
0.34027
0.02778
0
0.02778
0
0.25
0.34027
0
0.11111
0
0
0.02778
0.11111
0.11111
0.25
0
0.25
0.02778
0.0625
0.02778
0.34027
0.02778
0.25
0.02778
Table -3 different times, standard deviation and variance of block T 3

Step eight
37
Identifying the critical path / calculating the project duration

Block T 3 consists a total of 123 activities in the first phase and it has 53
critical activities. The critical activities of this block are stated below
= ((St1)2 + (St2)2 + (St3)2 + + (Stn) 2)1/2
= (te1 + te2 + te3 + . . . . . . . + ten)
Where n = (1 59)
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
Act.
(1-2)
(2-3)
(3-4)
(5-7)
(8-9)
(9-11)
(11-12)
(12-14)
(14-15)
(15-16)
(16-17)
(17-18)
(18-20)
(20-21)
(21-23)
(23-24)
(24-25)
(25-27)
(27-28)
(28-31)
(31-32)
(32-33)
(33-35)
(35-37)
(37-39)
(39-40)
(40-42)
(42-47)
(47-48)
(48-49)
(49-51)
(51-53)
(53-55)
Description
Site clearing and top soil
Installing r. bar mesh with expansion joints
Dummy
Dummy
Placing slab HCB(1)
38
Te
1
2
1.17
5.17
4.67
1.5
4.58
1.5
5
5.5
1.5
2.08
1.5
1.5
1.5
5
2.5
5
1.08
1.5
2.17
1.5
1.5
5
2.5
5.84
1.5
1.5
2.17
1.5
2
St
0
0.33333
0.16667
0.11667
0.33333
0.16667
0.25
0.16667
0.33333
0.5
0.16667
0.25
0.16667
0.16667
0.16667
0.33333
0.16667
0.33333
0.08333
0.16667
0.5
0.16667
0.16667
0.33333
0.16667
0.5
0.11667
0.16667
0.5
0.16667
0.16667
(St) 2
0
0.11111
0.02778
0.17361
0.11111
0.02778
0.0625
0.02778
0.11111
0.25
0.02778
0.0625
0.02778
0.02778
0.02778
0.11111
0.02778
0.11111
0.00694
0.02778
0.25
0.02778
0.02778
0.11111
0.02778
0.25
0.01361
0.02778
0.25
0.02778
0.02778
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
(55-56)
(56-58)
(58-63)
(63-64)
(64-65)
(65-67)
(67-69)
(69-71)
(71-72)
(72-74)
(74-79)
(79-80)
(80-81)
(81-83)
(83-85)
(85-86)
(86-87)
(87-88)
(88-89)
(89-90)

5.58
2.5
7
2
2
2.17
1.5
2
6.25
3
7.83
2.5
2.5
2.5
1.5
2.5
6.75
3
5.5
2.5
0.58333
0.16667
0.33333
0.16667
0.16667
0.5
0.16667
0.16667
0.58333
0.16667
0.5
0.33333
0.33333
0.5
0.16667
0.16667
0.58333
0.16667
0.5
0.16667
0.34027
0.02778
0.11111
0.02778
0.02778
0.25
0.02778
0.02778
0.34027
0.02778
0.25
0.11111
0.11111
0.25
0.02778
0.02778
0.34027
0.02778
0.25
0.02778
Table 4 the critical activities of Block T 3

= (0 + 0.1111 + 0.02778 + . . . . . . . + 0.02778)1/2 = 2.24 days
= (1 +2 + 1.17 + . . . . . . . + 2.5) = 158.5 days
Step 8
Calculating the probability of the project will finish at the due date
The working schedule time (t s) = 180 days
The expected time (t e) = 158.5 days
Standard deviation of the critical path (St) =2.24 days
The standard normal distribution value is:
Z = (t s t e)/St
= (180 158.5)/2.24
39
= 9.59
From the standard normal distribution table the percentage value of the above
standard normal is 100 %.
3.1.2. Cost analysis on phase I of Block T-3

Objective
To establish the cost of the project with the economical time
To compare the advanced scheduling technique with the traditional
scheduling technique.
The costs associated for the construction of the building in phase I are:
Direct cost
Manpower cost
Skilled and unskilled wage rate
Technical staff
Machine cost
Machinery and rental cost
Fuel and lubricant
The procedures for the direct cost analysis are:

1. Identifying the quantity and the cost of material, manpower and equipment
needed per volume for each activity
2. Time duration volume of work for each activity
3. Calculate the daily output
Daily output = volume work/ time
40
4. Find the unit cost of equipment and manpower per daily output
Unit Cost = cost / daily output
5. Calculate the total unit cost
Total Unit cost= material + manpower + equipment
6. Calculating the direct cost
Direct cost= unit cost * volume of work
Lets take activity (25 - 27), which is pouring concrete for column (1)
Step 1
A. material
Type
Unit
Quantity
Rate (birr)
Cost per unit
Gravel
M3
0.75
112
84
Cement
Qtl
3.6
108.98
392.35
Sand
M3
0.5
80
40
Water
M3
0.5
6.10
3.05
Material total (per unit)
519.4
B. manpower
Skill
Number
Unit factor
Daily rate(birr)
Daily Cost(birr)
Mason
2.00
1.00
40.00
80
D. laborer
26
1.00
15
390
Operator
1.00
25
25
Foreman
0.25
50
12.50
Carpenter
45
90
41
Manpower total (birr)
597.7
C. equipment
Type
Number
Unit factor
Rental
rent/hr(birr/hr)
Daily Cost(birr)
Mixer
1.00
300
300
Vibrator
1.00
100
100
Hoist
1.00
250
250
Equipment total(birr)
Step 2
The expected time is = 2.5 days
Volume of work = 16.6 m3
Step 3
Daily output = 16.6/2.5 = 6.64 m3
Step 4
Daily manpower cost = 597.7/6.64 = 90.02 birr/m3
Daily equipment cost = 650/ 6.64 = 98.48 birr/m3
Step 5
Total unit cost = 519.4 + 90.02 + 98.48
= 707.9
Step 6
Direct cost = 707.9 * 16.6 = 11751.166 birr
By the same step the direct cost for each activity is calculated
42
650
See table 5
Activit
Description
Unit
Quantity
u.
Direct cost
y
(1-2)
(2-3)
(3-4)
(3-5)
(3-6)
(4-5)
(4-8)
(5-7)
(6-8)
(6-10)
(7-8)
(7-14)
(8-9)
(9-11)
(10-11)
(10-13)
(11-12)
(12-14)
(13-15)
(13-19)
(14-15)
(15-16)
(16-17)
(17-18)
(17-20)
(17-22)
(18-20)
(19-20)
(19-34)
(20-21)
(21-23)
(22-24)
(22-26)
(23-24)
(23-31)
(24-25)
(25-27)
(26-27)
(26-29)
(27-28)
(28-30)
Site clearing and top soil

Shaping stone for masonry work
Dummy
Lean concrete
Dummy
Installing F.W and r. bars for footing
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Installing r. bar mesh with expansion joints
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
M2
M2
M3
Kg
M3
M3
M3
Kg
M2
M2
M3
Kg
M2
M3
Kg
M3
M2
M3
M3
Kg
M2
Kg
M2
M2
Kg
M2
M2
M3
Kg
Kg
-
405.00
316
415
4866
16
337
86.1
3148
221
168
91
5834
134
12
1244
393
270
34
78.52
3093
342
1244
342
342
4752
365
153.8
16.6
705.16
353.2
-
cost
1.95
5.69
34.48
13.53
18.75
30.52
130.24
13.53
40.45
33.39
551.28
13.53
38.02
690.17
13.53
13.97
33.39
634.67
50.3
13.53
21.79
13.53
3.07
55.69
13.53
10.3
38.02
707.9
13.53
46.42
-
793
1800
1150.5
14312.5
65840.43
300
10285.92
11213.38
42605.16
8940.36
5610.35
50166.4
78941.34
5094.64
8282.07
16840
5490.21
9016.04
21578.99
3950
41850.43
7451
16840.5
1050.67
19045.98
64301.6
3762.08
5847.92
11751.166
9540.78
16414.4
-
43
(28-31)
(29-30)
(29-52)
(30-36)
(31-32)
(32-33)
(33-35)
(34-35)
(34-38)
(35-37)
(36-39)
(37-39)
(38-39)
(38-41)
(39-40)
(40-42)
(41-43)
(41-45)
(42-43)
(42-47)
(43-44)
(44-46)
(44-47)
(45-54)
(45-46)
(46-52)
(47-48)
(48-49)
(49-51)
(50-51)
(50-57)
(51-53)
(52-55)
(53-55)
(54-55)
(54-67)
(55-56)
(56-58)
(57-59)
(57-61)
(58-59)
(58-63)
(59-60)
(60-62)
(60-63)
(61-62)
Dummy
Dummy
Placing slab HCB(1)
Dummy
Pouring concrete for slab and beam(1)
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Kg
M2
M2
M2
Kg
M2
M3
M2
Kg
M2
M3
kg
M2
M2
Kg
M2
M2
M2
kg
M2
M3
M2 &
1244
27.25
365.25
365.25
3093.16
342
6.93
365.25
4752
153.8
16.6
705.16
365
353.2
3093.16
27.25
365.25
365.25
4752
342
6.93
365.25&3
13.53
66.59
1.092
1.26
13.53
3.54
649.38
120.12
13.53
38.02
707.9
13.53
11.00
46.94
13.53
74.1
1.26
1.26
13.53
3.54
674.06
125.59
16840.5
1814.75
400
460
41850.43
1211.3
4500.2
43872.58
64301.6
5847.92
11751.17
9540.78
4017.75
16579.82
41850.43
2019.29
460
460
64301.6
1211.3
4671.25
45873.44
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
M3
Kg
M2
M3
Kg
M2
M2
-
9.8
1244
153.8
16.6
705.16
365
353.2
-
13.53
39.55
707.9
13.53
12.25
47.91
-
16840.5
6083.48
11751.17
9540.78
4473
16922.11
-
44
(61-70)
(62-68)
(63-64)
(64-65)
(65-67)
(66-67)
(66-73)
(67-69)
(68-71)
(69-71)
(70-71)
(70-82)
(71-72)
(72-74)
(73-75)
(73-77)
(74-75)
(74-79)
(75-76)
(77-78)
(77-86)
(76-78)
(76-79)
(78-84)
(79-80)
(80-81)
(81-83)
(82-83)
(82-88)
(83-85)
(84-86)
(85-86)
(86-87)
(87-88)
(88-89)
(89-90)

Dummy
Kg
M2
M2
M2
Kg
M2
M3
M2 &
3093.16
27.25
365.25
365.25
4752
342
6.93
365.25&3
13.53
74.1
2.46
2.46
13.53
3.84
681.09
66.39
41850.43
2019.29
900
900
64301.6
1312.42
4720
50121.42
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Dummy
Cutting and bending r. bars for top tie beam
M3
Kg
M2
M3
Kg
M2
M2
Kg
M2
M2
M2
Kg
M2
M3
M2 &
9.8
1244
153.8
16.6
705
365
353.2
3093
27.25
365.25
365.25
5133
342
6.93
365.25&3
&650
13.53
41.33
706.3
13.53
13.14
48.68
13.53
81.56
3.69
3.69
13.53
3.95
681.09
70.36
16840.5
6356.5
11724.58
9540.78
4794.63
17193.77
41850.43
2222.48
1350
1350
69452.5
1350.5
4720
52761.59

M3
M2
M3
M2
M3
9.8
153.8
16.6
353.2
39.8
&680
42.65
706.3
54.77
586.17
6560.88
11724.58
19343.39
23329.46
Table 5 the direct cost of each activities of block T - 3
Note: the cost of sanitary and electrical work is not included; it is included in the
cost analysis of phase II
45
Total direct cost = 1,478,106.89 birr

Overhead cost (indirect cost)
Technical and administrative staff
Office rent
Termination expense
Utilities
Termination expenses and other overhead costs
Total indirect cost = 118,248.55 birr/project

Total cost = direct cost + indirect cost
= 1,596,355.44 birr
Planned total cost of the block is = 1,668,765.31birr
Difference= 72,409.87 birr
3.1.3. Analysis on phase II

By using the same step as phase I we prepare a schedule for phase II of the
construction
Step- 1
Identifying and Breaking down the phase II construction process of Block T-3
into different detail activities.
See table 6
Step 2
Arranging activities in a logical sequence, by first identifying the dependencies
between each activity.
See table 6
46
Step 3
Drawing the network diagram
See fig - 4
Step four
Estimating the time for each activity
The time estimation should be based on:
1. past construction times

2. curing time and,
No
Activities Description
Precede
nce
To
Tm
TP
Te
(1-2)
Structural Work
158
159
161
159.17
(2-3)
Block masonry work
17
19
23
19.33
(2-4)
Electrical work
17
19
23
19.33
(3-5)
Plumbing internal
5.17
(3-6)
Install scaffolding
10
8.17
(3-8)
Door 7 window work
5.17
(3-12)
Roofing
5.17
(4-5)
Dummy
(5-7)
1st & 2nd coat

plastering(internal)
4,8
10
12
10.17
10
(6-8)
Plumbing (external)
5.17
47
11
(7-9)
3rd coat plastering( internal)
10
12
10
12
(8-10)
1st Coat plastering (external)
6,10
10
12
10.17
13
(9-10)
Painting (internal)
11
6.17
14
(10-11)
Painting (external)
12,13
15
(11-12)
Glazing
13
3. The amount of resources assigned for each activity
Table 6 Phase II activities and their estimated times

