FRAGMENTATION

OF ROCK

THROUGH

BLASTING

AND

SHOCK

WAVE

THEORY

BY KeMao

OF BLASTING
HNo

CONTENTS
page

Abstract

....................................................

Introduction

.................................................

Fragmentation
of RockThroughBlasting.........................
Introduction

.............................................

191
191

191
191

Law of SlabFormationby ShockWaveProducedby

Detonationof an ExplosiveCharge......................
Experiment..............................................
Shapeof ShockWave ProducedWithin Rock .................

192
192
192

Discussions(Ore Dimension) ..............................

Discussions(Three Dimensions) ............................

193
194

Discussions
(Mechanismof Milli-SecondDelayBlasting) .......
Theory of Blastingwith Concentrated
Charge .....................
Outlineof the Theory .....................................

194
195
195

Characteristics of Shock Wave in Rock .......................

196

PressureDecayDue to Distance............................
Breakingby ReflectedTensionWave ........................
Work Doneby Expansionof Gases..........................

196
197
200

Simultaneous Blasts With One Free Face .....................

200

BlastsWith Two Free Faces(BenchBlasting) and Blasts

With Multiple Free Faces ..............................
Concentrated
Type of No-CutRoundof Blasting...................
Theoryand Practiceof CoyoteBlasting..........................
Bibliography ................................................

201
201
208
209

TABLES
table

I.
II.
III.
IV.

page

MechanicalStrengthsof Rock Specimens....................

192
Shapeof ShockWavefor VariousRocksandExplosives
........
193
Depthof Craterand Depthof Charge(Gelexwith Granite)...... 198
Depth of Craterand Depthof Charge(Gelatinwith Sandstone)..199
ILLUSTRATIONS

figure

page

1. Effectof singleshotson acrylateplate .........................

Experimentalarrangementfor Figure 1 .......................

202
203

2. Effect of simultaneous shots with electric

detonatorson acrylateplate .................................

Experimentalarrangementfor Figure 2 .......................
3. Effect of simultaneous
shotswith a primacordon
acrylateplate .............................................
Experimentalarrangementfor Figure 3 .......................

204
205

206
207

ROCK FRAgMETATION

191

ABSTRACT

The shock-wave
theory of rock failure in blastinghas been earlier
proposedand is now usedto furtherdefinethe geometryof craterformation. The fundamentalprincipleof the theory holdsthat major rock
failure is causedby reflection in tensionof the primary shock wave.
Mathematicalexpressions
for the intensityof the shockwave at any
distancefrom a charge, the relation of rock strengthto the pressure
intensityof the shockwave,and the relationbetweenweightof chargeto
depth of overburdenhave beenderivedpreviously.Experimentalwork
described
hasnow permittedthe extension
of the theoryto describemore
fully the shapesand intensitiesof the shockwavein differentrocksusing
differentexplosives.Blastabilitycoefficient,the ratio of the compresslye
and tensile strengthsof rock, is proposedas controllingthe maximum
number of slabsformed in a blast. The distanceof throw of fragments
in blastingis shownto be a functionof the shapeof the shockwave.
INTRODUCTION

The presentpaperis a surveyof the shock-wave

theoryof blastingand
its applicationsto practical problemsespeciallythat of fragmentation.

Mathematics
has beenavoidedto makeprintingeasierand for further
mathematicalaspectsof the theory the interestedreader is referred to a
seriesof original paperson the subject. (Hino, 1954, 1955, 1956, and in
preparation,as listedin the Bibliographyat the end of this paper.)
FRAGMENTATION

OF ROCK

THROUGH

BLASTING

INTRODUCTION

The fundamental
idea of the shock-wave
theoryof blastingis this: The
detonationof an explosivechargeproducesa crushedzoneof rock near
the charge. As the compresslye
strengthof rock is ratherhigh this range
of crushedzoneis limitedto the vicinityof a charge,whilea shockwave
with high peak pressurebut of shortdurationpropagatesoutwardsas a
compressive
wave without producingany breakageof rock. At a free
facethis compressive
wavereflectsas a tensionwavebecause
at a free face
there shouldbe no force. As the tensilestrengthof rock is muchsmaller
than the compressive
strengthof rock a fractureoccursat a point where
the effectivetension,that is, the differencebetweenthe intensityof tension
wave and remaining compression,exceedsthe tensile strengthof rock.
The distancebetweenthis point of the first mainfractureandthe first free
face is defined as "thickness of the first slab." This dimension determines

the sizesof fragmentsbecause

dimensions
of a fragmentotherthan thicknessare proportionalto the thickness.If thereremainsa compressive
wave
after the detachment of this first slab which moves outwards with a

*Hio,1956.

