StressAnalysisofPiping

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The analysis of piping under pressure, weight and thennal expansion is complex. This complexity can be
understoodbyknovledgeofPrincipalAxisSystem.
StressisconsideredastheratioofForcetoArea.Tofindthestressinthesmallelement,saycubeofapieceof
pipe,constructathreedimensional,mutuallyperpendicularprincipalaxissystemwitheachaxisperpendicular
tothefaceofthecubeitintersects.
Eachforce,actingonthecubecanberesolvedintoforcecomponents,actingalongeachoftheaxis.Eachforce,
actingonthefaceofthecubedividedbyareaofthecubefaceiscalledtheprincipalstress.
The principal stress acting along the centerline of the pipe is called Longitudinal principal stress. This stress is
causedbylongitudinalbending,axialforceloadingorpressure.
Radialprincipalstressactsonalinefromaradiallinefromcenterofpipethroughthepipewall.Thisstressis
compressive stress acting on pipe inside diameter caused by internal pressure or a tensile stress caused by
vacuumpressure.

Circumferentialprincipalstress,sometimescalledHooportangentialstress,actsalongthecircumferenceofthe
pipe.Thisstresstendstoopenupthepipewallandiscausedbyinternalpressure.
Whentwoormoreprincipalstressesactatapointonapipe,ashearstresswillbegenerated.
LongitudinalPrincipalstress,LPS=PD/4T
CircumferentialPrincipalstress,CPS(Hoop)=PD/2T
RadialPrincipalstress,RPS=P

FailureTheories
The Code presents equations for detennining the stress levels in a piping system & provides stress limits for
comparison.Thesetheoriesaremaximumprincipalstressfailuretheory&maximumshearstressfailuretheory.
The maximum principal stress failure theory states that when anyone of the three mutually perpendicular
principalstressesexceedtheyieldstrengthofthematerialattemperature,failurewilloccur.
The maximum shear failure theory states that when the maximum shear stress (arithmetic average of largest
minussmallestprincipalstresses)exceedsonehalftheyieldstrengthofthematerialattemperature,failurewill
occur.

StressTypes

TheB31.3Codeprovidesdesignguidanceforprimary&secondarystresses.Thebasiccharacteristicofaprimary
stressisthatitisnotselflimitinI!...\5longastheloadisapplied,thestresswillbepresent&willnotdiminish
\\~thtimeorasdefonnationtakesplace.Thefailuremodeofaprimarystress.isgrossdefonnationprogressing
to rupture. Examples of a primary stress are circumferential stresses due to internal pressure & longitudinal
bendingstressesduetogravity.Thebasiccharacteristicofasecondarystressisthatitisselflimiting.Thestress
will diminish with time and strain. The failure mode of a secondary stress is small crack leading to leakage.
Secondarystressesareduetocyclicthermalexpansionandcontraction.

WallthicknessforInternalPressure
Calculatetheadequatepipewallthicknessforagivenmaterialanddesignconditions,asfollows:
1.Calculatepressuredesignthicknesstwithformula
t=PxDI[2(SE+PY)]............Eq.(3a)
where
P=internaldesigngaugepressure
D=pipeoutsidediameter
S=ShallowablestressfromAppendixAI,B31.3
E=WeldingQualityfactor
Y=stresstemperaturecompensatingfactorfromtable304.1.1
2.Addthemechanicalcorrosion/erosionallowancesctoobtain
t(m)=t+c
3.Addmilltolerancetot(m)toselectnextcommerciallyavailableschedulewallthickness.
WaItthicknessforExternalPressure:(REA)(ReadwithAppendixA)
The required minimum thickness of a pipe under external pressure is determined as detailed out in ASME
SectionVIIIDivisionIParaUG28forDo/t>10asfollows:
Nomenclature:
A=factordeterminedfrom5UGO28.0
B=factordeterminedfromtheapplicablematerialchartformaximumdesignmetaltemperature.
Do=Outsidediameterofpipeininches.
E=Modulusofelasticityatdesigntemperature.
L=Totallengthofpipe,inchesP=Externaldesignpressure,psi
Pa=Calculatedvalueofthemaximumallowableexternalworkingpressurefortheassumedvalueoft,
psiT=minimumrequiredthicknessofpipe,inches
Procedure
Assumeavaluefort&determineratiosLIDo&Dolt.IfLIDo>50,assume50&LIDo<0.5,assume0.5.
1.Enterfigure5UGO28.0,Appendix5atthevalueofLIDo.