Step five
Calculating the expected times,
Expected time (t e) = (to+ 4*tm+ t p )/6
Step six
Calculating standard deviation and variance,
Standard deviation (s t) = (t p - to)/6
Variance (v t) = (St) 2
Step seven
Calculating Es, Lf, EF, Ls and the SLACK
Activities Te
Es
LF
Ls
EF
slack
St
Vt
(1-2)
159.17
159.17
159.17
0.5
0.25
(2-3)
19.33
159.17
178.5
159.17
178.5
(2-4)
19.33
159.17
183.67
164.34
178.5
5.17
(3-5)
5.17
178.5
183.67
178.5
183.67
0.5
0.25
(3-6)
8.17
178.5
194.67
186.5
202.84
8.17
0.5
0.25
(3-8)
5.17
178.5
199.84
194.67
183.67
16.17
0.5
0.25
(3-12)
5.17
178.5
220.01
214.84
225.18
36.34
0.5
0.25
(4-5)
178.5
183.67
183.67
178.5
5.17
48
(5-7)
10.17
183.67
193.84
183.67
193.84
0.5
0.25
(6-8)
5.17
186.67
199.84
194.67
191.84
0.5
0.25
(7-9)
10
193.84
203.84
193.84
203.84
0.6667
0.4444
(8-10)
10.17
191.84
210.01
199.84
202.01
0.5
0.25
(9-10)
6.17
203.84
210.01
203.84
210.01
0.5
0.25
(10-11)
210.01
215.01
210.01
215.01
0.3333
0.1111
(11-12)
215.01
220.01
215.01
220.01
0.3333
0.1111
Table 7 different times, standard deviation and variance of block T 3

Step eight
Identifying the critical path / calculating the project duration
= ((St1)2 + (St2)2 + (St3)2 + + (Stn) 2)1/2
= (te1 + te2 + te3 + . . . . . . . + ten)
The critical activities are:

Activities Description
Te
slack
St
Vt
(1-2)
Structural Work
159.17
0.5
0.25
(2-3)
Block masonry work
19.33
(3-5)
Plumbing internal
5.17
0.5
0.25
(5-7)
1st & 2nd coat plastering(internal)
10.17
0.5
0.25
(7-9)
3rd coat plastering( internal)
10
0.6667
0.4444
(9-10)
Painting (internal)
6.17
0.5
0.25
(10-11)
Painting (external)
0.3333
0.1111
(11-12)
Glazing
0.3333
0.1111
49
Table 8 phase II critical activities

Step 8
Calculating the probability of the project will finish at the due date
The working schedule time (t s) = 70 days
The expected time (t e) = 60.84 days
Standard deviation of the critical path (St) =1.63 days
The standard normal value is
Z = (t s t e)/St
= (70 60.84)/1.63
= 5.62
From the standard normal distribution table the percentage value of the above
standard normal is 100%
3.1.4. Cost analysis on phase II of Block T 3

The costs associated for the construction of the building in phase II are:
Direct cost
Manpower cost
Skilled and unskilled wage rate
Technical staff
By using the same step as cost analysis on phase I, the cost analysis for phase II
is:
Activities
Total quantity
50
u. price
Direct cost
(birr)
(birr)
Structural Work
Block
masonry
work
20mm thick
1692m2
70.44
119,184.48
10mm thick
800m2
53.88
43,104
Electrical work
820m2
183.01
150065.6
Plumbing internal
650m2
48.94
31811
Install scaffolding
1,632m2
3.27
5,532.84
3- coat plastering(internal)
2,492m2
25.24
62,898.08
Door & window work
516m2
97.2
50155.2
RHS(25*25*2.5mm)
136.04kg
18.66
2,538.5
RHS(20*20*2mm)
185.85kg
25.09
4,662.97
Lattice
per line
(25*25*2m
m)
123.14kg
21.99
2,707.84
(20*20*2m
m)
123.14kg
25.09
3,089.58
Plumbing (external)
490m2
48.94
23980.6
Painting (internal)
2,492m2
6.44
16,048
3- Coat plastering (external)
1692m2
28.26
47,815.92
Painting (external)
1692m2
7.608
12,872.73
Glazing
172 m2
110.5
19006
Roofi
ng
Table 9 cost analysis on phase II

Total direct cost = 595433.34 birr
Overhead cost (indirect cost)
Technical and administrative staff
Office rent
Total indirect cost = 833660.66 birr
51
Total cost = direct cost + indirect cost

= 678794.01 birr
Resource planning
For effective use of resources in the construction site they need to be planned
and smoothed. Especially in low cost house constructions, the resources must be
allocated and utilized properly so that they will accomplish the objective of the
low cost house projects.
Resource smoothing on Block T-3

Objective
To reduce over loading and under loading in the construction areas
To reduce the skill conflict between activities
The analysis aiming to reduce peak demand for manpower and reallocating
among activities of a project in a manner so that the project duration remains
shortest.
52
The procedures for resource smoothing for phase I are:

Step 1 calculate the Es and LF times of each activity
Step 2 identify and determine the man power needed for each activity
Activity
(1-2)
(2-3)
(3-4)
(3-5)
(3-6)
(4-5)
(4-8)
(5-7)
(6-8)
(6-10)
(7-8)
(7-14)
(8-9)
(9-11)
(10-11)
(10-13)
(11-12)
(12-14)
(13-15)
(13-19)
(14-15)
(15-16)
(16-17)
(17-18)
(17-20)
(17-22)
(18-20)
(19-20)
(19-34)
(20-21)
(21-23)
(22-24)
(22-26)
(23-24)
(23-31)
(24-25)
(25-27)
(26-27)
Slack
0
0
0
0.25
6.83
0
4.993333
0
6.83
10
0
13.25
0
0
10
17.08
0
0
17.08
26.16
0
0
0
0
1.58
3.58
0
26.16
44.91
0
0
3.58
7.08
0
7.333333
0
0
7.08
ES
0
1
3
3
3
4.17
4.17
6.75
7.5
7.5
13.33
13.33
14.33
19
10.5
10.5
20.5
25.08
14.5
14.5
26.58
31.58
37.08
38.58
38.58
38.58
40.66
16
16
42.16
43.66
41.58
41.58
45.16
45.16
45.16
50.16
45.58
LF
1
3
4.17
6.75
14.33
6.75
14.33
13.33
14.33
20.5
14.33
26.58
19
20.5
20.5
31.58
25.08
26.58
31.58
42.16
31.58
37.08
38.58
40.66
42.16
45.16
42.16
42.16
62.41
43.66
45.16
45.16
52.66
45.16
57.66
50.16
52.66
52.66
LS
0
1
3
3.25
9.83
4.16667
9.163333
6.746667
14.33
17.5
13.33
26.58
14.33333
19
20.5
27.58
20.49667
25.08
31.58
40.66
26.58
31.58
37.08
38.57667
40.16
42.16
40.66
42.16
60.91
42.16
43.66
45.16
48.66
45.16
52.49333
45.16
50.16
52.66
53
EF
1
3
4.17
6.5
7.5
6.75
9.336667
13.33333
7.5
10.5
14.33
13.33
18.99667
20.5
10.5
14.5
25.08333
26.58
14.5
16
31.58
37.08
38.58
40.66333
40.58
41.58
42.16
16
17.5
43.66
45.16
41.58
45.58
45.16
50.32667
50.16
52.66
45.58
No of workers
50
30
3
15
6
20
30
15
0
6
11
0
15
32
0
6
15
32
0
6
30
15
32
30
2
6
16
0
6
2
32
0
6
0
15
15
32
0
(26-29)
(27-28)
(28-30)
(28-31)
(29-30)
(29-52)
(30-36)
(31-32)
(32-33)
(33-35)
(34-35)
(34-38)
(35-37)
(36-39)
(37-39)
(38-39)
(38-41)
(39-40)
(40-42)
(41-43)
(41-45)
(42-43)
(42-47)
(43-44)
(44-46)
(44-47)
(45-54)
(45-46)
(46-52)
(47-48)
(48-49)
(49-51)
(50-51)
(50-57)
(51-53)
(52-55)
(53-55)
(54-55)
(54-67)
(55-56)
(56-58)
(57-59)
(57-61)
(58-59)
(58-63)
(59-60)
(60-62)
14.83
0
4.75
0
14.83
34.84
4.75
0
0
0
44.91
44.91
0
4.75
0
44.91
48.83
0
0
48.83
57.25667
0.42
0
0.423333
5.51
0.42
57.59
57.26
5.51
0
0
0
34.84
43.00333
0
5.506667
0
57.59
77.34
0
0
43
51.92
0.75
0
0.75
6.84
45.58
52.66
57.66
57.66
47.58
47.58
57.66
57.66
58.74
60.24
17.5
17.5
62.41
59.66
63.91
20.5
20.5
65.41
70.41
24.5
24.5
72.91
72.91
72.91
78.33
78.33
26.58
26.58
78.33
78.75
80.25
81.75
49.08
49.08
83.92
80.83
85.42
29.83
29.83
87.42
93
53.25
53.25
95.5
95.5
95.5
101.75
62.41
57.66
62.41
57.66
62.41
83.92
64.41
58.74
60.24
62.41
62.41
65.41
63.91
65.41
65.41
65.41
73.33
70.41
72.91
73.33
83.84
73.33
78.75
78.75
83.84
78.75
87.42
83.84
86.34
80.25
81.75
83.92
83.92
96.25
85.42
87.42
87.42
87.42
108.67
93
95.5
96.25
108.17
96.25
102.5
102.5
108.59
60.41
52.66
62.41
57.66
62.41
82.42
62.41
57.65667
58.74
60.24333
62.41
62.41
62.41
64.41
63.91
65.41
69.33
65.41
70.41
73.33
81.75667
73.33
72.91667
73.33333
83.84
78.75
84.17
83.84
83.84
78.8
80.25
81.75333
83.92
92.08333
83.92
86.33667
85.42
87.42
107.17
87.41667
93
96.25
105.17
96.25
95.5
96.25
108.59
54
47.58
57.66
57.66
57.66
47.58
49.08
59.66
58.74333
60.24
62.40667
17.5
20.5
63.91
60.66
65.41
20.5
24.5
70.41
72.91
24.5
26.58333
72.91
78.74333
78.32667
78.33
78.33
29.83
26.58
80.83
80.2
81.75
83.91667
49.08
53.24667
85.42
81.91333
87.42
29.83
31.33
93.00333
95.5
53.25
56.25
95.5
102.5
101.75
101.75
6
15
0
0
0
6
15
15
20
2
0
6
2
32
72
0
6
15
32
0
6
0
15
15
0
0
6
0
15
15
20
2
0
6
2
32
72
0
6
15
32
0
6
0
15
15
0
(60-63)
(61-62)
(61-70)
(62-68)
(63-64)
(64-65)
(65-67)
(66-67)
(66-73)
(67-69)
(68-71)
(69-71)
(70-71)
(70-82)
(71-72)
(72-74)
(73-75)
(73-77)
(74-75)
(74-79)
(75-76)
(77-78)
(77-86)
(76-78)
(76-79)
(78-84)
(79-80)
(80-81)
(81-83)
(82-83)
(82-88)
(83-85)
(84-86)
(85-86)
(86-87)
(87-88)
(88-89)
(89-90)
0.75
52.34
51.92
7.09
0
0
0
77.34
86.09333
0
7.086667
0
51.92
75
0
0
86.09
96.92
0.92
0
0.913333
96.92
97.5
7.84
0.92
7.84
0
0
0
75
85.58333
0
7.836667
0
0
0
0
0
101.75
56.25
56.25
101.5
102.5
104.5
106.5
31.33
31.33
108.67
104
110.17
60.25
60.25
112.17
118.42
36.25
36.25
121.42
121.42
121.42
39.25
39.25
128.33
128.33
128.33
129.25
131.75
134.25
61.75
61.75
136.75
130.83
138.25
140.75
147.5
150.5
156
102.5
108.59
112.17
111.09
104.5
106.5
108.67
108.67
122.34
110.17
112.17
112.17
112.17
136.75
118.42
121.42
122.34
136.17
122.34
129.25
129.25
136.17
140.75
136.17
129.25
138.67
131.75
134.25
136.75
136.75
150.5
138.25
140.75
140.75
147.5
150.5
156
158.5
102.5
108.59
108.17
108.59
102.5
104.5
106.5033
108.67
117.4233
108.67
111.0867
110.17
112.17
135.25
112.17
118.42
122.34
133.17
122.34
121.4167
122.3333
136.17
136.75
136.17
129.25
136.17
129.25
131.75
134.25
136.75
147.3333
136.75
138.6667
138.25
140.75
147.5
150.5
156
101.75
56.25
60.25
104
104.5
106.5
108.6667
31.33
36.24667
110.17
105.0833
112.17
60.25
61.75
118.42
121.42
36.25
39.25
121.42
129.2533
128.3367
39.25
43.25
128.33
128.33
130.83
131.75
134.25
136.75
61.75
64.91667
138.25
132.9133
140.75
147.5
150.5
156
158.5
Table 10 resources needed for Block T 3

Note: both skilled and unskilled manpowers are included
Step 3 draw a time scaled version (or squared) of the network
55
0
0
6
15
15
20
2
0
6
2
32
72
0
6
15
32
0
6
0
15
15
0
6
0
0
15
15
20
2
0
6
2
32
72
15
32
15
32
See figure Step 4 draw the resource histogram

Step 5 shift start time of non critical activities first having largest float/slack in
order to smoothen the resources.
Project time cost trade-off

The project completion time can be reduced by reducing (crashing) the normal
completion time of the critical activities. The reduction in the normal time of
completion will increase the total budget of the project. But the project manager
will always look for trade- off between total cost of the project and total time
required to complete it. In low cost house construction many contractors take
different projects at the same time so that to shift resources and to optimize the
construction cost, they can apply this project management tool.
Project crashing on block T- 3
Objective
To reduce the normal project duration to achieve contractual time
To optimize the project cost
Procedures:
The method of establishing time cost trade off for the completion of a project is
shown as follows:
56
Step 1 determine the normal project completion time and associated critical
path for the following two cases:
i.
When all critical activities are completed with their normal time. This
provides the starting point for crashing analysis.
ii.
When all critical activities are crashed. This provides the stopping point
for crashing analysis.
Step 2 Identify critical activities

See table - 4
Step 3 determining the crashing time
To determine the crashing time the, following factors must be considered
The availability of material
Availability of manpower
Capacity of the contractor
The time needed for curing purposes
Step 4 calculating the crashing cost