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QUARTEgLY
OFTHECOLORADO
SCHOOL
OFMINES

momentumentrappedwithin its thicknessfrom the originalshockwave,

thensimilarprocesses
are repeated
at thenewlyproduced
freefacesuntil
the intensityof the remainingcompressive
waveis reducedto belowthe
tensilestrengthof rock.
In this section,the behavior of the shock wave has been describedon

the basisof simpleexperiments

wherea shockwavepropagates
in one
dimension.

LAW OF SLAB-FORMATIONBY SHOCK WAVE PRODUCEDBY

DETONATION OF AN EXPLOSIVE CHARGE

If we assume
that a shockwavehasits peakpressure
pa andlengthL
whenit arrivesat a freefacethenthethickness
of a slab1is represented
by thefollowing
equation(Hino,1954,pp 243-244):

l____LSt

2 Pa .................................................

(14)

whereS -- tensilestrengthof rock.

The number of slabs is as follows:
L

P,a

St ......

......................................

(1-2)

EXPERIMENT

Three kinds of rock specimens(marble, granite, sandstone)whose

dimensions
are 4 cmx 4 cmx 30 cm havebeenblastedat oneendby three
kindsof industrialexplosives(AmmonGelatin,PermittedAmmonGelatin,
PermittedAmmonDynamite)and the fragmentation
patternshavebeen
investigated.Compressive
and tensilestrengthsof theserockshave been
measured. The results are shown in Table I.
SHAPE OF SHOCK WAVE PRODUCEDWITHIN ROCK

Fromthe thickness
of eachslabproduced
by detonation
the shapeof
the shockwavemaybe easilyconstructed
by useof theprincipledescribed
in the Introduction.The peakpressureandlengthof shockwaveare summarized in Table II.
TABLE I
MECHANICALSTRENGTHSOF ROCK SPECIMENS

Blastability
Rock
Marble

S-- CompressiveSt -- tensile

Strength
Strength
815 Kg/cm'
55 Kg/crn2

Coefficient

Density

B -- So/St

2.6 g/crn

14.8

Granite

1000

75

2.5

13.3

Sandstone

1700

110

2.3

15.5

ROCK FRAGMEN?ATION

193

TABLE II
SHAPE OF SHOCK WAVE FOR 'VARIOUSRocKs AN;) EXPLOStVES
Shock Wave

Rock

(1) Marble

(2)

Marble

Explosives

Weight
Peak
of charge Pressure
(g)
Kg/crn

Ammon gelatin

Permitted

Number
of

Length
cm

slabs

3 44

275

29

10

275

27

5-5

20

275(330)

28

4-5-(6)

30

275

31

3-4-5

10

275

29

4-5

10

220

26

3-4

Ammon gelatin
Permitted

(3) Granite

Ammon dynamite
Ammon gelatin

10

375

29

4-5

Permitted

10

375

28

3-4-5

10

300

32

3-4

10

550

28

4-5

10

550

29

4-5

10

550

28

3--4-5

Ammon dynamite
Permitted

Ammon dynamite
(4) Sandstone Ammon gelatin
Permitted

Ammon gelatin
Permitted

Ammon dynamite

DISCUSSION
(ONE DIMENSION)
In the caseof the one dimensionalexperimentsit seemsthat the calculateddetonationpressureand weightof chargesinfluencelittle the shapeof
the shockwave. The peak pressureof shockwaveis foundto be proportionalto the compressive
strengthof rock. Aroundthe chargethereexistsa
crushedzone and at the peripheryof the crushedzonethe pressureof
shockwaveis reducedjust to the compressive
strengthof rockin question.
The shockwavewithin intactrock originatesat this end with initial pressureequalto the compressive
strengthof the rock. Thereforethe valueof
pa in equations(1-1) and (1-2) cannot exceedthe compressive
strengthof
rock So, thus, the extent of the main fracture of rok due to tension,that is,

the patternof slabformationor fragmentation

is determined
by twolimits,
the upper one is "compressive
strength"and the lower one is "tensile
strength."For this reasonthe "blastabilitycoefficient"may be defined
as follows:

B-- Sc

St ...................................................

(1-3)

The numericalvaluesof blastabilitycoefficient

are summarized
in the last
column of Table I.

