Production Layout

1.0

1.1

Introduction

Production Layout
Line Layout (Figure 1 adapted from [1])

Generally the public tend to look on mass production as the predominant type of
manufacture. This entails the large scale manufacture of a large number of identical
items over a long period of time, each time visiting every manufacturing stage of the
process.
However, since large varieties of parts are required in small quantities, batch
manufacture dominates. Indeed this type of manufacture accounts for approximately
80% of manufacturing throughput in this country.
Batch manufacture entails the manufacture of a group of identical components in a
predetermined sequence of operations. Batch sizes can range from 1-10000
depending on the part requirements and the resources available. The physical
component sizes dealt with can vary enormously.
Very small batches of, say, 1-5 components may be machined, processed or
assembled in a job shop. This is sometimes categorised separately from batch
manufacture, however, since modern manufacturing methods are driving companies
towards very small batch sizes this is tending to become outdated.

Line layout (or flow line layout) is traditionally used in industries where batch
quantities are high or parts produced either vary slightly in form or regularly use the
same sequence of work centres and tooling. The resources are laid out in the order of
usage and machine loads and outputs are well balanced to minimise stockpiling of
WIP between work-stations.

As a batch passes through the various manufacturing operations (defined by the

process plan) the set times, machining times and queuing times experienced will vary.
These will depend on the manufacturing method and resources used along with the
current state of the production facility.

This form of workshop organisation is normally associated with a quick turn-around

and small set-up times and costs in relation to overall manufacturing costs. It is
viewed as being the ideal type of layout in which to run a batch manufacturing
facility.

Three main types of shop floor layout relating to batch production exist. These are:

1.2

Functional Layout (Figure 2 adapted from [1])

(a) Line layout;

(b) Function layout;
(c) Group or Cellular layout.
The type of layout chosen or implemented by a company may depend on a number of
factors such as:
(a) the products manufactured;
(b) the manufacturing requirements of the process;
(c) the current or predicted state of the market;
(d) Company history and practice.

Functional layout is the traditional approach to organising a batch manufacturing

workshop. All work centres are grouped together according to function or type.
Each manufacturing section specialises in only one part of the process. Each batch
may visit or even re-visit some or all of the sections before completion.

This form of layout dates back to the early industrial revolution when work centres
were much more expensive than labour. It was therefore important to have them
installed quickly and operating at full capacity. Parts flow was not as important as
2

Production Layout
work centre payback. The layout was also enhanced by the use of overhead line belt
drives, which serviced similar machine or work centre types (Figure 3).

Production Layout
(e) Due to the long lead times short term forecasting, vital to any business in the
modern competitive market, is very difficult. Thus a large amount of flexibility in
product delivery is lost.
(f) Heavy setting costs imply large batch sizes to help recover costs. As a
consequence of this lead times are increased further. This in turn makes the
problems outlined in (b), (c) and (d) even greater.

When work centres, particularly machine tools, were fitted with their own power
sources, such as electric motors, this type of layout was well established and the
simplest solution for siting a new machine was to put it next to a similar resource.

Computerised production management procedures can help companies overcome

many of these disadvantages. However, this is not a panacea and many firms are
forced to look at alternative forms of factory layout and different manufacturing
philosophies.
1.3

The main advantages of this type of layout are:

(a) a wide range of parts and batch sizes can be made with no need to rearrange
facilities;
(b) total flexibility in terms of manufacturing method and expansion;
(c) major design and method changes are easily dealt with (as long as the machining
Envelope is adhered to.

Group Technology (GT) (Figure 5 adapted from [1])

Also known as Cellular Manufacturing, GT was developed to overcome many of

the major disadvantages inherent in functional layout, the following description is
adapted from [1] and [3]. The aim is to achieve, as far as possible, the advantages of
mass production in a batch manufacturing environment.

However a large number of key disadvantages exist.

(a) The throughput time for the average batch through a layout of this kind can be
broken down as shown in Figure 4 (adapted from [1]).

Large queuing and transit times dominate. Only a small percentage of the overall
batch lead time is spent on actual machining.
This implies that, although savings can be made in machining time by applying
modern manufacturing techniques, standardising on set up times, etc., the most
beneficial way to approach the reduction of lead times within existing resources is to
tackle transit and queuing times.
(b) Excessive WIP results and a need exist to invest in large WIP stocks, tool stocks,
etc. This type of layout is characterised by utilising a central store for WIP
storage, issuing and control.
(c) Complex material flow exists even for the most simple of batches as is illustrated
by the diagram shown in Figure 2.
(d) As a result a large investment in indirect labour for batch progress chasing and
movement is necessary along with a complex production control system.

Each cell or group of workers specialise in the manufacture of a particular family of

components. This may be geometrically based, manufacturing resource based or
both. A cell is equipped with all the work centres, processes and tooling required to
complete all family components.
In many cases the number of work centres may outnumber the number of men and the
acceptance of a certain amount of idle capacity is common.
The main aim of this approach is to achieve the advantages of mass production in a
batch production environment.
The application of GT is usually accompanied by changes to order scheduling
patterns, working practices, and physical shop floor layout.