By using the same step as to calculate the normal cost in phase I
See table - 11
Step 5 compute the cost slope for each of these by using the relationship
Activities
(1-2)*
d. cost
793
c. cost
-
N.T
1
57
C.T
-
cost slop
-
(2-3)*
(3-4)*
(5-7)
(8-9)
(9-11)
(11-12)
(12-14)
(14-15)
(15-16)
(16-17)
(17-18)
(18-20)
(20-21)
(21-23)
(23-24)*
(24-25)
(25-27)
(27-28)
(28-31)*
(31-32)*
(32-33)
(33-35)*
(35-37)
(37-39)
(39-40)
(40-42)
(42-47)
(47-48)
(48-49)
(49-51)*
(51-53)
(53-55)
(55-56)
(56-58)
(58-63)
(63-64)
(64-65)
(65-67)
(67-69)
(69-71)
(71-72)
(72-74)
(74-79)
1800
1150.5
14312.5
5610.35
50166.4
5094.64
8282.07
5490.21
9016.04
21578.99
3950
7451
1050.67
19045.98
5847.92
11751.17
16414.4
400
460
1211.3
43872.58
5847.92
11751.17
4017.75
460
460
1211.3
45873.44
6083.48
11751.17
4473
900
900
1211.3
50121.42
6356.5
11771.58
4794.63
15600.4
5812.11
52545.9
5262.49
8495.5
5845.45
9803.06
22592.5
4171
7670
1261.1
20554.66
5956.7
12204.22
16647.8
590
1311.25
45241.9
5956.7
12204.22
5138.5
590
590
1311.25
49243.54
6091.88
12204.22
5599.5
1111.3
1111.3
1311.25
53678.89
6519
12216.86
5990.5
2
1.17
6.58
4.67
1.5
4.58
1.5
5
5.5
1.5
2.08
1.5
1.5
1.5
5
2.5
5
1.08
1.5
2.17
1.5
1.5
5
2.5
5.84
1.5
1.5
2.17
1.5
2
5.58
2.5
7
2
2
2.17
1.5
2
6.25
3
7.83
58
4.58
2.67
1
2.58
1
3
3.5
1
1.58
1
1
1
3
1.5
3
1
1
1
3
1.5
3.84
1
1
1
1
3.58
1.5
5
1
1
1
1
4.25
2
5.83
643.95
100.88
4759
83.925
426.86
177.62
393.51
2027.02
442
438
420.86
3017.36
54.39
453.05
116.7
260
199.9
2738.64
54.39
453.05
560.375
260
260
199.9
3370.1
4.2
453.05
563.25
211.3
211.3
199.9
3557.47
81.25
445.28
597.935
(79-80)
(80-81)
(81-83)*
(83-85)
(85-86)
(86-87)
(87-88)
(88-89)
(89-90)
1350
1350
1211.3
52761.59
6560.88
11771.58
19343.39
23329.46
1524
1524
1311.25
55315.44
6837.75
12216.86
19754.43
24319.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
1.5
2.5
6.75
3
5.5
2.5
1.5
1.5
1
1.5
4.75
2
3.5
1.5
174
174
199.9
2553.85
138.435
445.28
205.52
990.04
Table 11 crashing costs

Note: (*) are activities which cannot be crashed more than their normal time or
they are dummy activities
The values of cost slope for critical activities indicate the direct extra cost
required to execute an activity per unit of time.
Step 6 for reducing total project completion time, identify and crash an activity
time on the critical path with lowest cost slope value to the point where:
i.
ii.
Another path in the network becomes critical, or

The activity has been crash till the optimal point is reached.
And calculate the total cost for each activity in the crashing steps
Total cost = direct cost + indirect cost + crashing cost
The analysis for the crashing process is as follows:
Before crashing the total cost is
T. c = direct cost + indirect cost
1478106.896 + 746.04* 158.5
= 1596354.2 birr
1. Crash activity (55- 56) by two days
C. slope = 4.2
59
T. c = direct cost + indirect cost + crash cost

= 1478106.896 + 746.04* 156.5 + 4.2 * 2
= 1594870.56 birr
2. Crash activities (24- 25) & (39 - 40) both by two days
Cost slope (each) = 54.39
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 * 152.5 + 8.4 + (54.39 * 2) * 2
= 1592103.95 birr
3. Crash activity (71 - 72) by two days
Cost slope = 81.25
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 * 150.5 + 225.96 + 81.25 * 2
= 1590774.37 birr
4. Crash activities (8 - 9) & (11 - 12) both by two days
Cost slope, (11 -12) = 83.925
(8 - 9) = 100.88
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *146.5 + 388.46 + (100.88 + 83.925) * 2
= 1588159.83 birr
5. Crash (27 28 ) by two days
Cost slope = 116.7
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *144.5 + 758.07 + 116.7 * 2
= 1586901.15 birr
6. Crash (86 87) by two days
Cost slope = 138.435
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *142.5 + 991.47 + 138.435 * 2
= 1585685.936birr
7. Crash (79 80 ) & (80 81 ) each by one day
Cost slope = 174
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *140.5 + 1268.34 + 174 * 2
= 1584541.856birr
Cost slope = 177.62
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *138.5 + 1616.34 + 177.62 * 2
= 1583405.016birr
9. Crash (35 37), (67 69), (83 85) & (51 53) each by 0.5 days
Cost slope = 199.9
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *136.5 + 1971.58 + 199.9 * 2
= 1582312.736birr
Cost slope = 205.52
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *134.5 + 2371.38 + 205.52 * 2
= 1581231.696 birr
11. Crash (63 64)& (64 65) each by one day
Cost slope = 211.3
60
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *132.5 + 2782.42 + 211.3 * 2

= 1580162.216 birr
12. Crash (32 33) , (47 48) & (48 49) each by 0.5 days
Cost slope = 260
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 * 131 + 3205.02 + 260 * 1.5
= 1579433.156 birr
Cost slope = 393.51
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *129 + 3595.02 + 393.51 * 2
= 1578728.096birr
14. Crash (20 21) by 0.5 days
Cost slope = 420.86
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *128.5 + 4382.04 + 420.86 * 0.5
= 1578565.506birr
15. Crash (12 14) by 0.5 days
Cost slope = 426.86
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *128 + 4592.47 + 426.86 * 0.5
= 1578405.916birr
16. Crash (18 20) by 0.5 days
Cost slope = 438
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *127.5 + 4805.9 + 438 * 0.5
= 1577531.896birr
17. Crash (17 18) by 0.5 day
Cost slope = 442
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *127 + 5024.9 + 442 * 0.5
= 1578099.876birr
18. Crash (72 74) & (87 88) each by one day
Cost slope = 445.28
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 * 125 + 5245.9 + 445.28 * 2
= 1577498.356birr
19. Crash (25 27) , (40 42) & (56 - 58) each by one day
Cost slope = 453.05
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *122 + 6136.46 + 453.05 * 3
= 1576619.386birr
20. If we crash activity (42 47) by two days it will lose its criticality so we will
crash it first by 0.42 days
Crash cost = 4359.42
Cost slope = 813.5
61
T. c = 1478106.896 + 746.04 *121.58 + 7495.61 + 813.5 * 0.42

= 1576647.72 birr
The cost now is increasing so we must stop crashing the project
Optimal time = 122 days
Optimal cost = 1576647.72
Supply system improvement

One of the problems that we have mentioned in our problem statement was the
integration of the supply chain. In the existing method the flow for the requisition
of materials takes long processing time and involves a number of departments of
the agency to take part in the process. For the ease of our study we draw the
organizational structure of the agency as follows:
Mekelle Housing
development
agency
Finished
house adm.
Dept.
House
deliverin
g Dept.
Hous
e
adm.
Logistics
departm
ent
Store
Const. &
Adm.
department
Projec
t eng.
Offic
e
eng.
Finance &
adm. Dept.
Financ
e
HR
D
Fig. Organizational structure
Here we select the departments that are responsible for the flow of the material
and we try to show the process by using the following flow diagram as follows:
62
MSE
Dep. t
Trainin
g
expert
Factories
Regions
Main store
Contracto
r
Const. &
Adm.
Dept.
Site
engineer
Logistics
departme
nt
MSE
departme
nt
Store
Fig.3 As-Is System
Key:
Flow for order

Flow for materials
Fig. Flow diagram of material & order (AS-IS system)
Description of the flow diagram for the AS-IS System
63
MSE-1
MSE-2
Contractor brings a requisition for material to the site engineer

Site engineer- approves and takes the requisition to the agency (cost.
& Adm. Dept) together with the report that shows the status of the
construction at that specific site.

Const. & Adm. Dept approves the requisition by considering the
status
and material requirement of other similar sites and pass the
requisition to the logistics dept.

Logistics dept. if the required material is available in the agencys
store the dept. orders the store to send the material to the site, if not it
passes the requisition to the MSE dept.

MSE Dept. by taking the request from the logistics department
delivers it to the different MSEs that are located at the production site.
This department gets a weekly report on the production status of
those MSEs and it under take the delivery of demand based on that
report.
MSE-1 These are MSEs organized to offer:
-
Precast beam production

Hallow block production
Finishing works like:
Metal works (door & window)
Glazing
Site works (sewerage, road )
MSE-2- These are also MSEs organized to offer:

-
Aggregate production
Sand production
Our aim is to improve the existing (AS-IS) material and order flow system by
shortening the lengthy process by using certain criteria as a frame work.
A frame work for improvement
64
Change efforts tend to be massive undertakings and involve scores of

different decisions and actions. To get a good handle over such complexity and to
compare and contrast the efforts of different companies, we need some sort of
conceptual, or at least on organizing, framework. Many such frameworks
designed to analyze business and define performance improvement programs
have been developed over the last few years, mostly by authors of management
theory and within the major management consultancies. Two representative
frame works are the 7-S model and the business integration model.
The 7-S model emphasizes that, in order to understand the dynamics of
organizational change and develop goals for a performance improvement
program, one need to achieve consistency and balance between seven specific
dimensions. The 7-Ss are:
Strategy: a coherent set of actions aimed at gaining a sustainable

competitive advantage (and, as such, the approach to allocating
resources).
S kills: distinctive capabilities possessed by the organization as a whole
as distinctive from those of an individual.

Shared Value: ideas of what is right and desirable as well as fundamental
principles and e concepts which are typical of the organization and
common to most of its members.

Structure: the organization chart and related concepts that indicate who
reports to whom and how tasks both divided up and integrated. (Reporting
relationships and management responsibilities).

Systems: the process and procedures through which things get done.
Staff: the people in the organization, considered in terms of corporate
demographics (not individual personalities), i.e. their skills and abilities.

Style: the way managers collectively behave with respect to use of time,
attention and symbolic actions.
Another model is the business integration model, which is based on the
premise that business performance derives from the alignment of a companys

people, process, and technology with its strategy. As a result, the model suggests
that a consistent and comprehensive organizational change program such
65
incorporate, independently and collectively, the following 4 aspects of the

organization:
Strategy: establish a customer focused strategic vision that will
optimize long-term success.

People: organize, motivate and empower people to succeed.
Business process: redefine and stream line the business process to
implement strategic vision and to achieve maximum effectiveness and
efficiency of all resources.

Technology: apply appropriate technology to support streamlined
process, to provide information and tools to support the entire work
force and to enhance customer/supplier relationships.
A key similarity between 7-S model and business integration model is their
joint emphasis that performance improvement programs succeed only when they
focus on multiple dimensions of the organization.
The objectives of performance improvements may also differ from
company to company: cost for some, speed or quality for other. Speed in our
case,
despite
difference
in
organizational
contexts
and
performance
improvement goals, success full performance improvement programs are

characterized by a relentless and dedicated focus on rethinking and revitalizing
multiple aspects of the organization such as:
Culture and people: defined as the shared values and common goals
that ... a group learns over a period of time as that group solves its
problems of survival in an external environment and its problem of internal
integration.
Change in culture of the company is a common theme in all performance
improvement efforts. Such a shift related to the organizations rethinking
its business model.
66
Process: defined as the sequence of activities that fulfills the need of an

internal and external customer, and generally the way work is done within
the organization and the way the change project is actually realized.
A focus on identifying improving process is a pervasive feature of
performance improvement program.

Structure and system: which defines who communicates with whom and
how, as well as the degree of individual or collective responsibility and
accountability;
they
can
enable
and
prevent
the
necessary
communication, knowledge transfer and customer contact.

Significant
changes
in
structure
and
systems
accompany
most
performance improvement efforts. A common theme in companies

experiences in an emphasis on Cross-functional work teams. The crossfunctional nature of teams helped to increase intra process awareness
and owner ship for the change efforts. The emphasis on cross-functional
teams requires a significant change in the nature of skills, education and
performance packages. Significant improvements in time cost and quality
also resulted from cross-functional collaboration.

Technology: which plays a critical role in the generation, transfer and
management of information
As it is described in the above sections for improvements we should consider

different dimensions of the company like strategy, structure, system, and so on.
But now we are going to use a 20/80 principle that notifies if we solve most
critical problems it will be assumed that as the whole problems are solved. So to
prioritize problems we are going to use a tool named Pareto diagram. It helps to
prioritize problems by arranging them in decreasing order of importance. In an
environment of limited resources, these diagrams help companies decide on the
order in which they should address problems. In our case we need prioritize
criteria that are necessary for change. Below we have prepared a check list that
67
describes priorities of criteria given by the users of the system to be emphasized

for improvement.
Criteria
Participants (System Users)
Total
% shared
Total*%shared
14.28%
14.28%
Skill
14.28%
0%
Shared
14.28%
0%
Contractor
Site-engineer
MSEs
Strategy
Value
Structur
14.28%
28.56%
14.28%
42.84%
14.28%
0%
14.28%
14.28%
e
System
Staf
Style
100%
100%
Note: All the criteria have equal weight, i.e. they have got equal %share
(100%/7=14.28%).
Table Check list for Pareto diagram
68
Fig. Pareto Diagram

From the above graph we can observe that the structure and the system are the
two critical areas that are in need of improvement to satisfy users as well as to
make the information flow and order processing short and fast as much as
possible. So that as we describe earlier significant changes in structure and
system accompanies most performance improvement efforts. A common theme
in companies experience is an emphasis on the creation of Cross-functional
work team. This is a team composed of different expertise from different
departments. And now we use this approach to improve the efficiency of the
existing (AS-IS) system. The proposed (TO-BE) system will be:
69
Factories
Regions Main
store
Contractor
Logistics
department
Site engineer
Store
Cross functional
team
Key:
Flow for order

Flow for materials
Fig. The TO-BE System
Description of the flow diagram for the TO-BE System
Contractor- brings a requisition for material to the site engineer
70
MSE-1
MSE-2
Sire-engineer- approves and takes the requisition to the agency (cost.