Distanceof throwof fragments

X is proportional
to particlevelocityV
while from the theoryof shockwave (Hino, 1954, p. 234, equation2) we
have:

p --/k
where:U ----velocityof shockwave
/k -- specificgravityof rock
Therefore,p cX.

VU ......................

(1-4)

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QUART.RLY
OF THF.COLORADO
SCHOOLOF MINES

Frmn the measurement

of distanceof throw we can also reproducethe
shape of the shockwave which is analogousto that obtainedby the
fragmentationpattern.
DISCUSSION
(THREE DIMENSIONS)
In the case of three dimensions various factors must be taken into con-

sideration.(1) Peak pressureof shockwavedecreases

as the distanceof
propagationincreases.(2) As an explosivechargeis surroundedby rock
and stemming,the detonationis more completethan that of unconfinedexplosivecharge. (3) Expansionof gaseous
productsof detonation
exertsa
propulsiveeffecton a part of rockwhichhasbeenprimarilydetached
from
groundby actionof shockwave. (4) Compressive
strengthof rock is by
no meansa constant,and due to the staticpressureproducedby a large
massof rock stratumthe part of the rock arounda chargeis underconsiderableconfinement.Accordingto C. W. LivingstonconventionalcompresslyestrengthScis a linear functionof lateralforceof confinement
p, that is,
Sc--- a q- bp .....................
(1-5)
For a kind of granitea -- 24360,b = 5.6 (in psi)
For a kind of sandstone
a: 7110, b -- 8.6 (in psi)
From thesenumericalrelationsit may be easilyfoundthat in the caseof
this kind of granite lateral pressureof 4350 (psi) makesthe compressive
strengthof granite doubleits original strengthwithoutconfinement,and
in the caseof this kind of sandstone
lateralpressureof 827 (psi) makes
the compressire
strengthof sandstone
doubleits originalstrengthwithout
confinement.

By combining
equations(1-3) and (1-5) wehave:

B= aq-bp
St

..............................................

(1-6)

Thereforewe may be ableto expectbetterfragmentation

with betterconfinement,which is the casein a three-dimensional
big massof rock.
DISCUSSION
(MECHANISMOF MILLISECOND
DELAYBLASTING)

The first stageof the actionof an explosive

chargeis the actionof the
shock wave and it is finished within t8 seconds:'
2d

U ..................................................

(1-7)

where: d -- depthor burdenof charge

U velocityof shockwave
For exampleif d -- 3 meter,U -- 6000m/sec.,
t8 --- I millisecond

The secondstageis the work doneby expansion(Hino, 1954, pp 245246; 1953a,pp 147-150)of gases.Thisprocess
maytaketimeof theorder
of: te

10

100 ms.

When the milliseconddelay blastingis performedat time intervalsof

25 to 50 ms thenthe detonationof a chargeoccurswhilethe rock around
it is still under strongpressuredue to expansionactionof the preceding

ROCK FRAGMENTATION

195

shot. Because
of thispressure
p, the fragmentation
is improvedaccording
to the equation(1-6) which showsthat numberof slabsis increased
linearlyasthepressure
of confinement
increases.
For this reasonin proper milliseconddelay blastingnot only the
fragmentation
is improvedbut alsothe rangeof main fracturedueto the
tensionwaveis deepened,
bringingaboutsharperbreakagenearthecharge.
Rockarounda succeeding
shotbecomes
temporarilymorebrittle,fromthe
standpointof blasting,by expansionpressureof the precedingshot.
In general,the detonation
pressure
of an explosive
chargeexceeds
the
compressive
strengthof rock, and in this casethe higherthe compressive
strengththe higherbecomes
the intensityof compression
wavewhichcan
be converted into effective tension wave which in turn can cause main

fractureof rock overa widerrange. Pressureconsumed

withinthe crushed
zonedoesnot producefractureof widerrange,moreover,pressuredecay
within the crushedzoneis supposed
to be more drasticthan that of the
compression
wavewithin rockoutsideof the crushedzone.
Thusthe shockwaveproducedby an explosivechargemay be divided
into two parts from the standpointof its work of breakage. (1) Inconvertibleshockwaveor crushingshockwave,the shockwavewhichprevails

withincrushedzone. Peakpressure
decaysrapidlyandthis shockwave
worksonly as crushingforcewhichactsonlyovera shortrangebecause,
in general,solidspresentstrongest
resistance
againstcompression.
This
shockwavecannotbe convertedinto tensionwave. (2) Convertible
shock
wave. This shockwaveoriginates
at the peripheryof a crushed
zoneand
propagatesoutwardswith the initial intensityequalto the compressive
strengthof rock. Decayof peakpressureis not so drasticas in (1). It
canbe converted
intotensionwaveat a freefaceandcanproducebreakage
dueto tensionovera widerrangeso far as the intensityof shockwave
exceeds
tensilestrengthof rock.
If we can increasethe compressive
strengthof rockwe can makethe
part playedby (1) narrowerand that by (2) widerthusbringingabout
betterefficiencyof blasting.
THEORY