Production Layout
The main advantages in this type of approach to laying out a manufacturing facility
are as follows:
(a) Throughput times are considerably reduced due to reductions in transit and
queuing times. The geography of the component as it passes through each stage
of the manufacturing process is severely restricted.
(b) The above leads to good short term scheduling

Production Layout
or parts. Any combination of features could be manufactured as long as they were
within the overall manufacturing envelope of the tooling and associated
manufacturing facility. Figure 6 (adapted from [2]) illustrates this application for a
quick-change turret lathe.

(c) Large reductions in WIP are obtained there is no need for centralised coordination of work.
(d) Component similarity leads to greater operator familiarity, standardised set-ups
and process sequences. This in turn improves quality, reduces non-productive
time and manufacturing facilities, batch turn-around and output. Tooling costs
also reduce substantially due to the components being designed for standard
process sequences and tooling families.
(e) Production control is much easier due to the restricted part geography.
(f) More operator job satisfaction exists due to the fact that a team of workers is
involved product manufacture from start to finish.
(g) The responsibility for delivery, quality and output falls on the cell supervisor.
A number of disadvantages are also apparent; some of these may not be viewed as
such in relation to the overall performance of the business.
(a) Some flexibility is lost in relation to handling design changes. However, this
depends on the part families chosen. With the advent of numerical control (NC)
systems, particularly CNC machine tools, greater varieties of parts can be
manufactured in more general GT families.
(b) Major analysis of component geometry or manufacturing process routes along
with the possible physical reorganisation of the manufacturing facility is required.
Many companies have, however, achieved benefits from a GT policy without the
latter.
(c) Some secondary facilities within groups may not be fully utilised, this requires a
more highly trained workforce and a flexible work pattern depending on the cell
work load. This can also lead to greater job satisfaction for individual workers.
(d) As a consequence of (c) major retraining will be required.
(e) High level commitment is necessary.
2.0
Applying GT
GT can be applied within a company in a number of different ways and at a number of
different levels in relation to the manufacturing process.

However, this approach did not tackle the underlying problem of queuing and transit
time, inherent in functional layout. To overcome this secondary resources were
grouped alongside key work centres to form cells of machines, i.e. cellular layout
was developed (Figure 7).
This was then applied to other manufacturing
environments, such as assembly. Manufacturing resources are positioned such that the
maximum benefit of material flow will be obtained for the majority of parts within the
GT family. Batches may visit some or all of the resources within a cell depending on
the operations to be carried out.

The single machine approach [2] incorporates tooling, fixturing and machining
methods standardisation. This was the initial approach to GT and was aimed at
obtaining set-up and unit manufacturing time reductions at the individual machine or
process level. A composite component would be developed for a geometric family
5

Production Layout

Production Layout

2.1 Choosing Cells

The single machine approach can also be applied to selected machines or processes
within a GT cell, this is incorporated once the general family is known and tooling
and fixturing is at a stage where it can be rationalised.
Ideally within this environment line flow layout cells are preferred. It is also
interested to note that some companies also have functional layout cells containing
small numbers of similar work centre types.
The families of parts or assemblies chosen can be design or production based (Figure
8 and Figure 9, from [4]).

Cells can be chosen in a number of ways depending on the data available, the product
mix and the companys requirements.
Three main methods exist as described:
(a) Empirically or by eye for a simple product or component mix some geometric
or manufacturing families are obvious.
(b) Using a classification code (see Figures 10 [5] and 11 [3]). Part geometry,
manufacturing method or both can be classified and codes sorted to determine the
preferred part families.

Production Layout

Production Layout

10

Production Layout
(c) Using component process plans. A typical process plan showing the relevant
information required for GT analysis is shown in Figure 12 [3].

Production Layout

Information relating to future product requirements is also necessary. This enables

capacity requirements for both human and production resources to be determined.
One of the most common analytical techniques applied in this area is Production
Flow Analysis (PFA). This is a progressive analysis based on the application of five
sub-techniques. These are outlined in Figure 13 (adapted from [1]).

This can become very difficult when the number of process plans analysed increases
to more than, say, one hundred. Computerisation can certainly carry out the process
much more quickly and accurately (Figure 15 [3]), cluster analysis, etc. is possible
(see [4]).

Within this approach there is a drive towards flow based manufacturing. PFA can be
carried out manually; however, group analysis in particular lends itself to
computerisation. An example of a manual analysis is illustrated in Figure 14.

11

12

Production Layout

3.0

Production Layout

Advanced Manufacturing Technology and GT

The introduction and utilisation of NC machine tools within a cellular manufacturing

environment helps enhance the GT layout. They act as key work centres serving
secondary machines or processes where required. The same may also apply to robotic
systems feeding manual assembly environments.
A number of operational factors relating to NC machine tools are also relevant to GT,
e.g. standardising tooling and fixturing, combining more than one operation into one
set up, increasing throughput and productivity, enabling the manufacture of more
general component families, enhancing any existing design for manufacturing
(DFM) policy.
In the GT context secondary or support work centres must be placed nearby the main
NC machine tools, as they are great work generators. Examples of some typical NC
cell layouts are given in Figure 16.