& Adm. Dept) together with the report that shows the status of the
construction at that specific site.

Logistics Dept.- if the required material is available in the agencys
store the dept. orders the store to send the material to the site, if not it
passes the requisition to the MSE dept.

MSE-1 These are MSEs organized to offer:
- Precast beam production
- Hallow block production
Finishing works like:
- Metal works (door & window)
- Glazing
- Site works (sewerage, road )
MSE-2- These are also MSEs organized to offer:
- Aggregate production
- Sand production
Cross-functional work teams- the cross-functional work team is
composed of different expertise that comes from the construction
7 administration department and MSE department. This
department carries the tasks that were done by those departments
during the material flow & order processing time.
As we can see, this cross functional team can work different activities that were
done by different departments. So that, this work team can enhance the
efficiency of the systems order processing and material flow activities through its
facilitation for quick information flow.
Part II
Quality faults and assurance in the construction
Quality is the basic requirement in any construction activities. In our case in low
cost house construction the quality of the houses must be better or at the same
level as the other non low cost house buildings. So the quality of the construction
71
process from the soil test up to the end of construction must be controlled and
assured.
1. Soil Tests
Objective
To show different type of soil tests
As any construction starts from site preparation and soil tests, the low cost
housing also begins its construction from soil tests, thus the two typical kinds of
tests are conducted on the LCH sites are:
1. Field tests
2. Laboratory tests
1.1.
Field Tests
Field tests are soil tests that carried on the site so that reliable soil data is
gathered and analyzed to calibrate the strength as well as the settlement
characteristics of the site
TYPES of FIELD TESTS CONDUCTED ON THE SITE
1. geological classification by visualization or logging by geologists
2. field density using sand replacement or core cutter method
3. Natural moisture content method.
1.1.1. GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION BY VISUALIZATION OR LOGGING

BY GEOLOGISTS
Such kind of tests are carried by geologists after a test pit has been dug out by
daily laborers and the geologists will look at the ground profile and suggests
whether the ground layer is composed of strong sound layers that are capable of
standing the that is coming from the super structure.
1.1.2. FIELD DENSITY USING SAND REPLACEMENT OR CORE CUTTER
METHOD
72
The field density of the soil should be known for calculating borrow or cut and fill
quantities and for controlling the field compaction. for example if the natural
density is 16.20KN/M^3 and the compacted density is 19KN/M^3,approximately
20% reduction in volume will occur when the soil is compacted.
Field density method is usually direct methods done by excavating a hole,
measuring the volume of the hole and determining the weights of the material
excavated. Indirect methods such as nuclear or geophysical methods are also
sometimes used.
A Hole about 10cm in diameter and as deep as the thickness of the compacted
layer is dug in the soil to determine the in place density.
All the excavated material is carefully preserved is immediately weighed. its
moisture content is also found by using a representative sample .Then the
volume of the hole is measured by filling the hole with suitable material whose
unit weight is known. The weight of the material required to fill the whole divided
by its unit weight gives the volume the hole is the wet density of the soil.
There are 3 substances normally used for measuring the hole volume like motor
oil, clean dry sand and water. If water is used, it must be confined in thin rubber
membrane or balloon, which is expanded by water or air pressure into the hole
.the volume of the hole is read directly from the water level in a calibrated
reservoir. Motor oil doesnt require any membrane .Generally for dry soils; it is
preferably to use sand method or water method.
The sand pouring cylinders method involves standard sand and a standard
procedure for pouring which utilizes a sand cone. The amount of sand is
determined by weighing the weight of the sand in the cone is subtracted .The
weight is converted into volume .note that the traffic must be halted during the
test since vibration will affect pouring of the sand.
1.1.3.NATURAL MOISTURE CONTENT
73
The water or moisture content is defined as the ratio between the weights of the
solid material. It is expressed as percentage
For any materials the water content is one of the most significant index
parameter used in establishing a relation between soil behavior and its
properties. The water content of a material is used in expressing the phase
relationship of air, water and solids in a given volume of material. In the fine-grain
soil, the consistency of a given soil type depends on its water content. The water
content of a soil along its liquid and plastic limit is used to express its relative
consistency termed as liquidity index. The laboratory work to determine the water
content consists of drying the moist soil in an oven. The water content is
calculated using the weight of water and the weight of dry specimen.
As our emphasis on the quality assurance of these tests we would first have to
point out the problems that causes for not being able to have proper parameters
of soil characteristics.
1. lack of adequate equipment and lab software
Even though same results are expected from soil tests of the trixial and direct
shear test the trixial test is more reliable in providing the shear strength
parameters. It is learnt that only direct shear test and UCS (unconfined
compression strength test) is conducted in the available laboratories.
1.2.
Laboratory Tests
The major types of laboratory tests are:
1.2.1. Particle Size Distribution /Sieve Analysis/

Soil is a product of mechanical and chemical weathering and is found in a wide
range of particle sizes and shapes. Simple sieve analysis is used for particle size
larger than 0.075mm while sedimentation analysis for particle size smaller than
74
0.075mm. For soil sample that contains a measurable portion of their grain both
coarser and finer than 0.075mm size combined analysis is required.
Hydrometer Analysis Test

Objective: To determine particle size distribution of soil finer than 0.075mm.
The significant of grain size distribution of fine-grained soils has decreased
considerably in recent years. There is a general recognition that particles other
than grain size such as shape, arrangement of particles and geological history
could be more important in influencing the behavior of fine-grained soils.
However there are occasions in which knowledge of grain size distribution of
fine-grained soils will be extremely useful. Design of filters for drainage systems
and rise of water in capillary openings depend on the grain size distribution. The
behavior of expansive soils is a function of the proportion of clay fraction in the
soil.
The hydrometer method is based on continued sedimentation method. The
steady of fall of soil particles through a liquid at rest is called sedimentation. The
hydrometer method is based on stokes equation that relates the velocity of free
falling spherical particle through a liquid to the diameter of the particles, the
specific gravity of the particles and the viscosity of the liquid.
The hydrometer test is conducted by making a soil suspension and placing in
graduated cylinder. Then the specific gravity of the suspension measured at
different time interval using the hydrometer to secure the necessary data for
computing the %age finer and the diameter of the particles. It is assumed that,
low concentration to permit individual setting of grains with out interference by
others.
1.2.2.Shear Strength test

Shearing resistance of a soil can be determined in the laboratory by the following
methods:-
75
Direct Shear Test

Objective: To determine shear strength parameters cohesion c and angle of
internal friction of dry soils.
Direct shear test is a shear test in which soil or rock under applied normal load is
stressed to failure by moving one section of the sample container relative to other
section.
Direct shear test is conducted using direct shear machine with boxes of varying
size, the most common size being 6cm* 6cm. The box is split in two portions with
bottom half fixed and top half free to move. The sample is carefully placed in the
box. Then the loading block is placed on top of the sample. A normal load Pv is
applied by dead weights acting through a lever arm. The horizontal load Ph is
then applied to the upper portion and the sample is sheared through the plane
between the upper and lower part of the shear box. The proving readings
indicate the applied shear force and the horizontal dial indicates the horizontal
(shear) displacement. Volume change of the sample during the test can also be
observed by means of a vertical dial gauge, which is fixed at the top of specimen.
The proving ring and the vertical dial readings are taken at suitable time interval
or at some constant shear displacement to define the stress and strain
relationship until failure of the specimen. Three tests are performed with identical
samples with different vertical loads. The shear at failure (maximum shear stress)
is plotted against the normal stress. Thus the graphical solution to the equation is
obtained.
= C + vtan
where:
= shear stress
C = cohesive strength
76
v = normal stress
= angle of internal friction
The shear strength parameter of soil is necessary for design of shallow and deep
foundation, and retaining walls, etc.
Trixial Compression Test

The strength test more commonly used in a laboratory today is the trixial
Compression Test.
Objective: To introduce the students to the basic procedure for determining the
un drained soil shear strength parameters and C and the elastic parameter of
stress strain modulus Es and Poissons ratio of soil.
The soil specimen, cylindrical in shape is subjected to direct stresses acting in
three mutually perpendicular directions.
The test equipment specially consists of high pressure cylindrical tests, made of
Perspex or other transparent materials, fitted b/n the base and the top cap. Three
outlet connections are generally provided through the base: cell fluid inlet, pore
water outlet from the bottom of the specimen and the drainage outlet from the top
of the specimen. A separate compressor is used to apply fluid pressure in the
cell. Pore pressure developed in the specimen during the test can be measured
with the help of a separate pore pressure measuring equipment.
The cylindrical specimen is enclosed in a rubber membrane. A stainless steel
piston running through the center of the top cap applies the vertical compressive
load(called the deviator stress) on the specimen under test. The load is applied
through a proving ring, with the help of a mechanically operated load frame.
Depending up on the drainage conditions of the test, solid nonporous discs or
end caps, or porous discs are placed on the top and bottom of the specimen and
the rubber membrane is sealed on to these end caps by rubber rings.
77
The length of the specimen is kept about 2 to 21/2 times its diameter. The cell
pressure 3 (=2) acts all round the specimen; it acts also on the top of the
specimen as well as the vertical piston meant for applying the deviator stress.
The vertical stress applied by the loading frame, through the proving ring is equal
to (1-3), so that the total stress on the top of the specimen = ( 1-3) + 3 = 1 =
major principal stress. This principal stress difference ( 1-3) is called deviator
stress recorded on the proving ring dial.
A particular confining pressure 3 is applied during one observation, giving the
value of the other stress 1 at failure. A Mohr circle corresponding to this set of
(1-3) can thus be plotted. Various sets of observations are taken for different
confining pressure 3 and the corresponding value of 1 are obtained.
The relationships b/n major and minor principal stress in trixial compression test
can be stated as
1 = 3tan (45+/2) + 2Ctan (45+/2)
Where: 1 = major principal stress
3 = minor principal stress
C = cohesive strength
= angle of internal friction
Trixial compression test gives the most reliable results.

Unconfined Compression Test
The primary purpose of the unconfined compressive strength test is to obtain
quickly, approximate compressive strength of soil possessing. Sufficient
coherence to permit sting in the unconfined state UC strength is defined as the
load per unit area at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil fails. In
simple compressive test in this tests UC strength maximum load attained per unit
area or the load per unit area at 20% axial strain, whichever is attained first
during the performance of the test.
78
The shearing strength of fine-grained soil is a function of the applied normal

pressure, the reconsolidations pressure and drainage condition. Trixial
compression test gives the most reliable results. UCT can be described as a
trixial compression test performed with zero lateral pressure. Since there is no
lateral pressure, the test may be performed only on a soil with sufficient cohesion
to maintain its shape under its own weight.
The relationship b/n major and minor principal stress can be stated as
1 = 3tan (45+/2) + 2Ctan (45+/2)
but in this test 3 = 0, and for saturated clays in an undrained test C = 0,
Hence
1 = 2C
C = 1/2 = qu/2
Where qu = the unconfined compressive strength of soil.
Aterberg Limit Tests

Objective: To determine the liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL) and plasticity index
(PI) of a soil sample.
A fine-grained soil can exist in solid, semi-solid, plastic, viscous or fluid state
depending on its water contents. Aterberg proposed four states of soil and
corresponding three boundaries as follows
Solid state
Semi-solid state
Plastic state
Viscous-fluid
state
(Brittle)
(Non plastic)
Shrinkage Limit
SL
(Plastic state)
Plastic Limit
PL
79
Liquid Limit
LL
Soil in the viscous fluid state possesses negligible shear strength for engineering
purposes. The liquid and plastic limit of soil widely used for engineering
classification of fine grained soil. The liquid limit, plastic limit and plastic index of
soil are used extensively either individual or together with other soil properties to
correlates with engineering behavior such as compressibility, permeability,
compatibility, shrike-swell, shear strength. The liquid and plastic limit of soil can
be used with a natural water content of the soil to express its relative consistency
or liquidity index and can be used with the %age finer than 0.002mm size to
determine its activity number.
Excavation and Earth Works

After the top soil is removed and the dimensions of the foundations are set out
the excavations work can start.
The structural drawings have to be checked carefully:
Width of excavation
Depth of excavation
Types of excavated materials
Types of soil at foundation levels
Backfill of Excavated Area