OF BLASTING

WITH

CONCENTRATED

CHARGE

OUTLINE OF THE THEORY

Theblasting
of solidmaterials
by explosives
mayoccurin thefollowing
sequence:

(1) Detonationof an explosive

produces
a "crushedzone"aroundit as
far as the intensityof shockwaveproduced
by an explosive
chargeis
greaterthanthecompressive
strength
of therock.

(2) Beyondthe crushed

zonetherecanbe no breakingby compression
due to shockwave; however,the shockwaveis reflectedas tensionwaveat

a freeface. As thetensilestrength
of rockis muchsmallerthancompresslyeone,rockcanbe brokenby thistensionwave,the rangeof breaking
extending
froma freefaceinwards
to thecenterofthecharge.
(3) Onlya partof thetotalenergyof anexplosive
charge
goesintoshock

196

QUARTERLY
Or THE COLORADO
SCHOOL

waveandthe gasesfrom detonation

at highpressure
expanddoingwork
againstresistantforcesof rockandagainsttheinertiaof a big massof rock
previously
detached
by theshockwavefromtheground.
CHARACTERISTICSOF SHOCK WAVE IN Rock

Detonation
pressure
po of an explosive
canbe calculated
by thehydrodynamical-thermodynamical
theory of detonation.Propertiesof shock
waveswithin rock may be calculated
on the basisof Riemannequations
(law of conservation
of massandmomentum),
theRankine-Hugoniot
equation (law of conservation
of energy)andan equationof stateof solid.For
a detonation
pressure
of 590,000psi or 41,500Kg/cm (40% Gelexdynamite) wefindthecompression
percentage:

100(1-- v
) __100(1
Vo

0.364)
= 2.9%
0.375

that is, the shockwaveis a "weakshock"compared

to thosein underwater
explosion,air blast,detonationof solidexplosives
or of gaseous
mixtures
wherecompression
percentage
at shockfront amounts
to about30%. The
"weakshock"doesnot meanthatthe shockpressure
is smallbut it means
that the condensation
at the wavefrontis rathersmaller,that is, an acoustic
approximationmay be able to explainfairly well its behaviour.As the
pressuredecaysvery rapidly as shockwaveadvances
throughsolid,this
acousticapproximationbecomesmore plausible,and this situationmakes
further theoretical treatment much easier.
PRESSUREDECAY DUE TO DISTANCE

According
to thetheoryof elastic
waves
produced
byexplosion
thepeak
pressure
p at distance
r fromthecenterof explosion
maybeassumed
to be:

pr---Po(-}

or

pr: p(--)'
.........................

(2-1)

where a = radiusof a sphericalcharge

"

distanceexponent

D --- /:

reduced distance

The valueof n may be takenbetween2 and3 whenwe dealwith a distance

considerably
near the origin wherebreakingof rock occurs.For a sound

waveof weakintensityat a greaterdistance,n may be assumed

to approach1. The practicalvalueof n maybe foundby assuming
that at the
edgeof a craterthe component
of the intensityof shockwaveverticalto
a freefaceis thesameasthetensilestrength
of rock. Fromthisassumption
we find:
n --

2.2 --

2.0

ROCK FRAGMENTATION

197

BREAKINGBY REFLECTED TENSION WAVE

C. W. Livingston
(1951) hasdescribed
theshapes
of cratersby three
variables,that is, depthor burdenof charged (verticaldistance
between
a :freefaceand a centerof a sphericalcharge),radiusof craterR, and
distance
h between
an apexof a crateranda centerof a charge.He has

defined
"radiusdepthratio"byR/d andsimilitude
ratioS,byh/d. When
d increases
for a sameweightof charge,
R approaches
zeroandh tod. This
limit is definedas"criticaldepth."

In a specialcaseh.O andin thiscasea craterhasitsfull depthandit

maybe called"a full crater"for thebenefitof brevitybecause
thiscase
is the mostimportantin practice.

The experimental
relations
amongweightof chargeW (or radiusof a
spherical
chargea), d, R andh (or similitude
ratioS,) maybeexplained
fromthestandpoint
of theshock-wave
theoryof blasting.