Indeed, it was the application of many of these developments to cellular layout which
eventually caused GT systems to evolve into flexible manufacturing systems (FMS)
and flexible manufacturing cells (FMC). However, not every company can afford
or justify these modern systems, therefore traditional GT applications are just as
relevant to modern manufacturing facilities.
The flexibilities of various types of manufacturing processes are illustrated
traditionally pre-1990s as shown in Figure 17 (adapted from [7]. As the production
volume increases the trend is towards special purpose machines or processes.

As product families, tooling and set-ups are standardised and the number of
operations required decrease, cell systems can be extended in a number of ways:
(a) by introducing automated work handling;
(b) by fitting machines with large standard tooling magazines;
(c) quicker generation of NC machine control data;
(d) standardising on production sequences;
(e) introducing DNC (direct or distributed numerical control);
(f) computerising production control and scheduling procedures.

13

14

Production Layout
Nowadays, we can modify this diagram to take the form in Figure 18.

Production Layout
Turned parts tend to be held once they have been positioned in the chucks or collets of
machines. Components produced from bar stock can be easily handled using bar feed
mechanisms although subsequent operations may present similar problems to chucked
components. Robots used in conjunction with loading chutes and inter-work centre
conveyors are the most likely options for a turned part cell or system. The main
problems are when work piece diameters change and a change of chuck, chuck jaws
or collets is required. Although jaw-changing systems do exist they can be very
expensive.
Worn tools can be monitored and automatically changed if required, this is however
easier on turning centres than on machining centres. For the latter duplicate tools may
also be needed.

FIGURE 18

3.1

Flexible Manufacturing Cells and Systems (FMC and FMS)

Flexible manufacturing (or machining) cells and systems are a logical evolutionary
step where GT developments have been combined with the introduction of machining
or assembly centres, automatic work piece handling, computer aided production
scheduling, etc. [8].
Although dedicating a machine tool to a restricted range of components, that make up
a particular family, implies that all tooling, work handling and work holding
equipment will be chosen and tailored to suit the family requirements; the term
flexible has been adopted to differentiate it from the much more exclusive
dedication associated with mass production flow lines and to emphasise that this type
of set-up is geared towards handling various batches quantities in random order if
required.
As well as selecting the key machining centres to suit the component family
requirements and demand the computer numerical control (CNC) controllers must
also have enough memory space to store all the required programs for all family
members or be linked to a central computer via a DNC link. The distribution of this
information may then subsequently be controlled by a computerised production
management system.

When machine tools within FMSs or FMCs are run automatically, without immediate
manual supervision, tool condition monitoring becomes critical if failures are not to
cause expensive damage. Indeed, monitoring of all DNC connected resources within
such systems should be possible as should updating the central production
management system on batch completion, machine breakdowns, etc.
The main difference between FMSs and FMCs tends to be defined in the level of
control built into the set up. If the CNC controllers, robots, conveyors, AGVs, etc. are
linked directly and controlled by the central computer which, in turn, keeps track of
all components and events within the system - and it can instantly respond to a sudden
change in the environment (e.g. work centre breakdown, job scrapped, etc.) - then it
can be said to be truly flexible. FMSs incorporate very high levels of automation.
FMCs tend to be more independent from the rest of the production facility and are not
as capable at coping with dramatic changes in demand and operation.
Typical schematic diagrams of FMCs and an FMS are shown below in Figures 19 and
20 adapted from [8].

Machining centres for milling and drilling are rarely, if ever, mixed with turning
centres in the same cell. This is because prismatic parts seldom require turning
operations and vice versa. The tendency is now for turned parts which require
secondary milling, drilling and tapping to be machined using powered tooling on the
turning centre itself. Indeed, modern machines enable second sided machining to be
carried out as well.
Work piece handling and holding also depends on whether prismatic or turned parts
are involved.
Prismatic parts may be located and clamped to a pallet or universal fixture or similar
and should subsequently not require further changes in set up during batch
manufacture. Depending on the level of mechanisation, the pallet may be transported
using roller track conveyors, powered conveyors, tracked trolleys, wire guided
vehicles (WGV) or automatic guided vehicles (AGV). Robots may be used for
loading/unloading and cleaning fixtures before and/or after machining is complete.
15

FIGURE 19

16

Production Layout

FIGURE 20

REFERENCES
(1)
The Introduction of Group Technology
John L Burbidge
Heinemann (1975)
(2)

The Scientific Principles of Group Technology

S P Mitrofanov (University of Leningrad)
British National Lending Library (1986) Translation

(3)

The Development of a New Cellular Manufacturing Analysis Technique

and its Application within an Engineering Company
James M Ritchie
MSc Thesis, Heriot-Watt University (1984)

(4)

Group Technology Production Methods in Manufacture

C C Gallagher, W A Knight
Ellis Horwood (1986)

(5)

MICLASS Instruction Manual, MICLASS Ltd., 1993.

(6)

Group Technology in the Engineering Industry

John L Burbidge
MEP, 1979

(7)

Manufacturing Technology: Volume 2

R L Timings and S P Wilkinson
Longman, 2000

(8)

Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

S Kalpakjian
Addison-Wesley, 1985.
17