Around Footing Column
Before starting the backfill work the resident engineer must approve the materials
(selected materials) for the backfill work. In order to get a regularly compressive
strength of the backfill, the steps of backfill should be marked at the columns
every 20cm of filling material till the excavated hole is filled and compacted. The
heights for compaction should be marked at the footing columns in order to
control the right compaction.
When the excavated holes are filled and compacted the whole area for the
construction of the grade beams has to be backfilled and compacted (roller). This
80
backfill has to be leveled (theodolite) in order to get the required height and a
smooth surface for the lean concrete under the grade beams.
Backfill between Grade beams
After the installation of the form work for the grade beams the back fill of the
areas in between the grade beams can start. The same procedure as with the
backfill of the footings should be followed.
Generally, backfilling we use in low cost house construction project should satisfy
the following point:
All internal backfilling is done with approved material if possible with

material excavated on the site
All external back filling around foundation walls and behind retaining wall
shall be done with approved selected materials, if possible with material
excavated on the site which is capable of being compacted and form a
stable filling.
All organic material, such as pieces of wood, roots, bushes and black
cotton soil are removed from all backfill material
All ground trenches and places where backfilling shall be executed are
clean from grass, bushes and pieces of wood,
Where pipes and electrical cables are in connection with the backfilling,
the work shall be executed very carefully, so they do not break or get
damaged
All backfilling to be in layers and compacted to 95% of maximum dry

density in accordance with the standard technical specification
Each layer to be rammed and consolidated with the addition of water as

necessary to achieve the required compaction
Any material which after repeated compaction does not fulfill the
requirement is removed and replaced
Hardcore
81
The hardcore consists of broken basaltic stones. The structural or resident

engineer can change the specification to trachidic stones. The hardcore has to
be leveled so that its height is equal on all parts.
On top of the hardcore lean concrete (C5) has to be placed and leveled. The lean
concrete avoids that the concrete on top (C25) enters into the spaces between
the hardcore.
Hardcore materials we use in low cost house construction project should satisfy
the following points:
Stone for hard core is sound and approved quality
All stones in the hardcore are of approximately equal and
recommended size
All hardcore is well rammed and consolidated with the top surface
blinded with crushed aggregate of 20mm. thickness in accordance
with the standard technical specification
The thickness of the hardcore satisfies the specification or design
The placing of stones to result in minimum voids
2. Concrete Works
In building industry concrete means a hard and a solid material made from a
mixture of cement, water and aggregates. The strength, durability and other
characteristics of concrete depends up on the properties of its ingredients, the
proportion of the mix, the method of compaction and other controls. Set and
hardened concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension.
The main constituents of concrete are cement, fine aggregate and coarse
aggregate and it is usual to specify a particular concrete by the proportion (by
weight0 of these constituents. Thus 1:2:4 concrete stands for the particular
concrete prepared by mixing cement, sand and broken stones in the proportion
of 1:2:4. However, by specifying this proportion, the properties of this concrete, is
82
not completely specified as there are a number of variables which influence the
quality of concrete. So, it is necessary to know the properties of all the
ingredients of concrete to assure the quality of the concrete.
Ingredients of Concrete
1. Cement:
All low cost house construction projects use standard Portland cement as the
main ingredients of concrete.
Portland cement defined by ASTM as the product obtained by pulverizing clinker
consisting of essentially of hydraulic calcium silicate, to which no additions have
been made subsequent to calcinations other than water and/or untreated calcium
sulphate except that the additions not to exceed 1.0% of other materials may be
introduced with the clinker at the option of manufacturer provided such material
in the amounts indicated have been shown to be not harmful by tests carried out
or reviewed by committee on cement.
The raw material used in the manufacture of Portland cement consists of
calcareous and argillaceous materials. The calcareous material used are: Cement rock
Limestone
Marl
Marine shell
The argillaceous material are: Clay
Blast furnace slag
Slate
Shale
83
From the above two types of materials the other basic materials such as lime,
silica; alumina, iron oxide and small quantities of other chemicals are obtained.
Gypsum is added during the manufacture to adjust the setting time. The
percentage of lime & silica combined in the manufacture of cement varies from
70 to 85%.
Two processes namely dry and wet are used in the manufacture of cement.
When basic raw material is rock, primary crushing of rock is the first step in both
processes. In this the rock is crushed to 15cm size stones. These broken stones
are fed in to smaller crusher or hammer mills to crush them to 4cm size
aggregates.
In wet method, the raw material are proportioned, ground and mixed with water
to form slurry. The slurry thus formed is lean enough to flow to the kiln. In the dry
method, the raw material is ground, mixed and fed to the kiln in dry state.
The temperature of the kiln with dry raw mix or the slurry as the case may be
raised to about 15000C in large cylindrical rotary kilns lined with special firebricks.
These kilns are mounted with longitudinal axis inclined in such way that the raw
material or slurry is fed at the higher end. The lower end of the kiln contains
roaring blast of flame. This flame is produced by accurately controlling burning of
powdered coal, oil or gas under forced draft.
During the process of calcinations, certain gases are driven off and remaining
constituents get amalgamated to form a new substance having its owen
characteristic, physical and chemical properties. This new substance is in the
form of clinkers and is about the size of marbles. These clinkers are finally
ground cooled and either stocked for further use or conveyed to grinding
machines. During the final grinding gypsum id added in the desired proportions to
adjust setting time of cement.
During the final grinding the clinkers of the blast furnace are converted in to a fine
powder and the finished product is known as Portland cement.
84
Physical Tests of Cement

Important tests of Portland cement are:i.
Fineness test
ii.
Soundness test
iii.
Setting time test
iv.
Compressive strength test
v.
Tensile strength test
vi.
Chemical composition test
The ordinary Portland cement we use in various low cost house construction
projects should satisfy the following points;
Cement is fresh, not older than six months and is delivered to the site
in the manufacturers original sealed bags.
Cement is stored in a dry and well-ventilated store, on a wooden floor
raised minimum 20cm above the ground
Cement is stored separately
The cement has marking the type and dates of consignment pinned
to it and check it is used in the order of its arrival.
Cement more than six months old after production is tested to satisfy
the specified requirements.
2. Concrete Aggregates:
The various concrete used in the concrete works are:
A. Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregate is aggregate most of which is retained on 4.75mm sieve and
contains only so much of fine materials as permitted by the specification or,
portion of an aggregate retained on the 4.75mm sieve.
Coarse aggregate may be one of the following types:
i.
Crushed gravel, i.e. obtained by crushing gravel
ii.
Crushed stone, i.e. produced by crushing hard stone

85
iii.
Uncrushed gravel, i.e. coarse aggregate resulting from natural

disintegration of rock
iv.
Partially crushed gravel or stone when it is a product of blending of

crushed gravel and crushed stone
v.
Manually broken stone, i.e. produced by breaking hard stone manually
B.
Fine Aggregate
Fine aggregate is aggregate passing 4.75mm sieve may be one of the following
types
i.
natural sand, i.e. fine aggregate resulting from natural disintegration of

rock and/or which has been deposited by steam or glacial agencies
ii.
crushed stone sand, i.e. fine aggregate produced by crushing hard

stone
iii.
crushed gravel sand, i.e. fine aggregate produced by crushing natural

aggregate
Source of Aggregate
The following are source of aggregate for concrete works:
86
Natural sand and gravel

Crushed rock
Broken brick
Blast-furnace slag
Size of Aggregate
Fine aggregate: For a given cubical content of fine and coarse aggregate, the fine
aggregate contain more particles and hence they occupy larger surface area. When
water is added to the fine aggregate, bulking of the mass takes place on account to the
surface tension due to water film on each particle. This film keeps the particle apart and
results in bulking of sand. This should be taken care of while proportioning the fine
aggregate. It would thus be seen that for the same workability higher water cement ratio
would be needed. This means reduction in strength.
It is, therefore, advisable to use coarse sand. However the fineness of the sand
improves the following property of concrete and hence excess quantity of water required
is partly reduced to achieve the same workability. The finer particles are, therefore, less
harmful in concrete than in mortar.
In the absence of coarse sand, the proportion of fines to coarse should be reduced.
Only that quantity of sand should be used in such a case as would make the concrete
look a homogeneous mass.
Coarse aggregate: The size and proportioning of aggregate should be such as would
give maximum unit weight in the loose as well as in the well compacted state. Based on
the above concept the maximum size of coarse aggregate has been found to be 5 to
15cm. Increase in the maximum size of coarse aggregate, without any change in the
mix, improve workability as the quantity of water required is reduced. Moreover, with the
increase in the maximum size of coarse aggregate, voids are reduced and the mortar
requirement for filling these voids is also reduced. There are however other factors
which have to be considered hence the upper limit of coarse aggregate are also fixed
say 15cm.
The various factors which govern the mixing of these limits are:
87
i.
Proper compaction
iii. Spacing of reinforcement
ii.
Slab thickness
iv. Cover required
Fineness modulus and grain size distribution

The significance of this test is to find particle size distribution of the aggregate and
mean size of aggregate to be used, for concerts should confirm to specific grading
pattern. This is method of test covers a procedure for determining the particle size
distribution of fine and coarse aggregate using sieves with square openings.
The fineness modulus of coarse aggregate is always more than 5.Coarser the material
more fineness modulus and vice versa. For aggregate to be used for concreting the
fineness modulus of sand should be approximately 2.6 and that of coarse aggregate
6.00.the sieve analysis is done to find the distribution of different size of particles in that
aggregate.
The purpose this test is to ascertain that the aggregate available is suitable for concrete
work. Almost as important as the quality of aggregate to its gradation that is to say, its
particle size distribution as determined by sieve analysis.
The fineness modulus gives the average size of aggregate.
Fineness modulus=
cumulative percentage retained

100
Civil engineering by S.V.Deodhor

TEST METHOD FOR PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND FINENESS MODULES
OF AGGREGATE
Scope
This test method covers the determination of particle size distribution of fine aggregate
by sieving
Definitions
88
Aggregate most of, which passes BS 5mm sieve is classified as fine aggregate on the
other hand aggregate most of which is retained on BS 5mm sieve is classified as coarse
aggregate.
Apparatus
Balance the balance or scale shall be such that it is readable and accurate to 0.1% of
the weight of the sample.
Sieves sieves of the size shown in the table below conforming to BS
Procedure
The sample shall be brought to an air-dry condition before weighing and sieving. The
air-dry sample shall be weighed and sieved successively on the appropriate sieves
starting from the largest sieve size. Care shall be taken in ensure that the sieves are
clean before use.
If sieving is carried out with a nest of sieves on a sieve shaker the nest of sieves shall
be shaken for a period, not less than 10min. but if not each sieve shall be shaken
separately over a clean tray for a period of not less than 2min.
Observation
Weight of sample taken is 1000gm
Data analysis
Calculation of fines modulus
Siev
Weig
e
ht of
size
sieve
(mm)
Wt of
sieve+
retaine
d soil
Mass
Retain
ed
(gm)
Percen
t
retaine
d (%)
Com.
Percenta
%
ge
finer
retaine (%)
d
14
1363
1406.6
43.6
4.36
4.36
95.64
10
1331.8
1331.8
4.36
95.64
89
6.3
1362.8
1372.5
9.7
0.97
5.33
94.67
2.36
1256.6
1270.2
13.6
1.36
6.69
93.31
1.18
391.5
438.4
46.9
4.69
11.38
88.62
0.6
351.3
466.2
114.9
11.49
22.87
77.13
0.25
293.2
774.9
481.7
48.17
71.04
28.96
0.15
298.92
538.72
239.8
23.98
95.02
4.98
0.075
288.14
321.34
33.2
3.32
98.34
1.66
270.51
287.11
16.6
1.66
100
Total
270.51
1000
580.61
Siev
Weig
e
ht of
size
sieve
(mm)
Wt of
sieve+
retaine
d soil
Mass
Retain
ed
(gm)
Percen
t
retaine
d (%)
Com.
Percenta
%
ge
finer
retaine (%)
d
14
1368.1
5.1
0.51
0.51
1363
90
99.49
10
1331.8
1332.1
0.3
0.03
0.54
99.46
6.3
1362.8
1365.1
2.3
0.23
0.77
99.23
2.36
1256.6
1781.5
524.9
52.49
53.26
46.74
1.18
391.5
744.4
352.9
35.29
88.55
11.45
0.6
351.3
442.3
91
9.1
97.65
2.35
0.25
293.2
301.4
8.2
0.82
98.47
1.53
0.15
298.92
301.02
2.1
0.21
98.68
1.32
0.075
288.14
289.94
1.8
0.18
98.86
1.14
270.51
281.91
11.4
1.14
100
Total
270.51
1000
362.71
91
Sieve
size
(mm)
Weigh Wt
of
t
of sieve+
sieve
retaine
d soil
Mass
Retaine
d
(gm)
Percen
t
retaine
d (%)
Com.
Percenta
%
ge
finer
retaine (%)
d
14
1363
1389.2
26.2
2.5336
2.5336
97.466
10
1331.8
1344.1
12.3
1.1894
3.723
96.277
6.3
1362.8
1388.9
26.1
2.5239
6.247
93.753
2.36
1256.6
1566.2
309.6
29.939
36.186
63.814
1.18
391.5
566.6
175.1
16.933
53.119
46.881
0.6
351.3
476.3
125
12.088
65.206
34.794
0.25
293.2
502
208.8
20.191
85.398
14.602
0.15
298.92
422.82
123.9
11.981
97.379
2.6206
0.075
288.14
308.44
20.3
1.9631
99.342
0.6576
270.51
277.31
6.8
0.6576
100
Total
270.51
1034.1
450.87
92
93
Sieve(mm)
sand
fine aggregate
mixed
cu
cu
cu
2.36
1.36
87.78
29.94
1.18
6.05
96.88
46.87
0.6
17.54
97.7
58.96
0.25
65.71
97.91
79.15
0.15
89.69
98.09
91.132
0.075
93.01
98.09
93.09
Total
273.36
576.45
399.142
fineness modulus
2.7336
5.7645
94
3.99142
Name of
source
Uniformi
ty
Coefficient of
D10
D30
D60
Coefficie
nt
Curvature
mm
mm
mm
Cu = D60/D10
CC = (D30)2/D60*D10
SAND
0.118
0.26
0.44
3.7288136
1.3020031
FINE
AGGREGATE
1.1
1.19
1.2
1.0909091
1.072803
1.0330579
Mix
0.22
0.5
1.1
2.3 TEST ANALYSES AND RESULT

Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate
Scope
This test method covers the determination of bulk and apparent specific gravity, 23
degree centigrade and absorption of aggregate. This test method determines the bulk
specific gravity and the apparent specific gravity.
Definition/ terminology
Absorption- the process by which liquid is drawn into and tends to fill permeable pores
in porous solid body; also the increase in mass of a [porous solid body resulting from
the penetration of a liquid into its permeable pores.
In the case of concrete and concrete aggregate unless otherwise state; the liquid
involved is water, the increase in mass is that which doesnt include water adhering to
95
the outside surface, the increase in mass is expressed as percentage of the dry mass of
the body and the body is considered to be dry when it has been treated by an
appropriate process to remove uncombined water such as drying to constant mass at
temperature between 100&110 degree Celsius. Aggregate-granular material, such as,
gravel, sand, crushed stones or iron blast- furnace slug, used with a cementing medium
to form hydraulic-cement concrete or mortar
Fine Aggregate- (!) aggregate passing the 4.75mm sieve and almost entirely passing
the 4.75mm sieve and predominantly retained on the 75 micrometer. Or (2) that portion
of aggregate passing the 4.75mm sieve and retained on the 75 micrometer sieve.
The definitions are alternatives to be applied under differing circumstances in (1) is
applied to an entire aggregate either in natural condition or after processing.(2) is
applied to portion of aggregate. Requirements for properties and grading should be
stated in the specifications.
Bulk specific gravity- the ratio of
masses of volumes of a material (including
permeable and impermeable voids in the material, but excluding the voids between
particles of the stated temperature of the mass of an equal volume of distilled water at a
stated temperature.
Bulk specific gravity (saturated surface dry) the relation of the masses of a volume of
materials including the mass of water with in the voids in the material (but excluding the
void between particles) at a stated temperature.
Specific gravity- the ratio of the mass of a volume of a material at a stated temperature
to the mass of the same volume of distilled water at stated temperature.
Apparent specific gravity- the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of the
impermeable portion of the aggregate at a stated temperature to the weight in air of an
equal volume of a gas free distilled water at a stated temperature.
APPARATUS
Balance- a weighing device that is sensitive, readable, and accurate 0.1% of the,
sample weight.
96
Sample container- pad.