Sofar asthepeakpressure
of a shock
waveat a freefaceexceeds
the
tensilestrength
of rockthisshockwavecanbreakrockafterreflecting
asa
tension
wave.If wedefinetheeffective
shockasthepartof theshockwave
whoseintensity
at its endis justSt----tensile
strength
of rock,thenthe
depthof a craterdr shouldbe:

df-- L
2 ....................................................

(2.2)

whereL -- lengthof effective

shockwave.Thevalueof L maybeassumed
to be constantfor a givenweightof chargeW (or a givenradiusof a

spherical
charge)akhough
thepeakpressure
maydecayasa shockwave
advances,
that is, the shapeof a shockwavebecomes
flattenedas it advances.Thendf is the depthof a full craterfor this givenweightof a
chargeor a radiusof a charge.

dr -- const.(irrespective
of depth)............

(2-3)

Then we have:

whered:

h -- d -- df......................
depthof a charge.

(2-4)

The similitude ratio is:

S,-- h
-- d- df _
-- 1--- df...............................
or S,- 1

const.
d

.......................................
--

(2-5)

(2.5)'

As reduceddepthor reducedburdenis:
d

D-- --

(2-6)

then we have

S,,-1-- D- ..........................................

(2-5)"

198

QUARTERLY
OF THE COLORADO
SCHOOLOF MINES

wherea radiusof a sphericalcharge.

The formula(2-5)" hasbeensupported

by experiments
with variousrocks
and explosives.The formula (2-3) or (2-2) is alsosupportedby experiments (Table III, Table IV) exceptnear critical depthwhereradius of
cratertendsto zerothusreducingthepracticaldepthof craters.
A formulaof radius-depth
ratio may be derivedas follows:At the edge
of a craterthe component
of pressureintensityof shockwaveverticalto a
free face mustbe equalto the tensilestrengthof rock St. From this condition and the equation(2-1):

St--po VR
2q-d: or St--po R2q-d2 V,
RO
q-d2
2

2n

or q-1--,Stl -

............................
(2-7)

The formula (2-7) has beensupportedby experiments

with variousrocks
and dynamites.
As to the fragmentation
of rockwithina crateror slabformationwithin

TABLE III

DEPTHOFCRATER
df ANDDEPTHOFCHARGE
d.
(C. W. LIVINGSTON
40% GELEXWITH GRANITE:)
weight

radiusof

depth distance
between
apex depth

reduced

of
charge

spherical
charge

of
of craterandcenter
of
charge
of charge
crater

depthor
burden

Wgram acm dcm

hcm

d/cm D/--

500

4.4

25

25

5.68

500

4.4

34

85

25.5

5.80

500

4.4

50

25

25

5.68

500

4.4

72

54

18

4.09

1000

5.5

35

35

6.36

1000

5.5

46.8

11.7

35.1

6.38

1000

5.5

67.9

33.9

34.0

6.18

1000

5.5

94

70.5

23.5

4.27

2000

7.1

48.2

48.2

6.79

2000

7.1

62.6

15.6

47.0

6.62

2000

7.1

88

44

44

6.20

2000

7.1

125

93.8

31.2

4.40

3000

8.0

58.5

58.5

7.31

3000

8.0

71

17.75

53.25

6.69

3000

8.0

98.8

49.4

49.4

6.18

3000

8.0

103.5

34.5

4.31

138

*Calculated from experimental curves of Fig. 2. p. 237, Hino, 1954.

ROCK FRAgMElTATION

199

a craterthefollowing
approximation
formulagivesestimation.

If a shockwavehasitspeakpressure

(a)'.............................................

pd-- po

(2-8)

whered -- depthor burdenof charge,thenthickness

of a slabl:

l____
L St
2

Pd ................................................

(2-9)

whereL- effectivelengthof a shockwave. In this casethe shapeof a

shockwave has been assumed
to be triangular. Numberof slabsN is:

N--

L __ P

21

St ........................................

(2-10)

*Exact solution for three dimensions, Hino, 1954, p. 245.

WORK DONE BY EXPANSION OF GASES

Althoughthe contourof a crater may be chiefly determinedby the

shockwavegenerated
by detonationof an explosivecharge,only a part of
the total energyavailablein an explosive
goesinto shockanda biggerpart
of it is consumed
asworkdoneby expansion
of gases.In thecaseof an air
blastnearly all of the energygoesinto shockwavein air because
air has
almostno rigidity and it cannotact as a rigid piston,whildin the caseof
an underwaterexplosion
nearlyhalf of the totalenergygoesinto shockbut
the remaininghalf is consumed
mainlyin workdoneby expansion
of gases
againstalmostincompressible
waterwhichcan act as a solidpiston.Thus
it may be supposed
that in the caseof solidsof muchsmallercompressibility that mostof the energygoesratherinto this"incompressible
behaviour
of the medium"and in caseof perfectrigid solidthere can be no shock
wave.