2.MoveverticallytothegraphedlineontheDoltgraphforthevalueofUDo.ThereareseveralgraphsinSection
VIII.Selectthegraphforthematerialunderconsideration.Fromthepointofintersection,movehorizontallyto
thelefttodeterminethevalueoffactorA.
3.EnterthevalueofAintheapplicablematerialgraph&moveverticallytoanintersectionwiththeline.Where
thevalueofAfallstotherightoftheline,assumeanintersectionwiththehorizontalprojectionoftheupperend
ofline.ForvalueofAfallingtotheleftofthelinerefer5below.
4. Move horizontally from the intersection to the left to find the value of factor B. Calculate the value of
maximumallowableexternalpressureusingfollowingformula:Pa=4B/3(Do/t)
5.FortlevaluesofAfal1ingtotheleftofthelinementionedin3above,calculatePausingfollowingformula:Pa
=2AE/3(Do/t)
6.IfPa<P,selectalargervalueoftandrepeattheentireproceduretillPa2:P.

DesignofMiters(ReadwithAppendixB)
Miter bends have pressure limitation, as calculated by equations (4a, 4b & 4c of 304.2.3 of B31.3) A miter is
defined as an angle offset greater than three degrees. Multiple miters, whose miter cut angle is less than 22.5
degreesarelimitedtoapressurethatwillgeneratehoopstressesnottoexceed50%oftheyieldstrengthofthe
material at temperature. This is done by restricting the maximum pressure to the lesser value as calculated by
equation (4a) or (4b) in the code. Single miters or miters whose bend angle is greater than 22.5 degrees are
limitedtohoopstressesof20%ofthematerial:ieldstrengthattemperaturebyequation(4c).

Inalltheequationsabove,Tispurchaseorderthicknessi.e.Nominalthicknesslessmilltolerance.

DesignofBranchConnections(ReadwithAppendixC)
The amount of required pressure reinforcement is determined by performing area replacement calculations
(304.3.3). Area replacement calculations are not required for unlisted tee intersections, provided the tee
componentmeetsatleastoneofthefollowingrequirements:
1.Duplicatingasuccessfuloperatingsystem.
2.Experimentalstressanalysis.
3.Prooftest.
4.Detailedfiniteelementstressanalysis.
TheB3I.3proceduresforreplacementcalculationsarevalidfortheconditions:
1.Thecenterlineofthebranchpipemustintersectthecenterlineoftherun.

Intersections that do require reinforcement calculations (those that ale not qualified by 304.7.2 or by being
listed),arequalifiedbysummingalltheintegralmetalaroundtheintersection,(withinaprescribedboundary),
(reinforcementarearea)thatisbeyondthatrequiredtocontainpressureandcomparingthatsumtothemetal
arearemovedtomaketheintersection.
Referringfig.304.3.3Branchconnectionnomenclature,

BlindFlanges
Blindflangesareusedtostoptheflowofcontentofpiping.Theyareexposedtofulllongitudinalpressureforce.
B31.3providesanequationtocalculatethethicknessofblindasfollows:

FlexibilityAnalysisOfPipingSystems
The safety of a piping system subjected to a temperature change and resulting thermal displacement is
determinedbyaflexibilityanalysistoinsureagainstfollowing:
1.Overstrainofpipingcomponents
2.Overstrainofsupportingstructures
3.Leakageatjointsand
4.Overstrainofconnectingequipmentwithoutmaterialwaste.

Compliance with B31.3 Code flexibility analysis is a requirement of most petroleum and chemical plant piping
installations.Thecodeplacestheonusofthisanalysisonthedesignerandholdsthedesignerresponsibletothe
ownerforassuringthatalltheengineeringdesigncomplieswiththerequirementsoftheCode.
The code is clear as to which piping systems require an analysis, all systems require an analysis with the
exceptionofthefollowing.(319.4.1)
1.Thosethatareduplicatesofsuccessfullyoperatinginstallations.
2.Thosethatcanbejudgedadequatebycomparisonwithpreviouslyanalysedsystemsand
3.Systemsofuniformsizethathavenomorethantwoanchorpoints,nointermediaterestraintsandfallwithin
limitationofthefollowingequation.