Sieve of 4.75mm.
Two-100ml pycnometer.
PROCEDURES
Sample is sieved through 4.75mm sieve
50gm of sample is weighed.
A 100ml pycnometer is prepared.
The pycnometer is cleaned.
The pycnometer is filled with water to its full capacity.
The filled pycnometer is weighed.
Water is reduced from the pycnometer about half of the pycnometer.
The 50gm of sample is added into the water reduced pycnometer.
The water and sample filled pycnometer is tipped and inverted to eliminate the air
bubbles
Water is added to the pycnometer containing the sample and water.
The pycnometer full of sample and water is weighed.
Each sample is tested two times.
DATA
Sand
Sample
Weight
pyicnometer
water (gm)
of Weight
of Weight of sample
+ pycnometer
+ (gm)
water + sample
(gm)
167.1
198.1
97
50
167.1
198.9
CALCULATION
Symbols and Their Representative.
A= weight of pycnometer with specimen and water.
B = weight of sample.
C = weight of water
D = weight of pycnometer filled with water
G1 = specific gravity one
G2 = specific gravity two
G = average specific gravity
Relations
Specific gravity =weight of sample/weight of water=B/C
Weight of water = C=D+B-A
G = (G1+G2)/2
1) Sand trial
Trial 1:
B = 50gm
A = 198.1gm
D = 167.1gm
C =167.1gm +50gm-198.1gm
C = 19gm
Therefore, G1 = B/C=50/19
G1 = 2.63
Trial 2:
98
50
B = 50gm
A = 198.9gm
D = 167.1gm
C =167.1 +50-198.9
= 18.2
Therefore, G2 = B/C=50/18.2
G2 = 2.74
G = (G1+G2)/2 = (2.63+2.74)/2
G = 2.685
Fine aggregate
Sample
Weight
pyicnometer
water (gm)
1
2
of Weight
of Weight of sample
+ pycnometer
+ (gm)
water + sample
(gm)
167.1
198.7
167.1
198.5
1) Fine aggregate trial

Trial 1:
B = 50gm
A = 198.7gm
D = 167.1gm
C =167.1gm +50gm-198.7gm
C = 18.4gm
There fore, G1 = B/C=50/18.4
99
50
50
G1 = 2.71
Trial 2:
B = 50gm
A = 198.5gm
D = 167.1gm
C =167.1 +50-198.5
= 18.6
Therefore, G2 = B/C=50/18.6
G2 = 2.688
G = (G1+G2)/2 = (2.688+2.71)/2
G = 2.699
Result
Source
Trial
Specific gravity
Average
specific
gravity
Sand
2.63
2.685
2.74
2.71
2.688
Fine
aggregate
2.699
Shape of aggregate
Round shape aggregate is better than angular shape since for a given water
cement ratio the use of former results in smoother mixer and hence better
workability for the same water cement ratio. Flat or flaky particles cause
reduction of workability and hence one objectionable. Such particles need more
sand and hence increased water cement ratio and resulting decrease in strength.
100
Characteristics of Aggregate: Aggregate used in cement concrete work should

have the following characteristics:-
101
Durability
Cleanliness
Organic impurities and other impurities to be within specified limits
Crushing strength
Surface texture
Particle size
Specific gravity
Bulk density
Water absorption
Surface moisture
Bulking
Fineness modulus
The above qualities are tested in the manner described below. In order that the material
subjected to specified tests is a truly representative sample the selection of aggregate is
carried out as below.
Grading of Course Aggregate:
Grading of aggregate should be such that the amount of water for a given workability
will be that which gives the smallest surface area for a given amount of aggregate. In
other words larger the maximum aggregate size and the coarser the grading, the
smaller is the amount of water required for a given workability. A smooth rounded
aggregate also require less water for a given workability than an irregularly shaped
aggregate having a smooth surface and thus within the normal strength range it gives a
greater strength. In the extreme case it may give twice the strength of a crushed rock.
The effect of grading or workability is far greater with lean mixes as compared with
richer mixes. This factor however comparatively unimportant, as lean mixes at any rate
has good workability. Another advantage of lean mixes is that large %age of maximum
size of aggregate can be used. Care however has to be taken to prevent segregation of
material. For achieving this, the mix should be kept dry. It should however not be so dry
that dry segregation may take place.
The best proportions of fine to coarse aggregate are those which give the required
workability for the lowest water/cement ratio. It would be seen that with the increase in
water/cement ratio it is necessary to increase the proportion of sand.
Grading of Fine Aggregate:
It is difficult to control grading of the fine aggregate and if this is done on a large scale it
is usually affected by combining two or more different kinds of sand from different pits.
As summarized, the course aggregate that we use in the construction of low cost house
project should satisfy the following:
Rejected samples of aggregate are removed from the site within 24 hours
(Course aggregate) to be crushed basaltic stone or gravel of approved quality
(Course aggregate) to be hard, dense, durable, non-porous, and uncoated rock
fragments.
(Course aggregate) to be free from impurities like clay, soft thin elongated or
laminated pieces to be free from alkali and organic matter.
Gradation (Course aggregate) to comply with the standard technical specification
Quality is approved at the quarry before it is delivered to the site
Are stoned on clear hard surface to present contamination by soil.etc
Different grades are stocked independently
3.Water
The other important component of concrete mix is water.
The proper mixture of concrete should be such that the voids between the course
aggregate are filled with fine aggregate and the remaining voids are filled with cement
paste, the cement paste adhering to all surfaces of the mix. The amount of water should
theoretically be just enough to provide for complete hydration of cement and more. In
practice, water is required not only for completing the process of hydration but also to
provide workability to the mix. As a rule therefore the smaller the percentage of water
stronger is the mix subjected to the condition that the required workability which
provides adequate mixing the placing of the mix is allowed for. The quantity required for
the chemical action i.e. hydration of cement is automatically taken care of. The quality
and quantity of water has therefore to be fixed/ prescribed for individual mix design and
this is an important as proportioning the elements of the mix design.
Limits of Impurities of Water
Impurities in water for preparation of cement for buildings/structural work i.e. in cement
paste, cement mortar and cement concrete should be restricted as per table 4:1
Types of impurities
Permissible %age of solids
Organic
0.02
Inorganic
0.30
Sulphates
0.05
Alkali chlorides
0.10
Table: Limits of permissible impurities of water.

The extent of acids and alkalis should be such as to satisfy the following requirements;
i.
The amount of 0.1 normal NaOH required to neutralize 100ml sample should
be less than 1ml.
ii.
The amount of 0.1 normal Hcl required to neutralize 100ml of sample should
be less than 5ml.
Effects of Impurities
Percentage of chlorides in water is responsible for efflorescence.

The percentage of dirt, organic impurities and sulphur contamination in water has
harmful effects on the finished products. Hence the need for testing and restricting their
proportion as shown in the preceding article. Sea water in particular contains chlorides
which corrode the reinforcement and disfigure the appearance of the surface on
account of efflorescence.
Suitability of Water for Cement Concrete Works
Water which is fit for drinking purposes is fit for use in cement works. It may however be
noted that pure water (i.e. distilled water or rain water) is neither very satisfactory for
drinking purpose nor is deal for cement concrete works. However, pure water can be
used with high alumina cement as it has no adverse effect on the same.
Generally, the water we use for concrete works in low cost house construction should
satisfy the following main points:
Water used for mixing concrete is clean and free from soil, acids, alkalis and
organic materials
Is not taken from sea or tidal rivers to be used for structural concrete. If possible
water shall be piped or otherwise stored in an enclosed container free from
contamination
If there are any doubt the water a sample shall be taken for testing
If the temperature of water exceeds 60 0c it is first mixed with the aggregate
before the cement is added.
Curing of Concrete
During the setting and hardening of concrete, heat is generated and this would result in
rise in the temperature of the concrete. It is therefore necessary that during the period of
setting and hardening of cement concrete is kept moist. The purpose of curing can be
summarized as:
a. To prevent rise in temperature on account of the heat of hydration developed
during hardening of cement.
b. To prevent drying of the concrete which might result in contraction crackers
The most commonly used methods of curing are:
i.
Covering the surface with a layer of sand and keeping it damps by spraying
water from time to time.
ii.
Spraying the concrete surface with water.
iii.
Covering the surface with a layer of canvas, Hessian, sacking or similar

absorbent material and keeping it wet constantly by spraying with water from
time to time.
iv.
By ponding : in this method the area to be covered is divided in to number of

compartments by means of small earth ridges and these compartments are
kept filled with water.
v.
After moistening the surface, it is sometimes covered with water poor paper
w/c will prevent evaporation of moisture from the surface to be cured.
Since most of the strength of concrete is developed in 3 weeks time, this period is
considered adequate. It is not possible to continue curing till such time as its full
strength id developed as it may take some years for the same.
Apart from keeping the surface of moist during the period of curing, it is necessary to
protect fresh concrete from weathering action of direct sun rays and hot winds. Under
extremely cold concrete does not freeze
Generally, the concrete we used for low cost house construction should satisfy the
following points:
The concrete is mixed to a uniform color and consistency prior to placing
Hand mixing is not allowed, but if unavoidable it shall be used only for class II
concrete & shall under no circumstance be allowed for concrete of classC-20 &
above
Concrete is mixed in an approved mechanical batch mixer machine; the mixer is
thoroughly cleaned from burdened dried concrete & other kind of dirt before use.
Mixer which has been cut of use for more than 20 minutes is thoroughly washed
before any fresh concrete is mixed as specified in the standard technical
specification
The mixer drum is tight to avoid loss of mortar. The valve must not leak mixing
water.
The specifying mixing time is carefully adhere to but in no case shall the mixing
discontinue for less than 2 minute after adding water as specified in the standard
technical specification
The batch capacity. The contractor must not be allowed to exceed the rated
capacity of the mixer
Mixed concrete is not modified by the addition of extra water & cement, in order
to facilitate handling of any other purpose
Before any casting starts at the site, test cubes of side dimension 15*15*15cm or
cylinders of diameter 15cm & length of 30cm of woods or steel are made ready.
All reinforcement and form work are placed prior to as concreting & the mix
approved & also check inspection certificate No 002 is filled & approved by the
designer.
Three cubes of each set are tested at 3&7 or 7&14 days and the third at 28/45
days for OPC/PPC all in accordance with the code of practice.
Concrete is transported as
rapidly as practicable and placed such that
contamination, segregation or loss of constituent material does not occur.

Concrete is deposited as near as practicable and no concrete is dropped from a
height exceeding 2 meters as specified in the standard technical specification
Concrete is not over vibrated so that the consistency of the concrete is
maintained and separation of materials is not caused.
4. MORTAR AND MASONRY WORK CONSIDERATIONS

Mortar
should
be
used
economically. Therefore it is put

on the top of the previous layer
of HCBs in approx. 2 cm height.
It has to be spread to the edges
properly. A plain piece of wood
helps to prevent the mortar from
falling down. The upper surface of the mortar has to be rather rough to get a proper
connection between the HCBs and to allow the mortar to spread into the holes of the
upper HCB. It has to
pressed down until the height of the mortar is reduced to 1 cm. Walls constructed in
this way can be considered as load bearing walls.
MORTAR QUALITY
The mortar used for walling up all types of HCBs has to be tested. The minimum
pressure resistance of the mortar mixture
has to be 170 Kg\sqcm or higher on the 7th
day.
MORTAR COMPRESSION TEST

Scope of the test
This test enables to compare the differences in compression strength of different
samples from prepared by the use of various fine aggregates from different sources
Terminology
Mortar is a name given to a mixture of sand simply inert particles with cementing
material and water and which has the capacity of hardening into rock like mass.
Apparatus
150mm by 150mm
Electrical mixer
Tamper
Trimmers
Balance
Compression testing machine
Sampling
Sampling is accomplished by collecting the sample from the source that is from site
sand and the fine aggregate of the dalul crusher.
Preparation of Test Sample
The sample is brought from the site is dried in the sun for 48hrs to loose the moisture
and get free from wetness
The dried sample sieved by 4.75mm sieve after get cooled to nor mal temperature.
Procedures
Prepare 1:3 ratios of cement to sand.
Prepare 0.6 water to cement content.
Dry mix is first done and wet is done for one minute.
The mixed paste is filled to the 100mm by 100mm molds
The paste in the mold is compacted
The filled mold is placed on the tamper and got tamped
After tamping the mortar is trimmed
The mortar is left for 24hrs in the mold