The work doneby expansionof gasesmay be calculated

by thermodynamics(Hino, 1953a, 147-150) as in the theory of interior ballistics,
and a part of therockbrokenby the shockwaveresembles
a shellin a gun
barrel. As the ratio of the weightof the shell(rock detached
from ground
TABLE IV

DEPTHOFCRATER
dt ANDDEPTHOFCHARGE
d (BLASTINGGELATINWITH SANDSTONE
)
dt '-- d-h

it'

100

26

15

11

100

41

31

10

100

49

36

13

100

69

56.5

12.5

*Experimental data of Fig. 8, Hino, 1955, and p. 242, Hino, 1954.

200

QUARTERLY
OF THE COLORADO
SCHOOLOF MINES

asa crater) to that of an explosive

chargeis verygreat,theorderof magnitudeof the so-called
"initial velocity"of rockmaybe 100metersper second
or less. Becauseof this the processof expansionwork may take time of
the order of 10 to 100 millisecondswhich is a much longer durationthan

that of the actionof a shockwavewhichmay be finishedwithin a millisecond.

SIMULTANEOUS BLASTS WITH ONE FREE FACE

If two chargesof explosivewith the same depth of charged are

detonated
simultaneously
twoseparate
craterswill be produced
in general.
If we reducethe distance(or spacing)Sc betweentwo charges,then the
shockwavesfromeachchargemayco-operate
between
thetwocharges
and

a remarkablefracturemay occurwherethe two wavesmeet. Figure 1

showsthe effectof a singleshotwhileFigure 3 showsthe effectof simultaneousshotsby detonating
fuse. Figure2 showsthat in conventional
simultaneous
shotsby use of instantaneous
electricdetonators
therecan
beno suchperfectsynchronization
of twoshockwavesasis seenin Figure
3 becausean instantaneous
electricdetonatorconsistsof a so-called"ignition deviceor ignitionhead" and "detonatingbase"and the formeris a
combustion device which fluctuates within a few milliseconds in its action,

thusmakingperfectsynchronization
of two shockwavesfrom two separate
chargesquiteimpossible.This is alsothe casein the so-called
millisecond

delaydetonators.
Thissituation
is important
in connection
withthetheory
of millisecond
delayblasting.The simpleinterference
theoriessofar proposedto explainthemechanism
of blastsby millisecond
delayfail in that
there can be no chanceof meetingof the shockwavesfrom consecutive

shotsbecause
the velocityof shockwavesis very high and they do not
interfere with each other at suchintervalsof millisecondsas are usually
utilizedin practice.
From the standpointof the co-operation
of two shockwavesthe proper

spacing
Scmaybedetermined
for simultaneous
blasting
by detonating
fuses
as follows:

S..'----1.5,t-................................................

-.

(2-11)

BLASTSWITH TWO FREEFACES(BENCHBLASTING)ANDBLASTS

WITI-I
MULTIPLE FREE FACES

In blastswith two free faces(benchblasting)the positionof the center

of a chargeis definedby twovariables,that is, by depthfrom a verticalfree
facewhichis called"burden"anddepthfrom a horizontalfreefacewhich
is called "depth" in caseof deckedchargesor is called "height" for a
singlechargewhichis loadedon floor level. If we chosethe burdend to
be the depthof a full craterfor a chargeof weightW, andheightH to be
the criticaldepth,thennearthe edgeof the benchtwo shockwavesreflecting at the two free facesco-operate
andfractureoccursnearthe edge.

Rock

FRAGMENTATION

201

From this standpoint

the approximate
formulafor the designof bench
blastmay be:
H: 2dr ......................
(2-12)
In the caseof blastswith multiplefree faces,for example,in boulder
blasting,there occursthe co-operation
of about six reflectedwavesand
the amountof explosive
necessary
to blasta unit volumeof rockmaybe
inverselyproportionalto the numberof free facesavailableto a single
charge.
CONCENTRATED

TYPE

OF NO-CUT

ROUND

OF BLASTING *

Blastingroundswhichutilizeneitherangledcutsnor burn cutsmay be

definedas "no-cutrounds."As no-cutroundspreviouslysuggested
have
not useda sufficientamountof concentrated
charge,their practicalvalues
are dubious. In the concentrated
type of no-cutroundthe principleof
the shock-wave
theoryof blastinghas beenusedas a basisfor designof
the round. In thistypeboreholesare drilledperpendicularly
to the first
free faceparallelto eachotherin a concentrated
pattern,but withoutthe
rigorousspacingrequirementsneededfor burn cuts, and every hole is
loadedwith explosive,
contraryto burn cutsin whichsomeholesare left
unloaded to make them function as limited free faces. These "cut holes"

are fired simultaneouslyby instantaneouselectric detonatorsor by

detonatingfuse.

In large tunneldrivingand in underground

driftingthe concentrated
type of "no-cut round" has been proved profitable, bringing about a
reductionof numberof boreholes,weightof charge,numberof detonators,
numberof delaysof milliseconddetonators,
and an increaseof depthof
pull.
Blastingpatternscan be simplifiedby thismethod.The principlehas
wide applications
to excavationin general.The total amountof explosive
to be concentrated
may be estimated
by the followingequationfor a full
craterwhichis a specialcaseof theequation(2-7):

ktt
! [.]q- 1 .................................

(3-1)

df is definedas "burden"in the technology

of blastingand hasbeen
called"theline of leastresistance"
in classical
treatises
onblasting,because
it has beenpreviouslyassumed
that the solidmaterialwhichcorresponds
to thelengthdf provides
resistance
asa wholeto breakingat themoment
of detonation
whichactuallyis notthecase.
For full craters,the value of Rt/dt is a constant,and dt/a is also a
constant
for a givencombination
of explosive
androck. In principlewecan

find the valueof dt/a by a singleshotbecause

d! is independent
of the
Hino, 1955.

.":..;-.,;i
''" i,?' ','..
'"" '"".'5"

..:.
'.......;,...,;...,
'

*,,*: ':

....

. ......]:....':....:.::,.,:
-.-:.
.,.i:

:? -;;'

:;..:. ' -,'

'--.::.
: ; '. ..7-"

'

.., ...,...
:,..
:
{-...:.,

...

..--..-

..

....

;. ;- ;.

"..t-

' *....

.:.."'

':' */:'i"'"

, * -, {-,.:,';,
,.....

: .'}-,'..

;:'-:S
.-...
.?"'."

.. ..;-

..,

., ...:. ..

:-:.:.-...:..
-.&: ::,;,;..;
.a

..'..

-...:,

FIGURE

.. .....

.,..

..,....::,
,

Roc FRAGMENTATION

203

detonator

explosiv

THE

EXPERIMENTAL

ocrylateplate

ARRANGEMENT

PLATE

Acrylate Resin 50cm x 50cm x 3cm

CHARGE

AmmanGelatin (Shin-Kiri)

density 1.45 g/cm3

FIRING

weight

5 g

diameter

15 mm

height

19.5 mm

Single shot with No. 6 instantaneous

electric

detonator.

FIGURE
1. Effectof singleshots
onacrylate
plate(opposite).
Experimental
arrangement (above).

204

QUARTERLY
OFTHECOLORADO
SCHOOLOF iIE$

FCURE 2

ROCK FRAGMENTATION

205

detonator

explosive

'/acylate
plate

THE EXPERIMENTAL

ARRANGEMENT

PLATE

Acr71ate Resin 50cm x 50cm x 3 cm

CHARGE

AmmonGelatin (Shin- Kiri)

densit7 1.45g/cm
3

FIRING

Weight

5 g

diameter

15 mm

height

19.5 mm

Simultaneous shots with No.6

instantaneous

electric

detonators.

IGURE
2. Effect of simultaneous
shotswith electricdetonators
on acrylateplate (opposite). Experimental arrangement (above).

206

QUARTERLY
OFTHECOLORADO
SCHOOL
OF MINES

.f

FIGURE

HOCK FRAGMENTATION

207

detonator

primacord

x,oiw

j..,
THE

EXPERIMENTAL

ARRANGEMENT

PLATE

Acrylate Resin

CHARGE

AmmonGelatin(Shin- Kiri)

density
weight

FIRING

acrylat
plate

50 cmx 50 cmx 3 cm

1.45 g/cm
3
5

diameter

15 mm

height

19.5 mm

Simultaneousshotswith
detonatingfuse.

FmURE3. Effect of simultaneous

shotswith a primacordon acrylateplate (opposite).
Experimental arrangement (above).