After 24hrs the mortar is taken off from the mold and immersed in water for three
days. After three days the mortars is crushed in the compression testing.
Source
sample
of sampl
e
Mass(kg
)
Area(mm*mm
)
Maximum
.force(KN)
Compressio
n
Stress(Mp)
Sand & fine mix 1
2.118
10000
61.6
6.16
2.087
10000
62.0
6.2
2.117
10000
69.1
6.91
5.
Formwork
Formwork is a temporary mould to keep the poured concrete in position fills such time
as it hardens and matures.
When concrete in the formwork reaches a stage at which it can retain itself, the
formwork is no longer required and it is removed. This operation of removing the form
work is known as stripping.
During the operation of concreting the form work is subjected to the following stresses:
i.
heavy load of concrete on the bottom & side of the form
ii.
live load of concrete
iii.
impacts received
iv.
vibrations of mechanisms(vibrations used for compacting concrete)
The form work must b strong enough to withstand all the above pressure. Defective
formwork results in deflection of the structure during concreting resulting in distortion of
the outline & shape of the structure. The interior finish of the formwork determines the
finished shape & quality of the finishing of the structure. Insufficient tightness of the
shuttering results in seepage of the moisture from cement slurry. This results in honey
combed spots in the concrete. It also causes laitance & efflorescence on the concrete
surface.
Component parts of the formwork are:
i.
Sheeting or boarding: this is the part in immediate contact with the concrete
and which determines its shape
ii.
Framing: it strengthens the boards and gives the form rigidity & strength
iii.
Scaffolding: this may or may not be provided depending up on the

requirement. When required it supports the formwork.
After the concrete has been placed and it has hardened, the formwork is struck. Part of
the material obtained by dismantling the form work may be reused but part of it would
be damaged and written off. If it is not possible to strike off the formwork components,
the once used material may be treated as irretrievable.
Wooden and plywood forms have lower thermal conductivity as compared to metal and
reinforced concrete forms. This considerably simplifies the work under conditions of low
ambient temperature. Various devices for preventing heat loss (during winter work) and
other arrangements can be easily fasten ed to wooden forms.
Steel formwork has the following advantages;
Can be used over a number of times
Ensures an even & smooth concrete surface
Can be easily stripped (if suitably oiled)
Possible greater rigidity
It is however comparatively much costlier and is considered economical if the project

required its use over 50 times. Sometimes timber-steel formwork is also used.
FORMWORK FOR
FOUNDATIONS AND SLABS
The formwork for foundations and for
slabs is the same. It consists of a metal
panel with a frame welded on it to achieve stability. The frame has got drill-holes for the
clamps. In conjunction with angle bars, two pieces can be used to form an edge. They
can be mounted side by side or on top of each other.
HOOKS FOR HOLDING PARTS OF FORMWORK TOGETHER

Clamps are used to hold parts of formwork together. One side is rounded and tapered to
make insertion into the drill-hole
easier. The other side is bent by 180
degrees and flattened. This side of
the clamp provides a pressure on the
parts of the formwork to hold them
tightly together.
A formwork for foundation, panels

mounted on top of each other, side by
side and at the edge
Construction faults
Mortar
Water used for mortar is not checked by any means whether it suits for mixing or
not
There is no way of quantifying the amount of water used for mortar mix
Sands used for mortar mix isnt of tested whether it is appropriate or not.
After the mortar is mixed even one test isnt conducted so that it would be
possible to know whether it would fulfill the recommended strength or not.
Concrete
The is no any checking mechanism to assure quality of aggregates that used for
concrete work
The water used for concrete mixing is not taken for testing
The mixer is not thoroughly cleaned.
Formwork
Excavation and Earth works
The excavated material is not cart away immediately
6. PREFABRICATED ELEMENTS FOR LOW COST HOUSE

PROJECTS
A. HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCK (HCB) PRODUCTION
The machines used to produce HCBs are electrical vibrating machines which have 1.5
HP motor to make sure, that the vibration is strong enough to compact the concrete
sufficiently in the moulds and to achieve the required strength.
Before starting production the different materials used to produce the HCB will be drymixed thoroughly on a clean and dry ground by hand. Then the mixture will be put in the
mixer with the appropriate amount of water required (water to cement ratio of 0.49
0.55). The mixture is inserted into the mould and vibrated for about 60
seconds before extruded as HCBs. Except for the slab-HCB, the machines can produce
three pieces at a time. The HCB ise transported by two people on a
The machine used for the production of HCBs
wooden pallet. The HCB remains on the
wooden pallet for 24 hrs. Then it is be cured
covered by a plastic sheet to enhance the
curing process and preventing the water from
evaporation. Curing-time is at least 10 days
before using the HCBs for construction. It is
important to write the date of production
on the HCB so that the mason can easily identify

the HCBs, ready for construction. The materials
required for the production of HCBs and their
mixing ratio differs from site to site depending on
the availability of the building materials sand the
ratio that fulfils the required strength. This holds
true for all types of HCBs production. The
average overall production is 1200
HCBs per day per machine.
The pictures show machines, used by
LCH-Project
FULL HCB
The full hollow block has a size of L=32 cm x W=16 cm x H=19 cm. This size of the
HCB is reduced in comparison to the usual sizes used in Ethiopia. The new size of the
hollow block reduces the production material and makes the HCB easier to handle, this
reduces labor and material
costs. During the wall construction the hollow block is

placed up with the closed bottom facing upwards.
Therefore the loss of mortar during construction is
reduced and the bond between HCBs is increased.
One mason can build 170 pcs of HCB per day on an
average.
After wall construction, it has to be watered for at least days.
HALF HCB
The half hollow block has a size of L=16 cm x W=16 cm x H=19 cm and represents
exactly half of one full HCB. Usage is similar to the full HCB.
U-SHAPED HCB
The U-shaped HCB has the same size as the full HCB; L=32 cm x W=16 cm x H=19
cm. It is used as a formwork for ring beams & lintels and at the same time as a part of
the wall.
U-shaped HCB viewed from top
U-shaped HCB viewed from bottom
LINTELS AND RINGBEAMS MADE OUT OF U-SHAPED HCBS

After the wall is properly erected the U - shaped HCBs are placed in at the height of the
ring beam; the reinforcement bars and the concrete will be placed within the U-shape
HCB according to the structural design. Lintels will be prefabricated on a flat ground
area in the same way as the ring beams. This technique avoids extra material for
formwork. The use of wooden
formwork
has
negative
effects on the environment.

Moreover it requires skilled
manpower and time to mantle
and dismantle the form work.
The concrete used for fi lling
has to meet or exceed C25.
4 U-shaped HCBs joined together as a lintel with reinforcement
COLUMN HCB
The column HCB has a size of L=32 cm x W=16 cm x H=19 cm. It is used as a
formwork for columns and at the same time as a part of the wall.
COLUMNS MADE OUT OF COLUMN-HCBS

After constructing the column out of column HCBs, one side of the HCB at the bottom
of the column has to be opened to remove the mortar that has fallen down during
walling up. This has to be done to ensure a reliable connection between the cast-in
concrete and the slab foundation. After walling up, the column is cast with concrete .
Connection in between column and wall
Column HCB with reinforcement
SLAB HCB
This slab construction system, introduced by the Low-cost Housing Project, avoids
formwork, reduces requirements of skilled manpower and time. The system has two
major components: the pre-cast beam and the slab HCB.The production of the slab
HCB is done in the same way as production of wall HCB .
The slab HCB viewed from top / side
B.
PRECAST BEAMS
In the pre-cast beam production, the reinforcement has to be properly bent. Especially
for the stirrups, the diameter for bending has to be 4 times greater than the diameter of
the stirrup itself. The stirrups must be welded at the top with the main reinforcement.
The pre-cast beam is then casted by using a mould and a vibration table so that the
concrete is well compacted. The beam production and transport to the place where it is
going to be cured can be done by four people. After having finished the production of
the components, five laborers can do the proper laying of the pre-cast elements and
slab
HCB
in
one
day.
Considering
40
sqm
of
slab,
the
temperature
The pre-cast beam (bottom) and the reinforcement itself (above) reinforcement, the
electric and sanitary lines and also the formwork around the slab can be done within 2
days. One can start the construction of the walls on the slab three days after casting of
the concrete. With the usual method one has to wait 21 days without dismantling the
formwork hampering the activity that could be done above or below the slab.
BENDING REINFORCEMENT FOR PRECAST BEAMS
Bending of reinforcement can quickly be
done by using formwork consisting of a
metal plate with bolts welded on it. The
bolts must have a diameter corresponding
to the minimal bending radius of the used
reinforcement-bars.
Normally the diameters of the bolts have to be four times bigger than the diameter of the
bars used. After the stirrup is formed over the length of the mould, the stirrup can be put
off and re-fitted so that any length of stirrup can be produced.
VIBRATING TABLE
The vibrating table is used during casting of the concrete for the precast-beams. It
consists of the vibrating-machine, which is similar to the one used for HCB-production,
and a metal table as shown in the drawings below.
The table is trussed at the edges by
four billiard balls lying in hollows to
enable it to move horizontally free. In
addition, a mould is used to cast
seven beams at once. It is also
shown in the drawing.
C. Steel Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement are the main structural components of the structure ,since the
reinforcement are the ones that would enable the building to have a capacity in resisting
the bending action that is it should have proper tensile strength and during storage as
well as procurements proper care should be taken.
Main problems identified on reinforcement in the site
Steel reinforcement isnt stored on the wood bed prepared so that moisture and
soil contact is avoided.
No certificate for ultimate tensile strength, yield stress, elongation and cold bend
tests are issued by the manufacturer.
No check is conducted on the length, dimension and shape of the reinforcement.
Thus to check such conditions we have conducted two typical tests

1. to check the diameters
2. to check the ductility
APPARATUS
Balance- a weighing device that is sensitive, readable, and accurate 0.1% of the,
sample weight.
Measuring ruler which shows its marks of measurement clearly.
METHODOLOGY
sample is measured its length using measuring ruler.
Sample is weighed
Each deformed steel diameter has 3 samples &each sample length and
weight should be measured accordingly.
DATA
reinforcement
Length(cm)
Weight(mg)
diameter of
6mm
23.5
52.4
diameter of
6mm
20.5
45.8
diameter of
6mm
21.65
40.6
diameter o
f8mm
21.6
81.8
diameter of
8mm
27.3
101.4
diameter of
8mm
33
125.9
diameter of
12mm
30.5
269.3
diameter of
12mm
33.6
294.5
diameter of
12mm
35.2
305.1
diameter of
14mm
28.5
321
diameter of
14mm
30.1
368.9
diameter of
14mm
26.5
321.2
diameter of
16mm
19
292.8
diameter of
16mm
18.8
292
diameter of
16mm
19.7
291.3
diameter of
20mm
15.6
354.7
diameter of
20mm
17.7
400.8
diameter of
20mm
18.5
417.5
CALCULATION
Symbols and Their Representative.
A= WEIGHT OF THE SAMPLE (gm)
B = LENGTH OF THE SAMPLE (cm)
C = UNIT WIEGHT OF SAMPLE (gm/cc)
D = VOLUME OF THE SAMPLE (cc)
E = AREA OF THE SAMPLE (cm2)
F = DIAMETER OF THE SAMPLE (cm)
RELATIONS
D=A/C
E=D/B
F= (((4*E)/ (3.14)) ^.5)
FOR DIAMETER of 6mm SAMPLE
A= 52.4gm
C=7.7gm/cc
B= 23.5cm
D=52.4/7.7
D =6.805195
E=6.805195/ 23.5
E=0.289583
F= (((4*0.289583)/ (3.14)) ^.5)
F=0.607367cm or 6.07mm
Same procedure is followed for the other samples also and we get
F=0.607961 or 6.079mm
F=0.556998 or 5.569mm
Thus taking the average of this 3 values
F average=F+F+F = 6.07+6.08+5.57 = 0.59cm=5.9mm
3
Like this we have conducted same calculations for all samples and have got the
following corresponding diameters.
DETERMINATION OF TENSILE STRENGTH OF STEEL (QUIHA SITE)
This is to determine the yield, tensile strength, elongation of mild steel bar.
In the standard conventional test method a specimen is subjected to gradually

increasing axial tensile load P. the change in the length l of the specimen for an initial
gauge length Lo is measured by strain guage.It is generally assumed for gauge length
Lo of the specimen the stress is uniformly distributed for all points on each cross section
perpendicular to the line action of the force.
Take 6mm diameter steel bar (3 sample each of 20cm from kuiha site)
Measure its length of Lo (20cm)
Mark the gauge length
Place the specimen in the universal testing machine
Apply the required tensile force
Note the readings at the yield point.
By applying the above procedure, the following results are obtained:
Sample (6): elongation=23.30cm
Ultimate force=13.89KN
Sample2 (6): elongation=23.35cm
Sample3 (6): elongation=20.7cm
As we observe from the above obtained results a uniform stress is applied to all cross
section of the specimen ,but it produces a non uniform elongation .this shows that there
is quality problem on sample 3(6).it is brittle material and this causes reduction of
quality, strength and durability of the structure .
reinforcement
length
Wt
volume
area
Diam.(cm)
Diam.
(mm)
Average
diameter of
6mm
23.5
52.4
6.805195
0.289582758
0.607367
6.073675
diameter of
6mm
20.5
45.8
5.948052
0.290148876
0.607961
6.079609
diameter of
6mm
21.65
40.6
5.272727
0.243543985
0.556998
5.569983
diameter o
f8mm
21.6
81.8
10.62338
0.491822992
0.791534
7.91534
diameter of
8mm
27.3
101.4
13.16883
0.482374768
0.783894
7.838942
diameter of
8mm
33
125.9
16.35065
0.495474223
0.794467
7.944667
diameter of
12mm
30.5
269.3
34.97403
1.146689376
1.208615
12.08615
diameter of
12mm
33.6
294.5
38.24675
1.138296228
1.204184
12.04184
diameter of
12mm
35.2
305.1
39.62338
1.125664109
1.197484
11.97484
diameter of
14mm
28.5
321
41.68831
1.462747779
1.365054
13.65054
diameter of
14mm
30.1
368.9
47.90909
1.59166415
1.423937
14.23937
diameter of
14mm
26.5
321.2
41.71429
1.574123989
1.41607
14.1607
diameter of
16mm
19
292.8
38.02597
2.001367054
1.596719
15.96719
diameter of
16mm
18.8
292
37.92208
2.017131804
1.602996
16.02996
diameter of
16mm
19.7
291.3
37.83117
1.9203639
1.564073
15.64073
diameter of
20mm
15.6
354.7
46.06494
2.952880453
1.939492
19.39492
diameter of
20mm
17.7
400.8
52.05195
2.940788026
1.935517
19.35517
5.907755
7.89965
12.03428
14.01687
15.87929
diameter of
20mm
18.5
417.5
54.22078
2.930852931
1.932245
19.32245
19.35752
Production faults
Precast
Precast after it fabricated it should lay on a ground such that it would maintain its
straightness as well as its strength but what we have seen is that there is no
enough space on the site that it is just has been laid on the bare ground without
making the ground level.
There is no appropriate scheduling of the production of the precasts and this