208

QUARTERLY
OFTHECOLORADO
SCHOOL
OF MINTS

depth of chargeaccordingto Equation (2-3), while in practicewe must

take into consideration
sizeeffectsand fluctuation(Hino, 1954,p. 244) of
data appropriateto the mechanism
of craterformationby slabs.
THEORY

AND

PRACTICE

OF COYOTE

BLASTING

As coyoteblastingis of the biggestscalewe musttake into consideration size or scaleeffectsof blasting, that is, the tensilestrengthof rock
St in fundamentalequationsof the shock-wave
theory of blastingis no
more a constantbut becomesa sensiblefunctionof size of specimen.The
relationmayberepresented
by Davidenkov-Fisher
relation:
St -- Stodr -3/m . ..................
(3-2)
As weightof chargeW is:

W=-4 :a3A
3

.............................................

(3-3)

where/ --- loadingdensityof explosive

we find from (3-1), (3-2) and (3-3):
3

-a/- Rf.a
q-1
W--- Adf
3('Stodf

1+

..................

orW= const.
d?-"-)

(3-4)

(3-4)'

Experiments
on cratersshow:
W -- const.dr 2. ...................

(3-5)

Fromequation(3-1) and (3-3) theshockwavetheoryof blastinggivesthe

classicalcubic law (Hauser's formula):

W:

const.drs ...................

(3-6)

while if the decrease

of tensilestrengthwith increaseof sizeof rock specimenis takenintoconsideration
it givesthesquarelaw (3-5).
SpacingScandheightof bankH aregivenby formulas(2-11), (2-12).
Theseformulasbasedon the shock-wave
theory of blastinghave been
successfully
usedin practice.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hino, Kumao, 1953, Theory of blasting, part 1, outline of recent advancesin U.S.:
Jour. of Min. Inst. of Kyushu, Japan, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 102-108. (In Japanese).

Hino, Kumao, 1953a, Theory of blasting, part 2, outline of the principles: Jour. of
Min. Inst. of Kyushu,Japan, vol. 21, no. 4, p. 135-150. (In Japanese).
Hino, Kumao, 1953b, Theory of blasting, part 3, applicationsof the principlesof
"shock wave": Jour. of Min. Inst. of Kyushu, Japan, vol. 21, no. 5, p. 166-171.
(In Japanese).
Hino, Kumao, 1953c,Theory of blasting,part 4, mechanismof crater formationby
slabs: Jour. of Min. Inst. of Kyushu, Japan, vol. 21, no. 6, p. 195-201. (In
Japanese).
*Hino.

in preparation.

Rock

FRAGMENTATION

209

Hino, Kumao, 1953d, Theory of blasting, part 5, miscellaneousproblemsand discussions: Jour. of Min. Inst. of Kyushu, Japan, vol. 21, no. 9, p. 294-304. (In
Japanese).
Hino, Kumao, 1953e, Elementary solution of blasting problems: Tanko-Gijitsu (Coal
Mine Engineering), vol. 8, no. 3, p. 2-4. (In Japanese).
Hino, Kumao, 1953f, Method of designof blastinground: Tobu-Tanko-Gijitsu (Eastern
Coal Mine Engineering),no. 14, p. 18-21. (In Japanese).

Hino, Kumao, 1954, Theory of blasting with concentratedcharge: Jour. of Ind. ExplosivesSoc.,Japan,vol. 15, no. 4, p. 233-249. (In English).
Hino Kumao, 1954a, Theory and practice of no-cut blasting: Jour. of Min. Inst. of
Kyushu,Japan,vol. 22, nol 11, p. 350-360. (In Japanese).
Hino, Kumao, 1955, Concentrated type of no-cut round of blasting: Jour. of Ind.
ExplosivesSoc.,Japan, vol. 16, no. 3, p. 166-179. (In English).
Hino, Kumao, 1955a, Theory and practice of coyoteblasting: Jottr. of Min. Inst. of
Kyushu, Japan, vol. 23, no. 10, p. 469-476. (In Japanese).
Hino. Kumao, 1956, Fragmentation of rock through blasting: Jour. of Ind. Explosives
Soc.,Japan,vol. 17, no. 1, p. 2-11. (In English).
Hino, Kumao, in preparation,Theory and practice of coyoteblasting: Jour. of Ind.
ExplosivesSoc.,Japan. (In English).

Livingston,C. W., 1951. An introductionto the designof undergroundopeningsfor

defense:ColoradoSchoolof Mines Quart., vol. 46, no. 1.