results in after the precast has reached to the site it would be liable to rain and
sun and this results in corrosion of the steel which is not covered by the concrete.
Since the production site and the construction site are too far away from each
other there is a good probability of deterioration in strength of the precast.
Hollow concrete blocks
No appropriate curing such as quantified amount of water is not known for curing.
Being the production place is too far away from the construction site this leads to
cracking and deterioration of the strength of the HCB during handling.
Steel reinforcement
There is no any test conducting
Wastage reinforcements are not collected immediately to reuse.
After bulk purchasing, Improper placing the reinforcements which leads to rusting
problem.
7. STRUCTURAL DESIGN
The structural design for the project was done with the main aim of providing safe and
cost efficient housing. The Ethiopian Standard Code of Practice, ESCP-95, provisions
are considered. Additionally a 3D Finite Element Model analysis was done both for
vertical and seismic loads. From the structural point of view, safe and cost efficient
buildings were obtained by considering many factors. The major factors are:
Pre cast beams and HCB rib systems are used to avoid slab-/beam formwork and to
reduce the number of skilled carpenters.
For up to G+1 buildings no column formwork is required as the columns are embeded
in the Concrete Hollow Blocks.
Modular structured elements are used to simplify work and production of pre cast
beams and Concrete Hollow Blocks.
Simple structural systems are used to ensure safety and stability without requiring
difficult and expensive details.
An optimal structural system and layout is used to reduce cost without compromising
quality. The optimal system is chosen after making trial and error with many alternatives.
Different foundation types and embedment depths are considered and the one that is
optimal from function and cost aspects is selected and adapted.
The reduction of construction time is achieved by using simple pre cast systems which
were instrumental in reducing cost and enables better quality control.
Design faults
In M2 type condominium houses the dimension of one panel isnt in such a way
that n time the slab hollow concrete blocks. This leads to the breaking of this
HCB to fill the gap left. Thus such acting leads to the failure of the HCB being
held on the slabs.
Not specifically on the quiha site but in other sites there is a problem of drawing s
being mirror image to the actual site plan. This results in malfunctioning of the
buildings which are going to be built.
In the QUIHA site we were able to observe that earlier structural drawings have
got problems of being over reinforced and posses unnecessary structural
elements like (unnecessary beams) column being over reinforced and bulky
structures
Most of the time design faults arent identified easily since one has to make the
analysis as well as the design of the architectural drawing again so as to make sure
everything is ok!
AN EXEMPLARY CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
One has to be sure of the proper placement of the slab HCB.
The slab-HCBs are placed between the beams or between beam and ring-beam
Cost Compression between Solid & Ribbed slab Buildings

Take off sheet for Solid slab per Floor
No
Size
L*W*H
QTY
Description
1.Suspended Solid slab with 160mm

thick per Floor
4/
3.75
54.75
3.65
6/
3.775
3.65
82.64
1/
3.80
3.775
14.35
2/
3.775
3.775
28.5
4/
3.75
3.775
56.63
3.75
1/
1/
1.60
3.80
6.0
5.32
1.40
248.22m2
39.72m3
Sub total
Unit price of concrete C-25 for supper structure solid slab = 1000Birr
Total amount of Birr per floor = 39.72*1000 = 39720birr
Size
No
L*W*H
QTY
Description
1.2 Form work for Solid slab Ditto from
item No 1
3.75
4/
6/
3.65
3.775
54.75
82.64
3.65
3.80
1/
2/
3.775
3.775
14.35
28.5
3.775
3.75
4/
1/
3.775
3.75
56.63
6.0
1.60
3.80
1/
1.40
5.32
248.22m2
Sub total
Unit price of Form work for solid slab = 72.3Birr

Total amount of birr per floor = 248.22*72.3 = 18172.2Birr
Cost of Reinforcement for solid slab per floor
item
No
Description
Axis
Shape
Length
No
of QTY per
member member
1.3 Bars for Solid

slab per Floor
QTY
14
14
3.75
3.65
4
4
13
14
195.0
204.4
14
3.775
3.65
6
6
13
14
294.45
306.60
14
3.80
3.775
1
1
14
14
53.20
52.85
14
3.775
3.775
2
2
14
14
105.7
105.7
14
3.75
3.775
4
4
14
14
211.4
211.4
14
3.75
1.60
1
1
6
14
22.50
22.40
14
3.80
1.40
1
1
6
14
22.80
19.60
Total length =
1826.6
kg/m =
1.2087
Total kg =
Steel reinforcement 14 unit price = 11.56birr

Total rate = 2207.75*11.56 = 25521.6Birr
Take off sheet for Ribbed slab per Floor
2207.75
16
No
Size
L*W*H
QTY
Description
2.Suspended Ribbed slab per Floor

3.75
4/
C-
3.65
54.75
6/
3.775 3.65
82.64
1/
3.80 3.775
14.35
2/
3.775
3.775
28.5
4/
3.75 3.775
56.63
Unit
price of
concrete
25 for
ribbed
slab per
m2 =
3.75
1/
amount
per floor
1/
1.60
3.80
73.21birr
6.0
Total
of Birr
5.32
1.40
248.22m2
Sub total
248.22*73.21 = 18172.28Birr
Number of slab HCB (Sb) per floor = 3200 pieces
Unit price of slab HCB = 6.14birr
Total amount per floor = 3200*6.14 = 19648Birr
Cost of Reinforcement for Ribbed slab per floor
item
No
Description
Axis
Shape
Length
No
of QTY per
member member
2.2
Bars
for
Ribbed slab per
Floor
QTY
3.75
3.65
4
4
13
14
195.0
204.4
3.775
3.65
6
6
13
14
294.45
306.60
3.80
3.775
1
1
14
14
53.20
52.85
3.775
3.775
2
2
14
14
105.7
105.7
3.75
3.775
4
4
14
14
211.4
211.4
3.75
1.60
1
1
6
14
22.50
22.40
3.80
1.40
1
1
6
14
22.80
19.60
Steel reinforcement 6 unit price = 11.14birr

Total rate = 405.51*11.14 = 4517.73Birr
Number of precast beam per floor = 38 pieces
Unit price for precast beam = 297.571birr
Total amount = 297.571*38 = 11307.78Birr
Total length =
1826.6
kg/m =
0.222
Total kg =
405.5
For Solid slab
For Ribbed slab
Item
Amount of Birr
Slab
39720birr
Formwork
18172.2Birr
Steel bars (14) 25521.6Birr

Total
83413.8Birr
item
Slab Concrete
18172.28Birr
Slab HCB
19648Birr
Precast beam
11307.78Birr
Steel bars
Total
By percentage
Amount of Birr
11307.78Birr
60435.84 Birr
{ 83413.8Birr - 60435.84 Birr] * 100 = 27.55%

83413.8Birr
CHAPTER 4
Conclusion and recommendations

4.1. Conclusion
According to the aim of the study, we apply advanced scheduling technique of project
management and assess the quality of construction materials by taking certain
laboratory tests for the low-cost housing projects.
Currently these low-cost housing projects use less advanced scheduling technique
specifically Gantt chart, this technique fails to show activities in detail, earliest & latest
times, and floats of activities. Together with this other constraints this makes the
projects to be less cost efficient and behind the schedule. Then we device a new
scheduling technique (PERT) that is more advanced than Gantt chart and by using this
technique we prepare work breakdown structures, logical dependencies of each
construction activities, time estimates for each activity, methods in how to get optimal
time and cost while crashing activities (if needed), and method for smoothing available
resources. While we apply PERT by taking a case at Kuiha construction site, we can
show as there is a deviation in total project cost in using this technique rather than using
Gantt chart as a scheduling technique and also there will be efficient utilization of
available resources (time, man power, & equipment).
In addition to scheduling problems these low-cost housing projects face different design
and construction material production problems that need to be solved to make the
house low cost without impairing the quality requirements. And we give ways on
improving and checking the qualities of construction materials that are utilized in the
construction activities. Also we made cost analysis to quantify and ensure these projects
are readily low-cost construction types.
4.2. Recommendations
One of the characteristics of low-cost housing projects is being cost efficient. To
be cost efficient proper scheduling technique is one alternative. And for projects,
like constructions whose activities durations are not deterministic, it is advisable
to use PERT as a scheduling technique. Because it allows to have three time
estimates (To, Tm, To).

The housing agency should be both cost and time oriented to manage the cost of
the project at the stipulated time.

If the housing agency needs to expedite construction activities, it is
recommended to apply crashing method to consider optimal time & cost.

-Since the existing material flow system is time taking and bureaucratic, the
housing agency should incorporate cross-functional work teams to enhance the
systems efficiency by making information flows quick as much as possible.

For fast and flexible information flows among the three entities (contractor,
agency, & MSEs) it will be better to automate the improved material supply
system.
The agreement made between the client (housing agency) and the contractor
must clearly include the material specifications.
The soil laboratories should make their measuring machines be calibrated

regularly
The aggregate used in the construction of these houses should be checked by

testing and be compared with other aggregates from other sources and the one
with good quality should be selected.
The reinforcements when it get reach to the construction site should come along
with the certification from the factory it is fabricated that shows its tensile strength
and other characteristics.
If any the government should import the tensile strength measuring device that
would test the main reinforcement bars.
It is possible to reduce the cost of these low cost houses even from the existing
price by introducing alternative construction materials.
Example; using woods for trusses on M2 type condominiums instead of
reinforced concrete.
We recommend use of the mix of the aggregate with sand in 1:1 ratio so that it is
possible to obtain higher quality with reduced cost.
Appendix
Standard normal distribution
Standard normal distribution

Z(+)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3
Probability (%)
50
53.98
57.93
61.79
65.54
69.15
72.57
75.8
78.81
81.59
84.13
86.43
88.49
90.32
91.92
93.32
94.52
95.54
96.41
97.13
98.72
98.21
98.61
98.93
99.18
99.38
99.53
99.65
99.74
99.81
99.87
Bibliography
Z( - )
0
(-0.1)
(-0.2)
(-0.3)
(-0.4)
(-0.5)
(-0.6)
(-0.7)
(-0.8)
(-0.9)
(-1)
(-1.1)
(-1.2)
(-1.3)
(-1.4)
(-1.5)
(-1.6)
(-1.7)
(-1.8)
(-1.9)
(-2)
(-2.1)
(-2.2)
(-2.3)
(-2.4)
(-2.5)
(-2.6)
(-2.7)
(-2.8)
(-2.9)
(-3)
Probability (%)
50
46.02
42.07
38.21
34.46
30.85
27.43
24.2
21.19
18.42
15.87
13.57
11.51
9.68
8.08
6.68
5.48
4.46
3.59
2.87
2.28
1.79
1.32
1.07
0.82
0.62
0.47
0.35
0.26
0.19
0.13
M. s Mahajan, Industrial engineering and production management, 2 nd edition dhan pat

rai & cop. LTD. 2002, New Delhi, 2002.
J.C.Pant, project management, CPM, PERT, GERT and Linear programming, 3 rd edition,
jain of jain brothers publisher, New delhi, 1993
Prasanna Chandra, project planning, Analysis, Selection, Implementation, and review,
4th edition, Tata Mcgraw- Hill publishing company limited, New Delhi, 1995.

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SENIOR PROJECT ON:

PROJECT MANAGEMENT OF LOW COST HOUSES

Done by: Yisak

Ato Hailekiros Sibhatu (B. Sc)

AWOTAHEGN. We would like to pass our heartfelt gratitude to Mekelle housing

Critical path method

Earliest finish time

Earliest start time

reinforcement steel bar

program evaluation and review technique

Most likely time

Standard normal distribution function

latest start time

latest finish time

To alleviate the housing problem with affordable price

To create job opportunities

To promote small and medium-sized construction companies

1.1 Background and Justification of the study

1.2 Objective of the study

1.2.2 Specific objectives

To identify major construction activities and create precedence and

Interviewing persons who are responsible for that specific area

Direct observation at the construction sites

From Recorded organizational documents

1.3.2 Data analysis

PERT used for project scheduling

Project time cost trade offs

Material testing tools and techniques

1.4 Scope of the study

1.4. Problem statement

Material supply system:

2.2 Project scheduling techniques

Bar (Gantt) chart

2.2.1 Bar (Gantt) charts

Network: A network is a graphic representation of all activities and events that

made by personnel most familiar with the individual activities and

based on normally available and expected resources, and

Expressed in suitable times such as days/weeks.

Positive = even if the performance of the activity is delayed by a period

project by the same period.

2.2.2.1 Rules for Network Development

An activity succeeding an event cannot be started until that event has

All events should be numbered and so this number should be unique, as to

Identification of Critical Path

marketing programs and advertising programs

Maintenance and overhaul of airplanes or oil refinery.

Instituting inventory control

can be finished. It assumes everything goes very well.

would take. And it will represent the highest frequency of occurrence.

take if everything goes wrong

repeated on a large number of times and is based on the assumption that

5. The variance for the activity is given by the formula:

Variance (V t) = ((t p to)/6)2

curve, it is possible to determine the probability of an activity being completed by

2.3 Schedule-Related Project Costs

would result in no decreased efficiency shortening is possible (either because the

2.4 Cost Accounting by Work Packages

Figure 2.1 Time-Cost Trade-off Relationships for a Typical Job

2.5. Quality control and assurance

To produce a building which satisfies the client

To produce a building where quality is related to the price.

To produce a building in which sufficient time is allowed to obtain the

Like most other aspects of construction management quality control has to be