Where
D=Outsidediameterofthepipe,in.(mm.)
Y=Resultanttotaldisplacementstrains,in(mm),tobeabsorbedbythepipingsystem.
L=Developedlengthofpipingbetweenanchors,ft(m).
U=Anchordistance,straightlinebetweenanchors,ft(m).
K1=0.03forU.S.customaryunits(208.3forSIUnits).
The allowable stress range, SA [302.3.4 (d)] is the stress limit for those stresses that are repeated and cyclic in
nature.Itistheallowablestresstobecomparedtothecalculateddisplacementstressrange,SE(319.4.4).
Theallowablestressrangeispresentedbytwoequations.
Equation(1a):
SA=f(1.25SC+0.25Sh).
Andequation(1b):
SA=f[1.25(SC+Sh)S1]
ScandSharethebasicallowablestressesforthecoldandhotconditions.TheirvaluesarefoundinB31.3appendixA
table A1. For cryogenic or cold pipe service, SC is taken at operating temperature and Sh is taken at the
installedtemperature.fisthestressrangereductionfactorpresentedinB31.3table302.3.5orequation(1c).SL is
thelongitudinalstressinthesustainedloadcondition.

DisplacementStressRange
The displacement stress range SE is the calculated range of secondary stress a piping system will generate when
subjectedtothermalexpansionorcontraction.Pressureandweighti.e.primarystressesarenotconsideredinthis
evaluation. This value is compared with allowable stress range, SA.TheB31.3 equation for the displacement
stressrangeis

ColdSpring
Coldspringinapipingsystemistheintentionaldeformationofthepipingforthepurposeofreducingpipeend
reactionsonsupportsandequipment.Thisdeformationisintroducedduringfabricationanderectionbycutting
thepipelengthlongorshort,dependingontheexpectedthermalexpansion.Piningsystemsoperatingabovethe
installedtemperaturewouldbecoldsprungbyshorteningthepipelengthbyanamountequaltoorlessthanthe
expectedthermalexpansion.ThethermalreactionisreducedtoalowervalueRmbytheequation.
Rm=R(10.66C)Em/En
Where
R=reactionforcefromthermalanalysis.
Em=modulusofelasticityatmaximumtemperature
En=modulusofelasticityatoperatingtemperature
C=Coldspringfactorvaryingfrom0(nocoldspring)to1.0(100%coldspring.)
Coldspringistheprocessofoffsettingorpreloadingthepipingsystemwithdisplacementloadsi.e.cuttingshortor
longthepipebetweentwoanchors.

OccasionalLoadStresses:
Occasional load stresses in piping systems are the some of those stresses caused by loads such as relief valve
discharge,windandearthquake.Thesearecalculatedconsideringthe:
a.Pipedeflectioncausedbywindloadactingasahorizontalconstantpressureontheoutsidesurfaceofpipe
or
b.Pipedeflectioncausedbyearthquakeloads,actingasahorizontalorverticalaccelerationofthemassorweight.
The wind and ear thquake loads need not be considered as acting simultaneously. The allowable loads for
occasionalloads,SOL,summedupwiththestressesduetosustainedloads,SL,is1.33Shi.e.SOL+SL1.33Sh.

MaximumSpanforPiping:
Theempiricalformulaforcalculatingmaximumspanis

Where
L=spaninmetres
S=safestressinKg/cm2.(i.e.longitudinalstressduetointernalpressure.)
Z=Pipesectionmodulusincm3.
W=uniformlydistributedloadinKg/m.
TheuniformlydistributedloadW=weightofpipe+weightofmedium+weightofinsulation(allpermlength.)

ThermalExpansionAnalysis:
SimplifiedAnalysis
Simplified analysis is based on guided cantilever method. Guided cantilever isa cantilever restrained by guides at
freeendinsuchawaythatitsfreeendwillnotrotatewhendeflecteddirectionperpendiculartolongitudinalaxis.
Theguidesthemselvesdisplacealongwithfreeend.Inthiscase,bendingmomentMisgivenby

M=6EI/L2
Where
M=Bendingmoment
E=Modulusofelasticity
I=MomentofInertia
=Deflectionperpendiculartoaxis
L=Lengthofspan
Corresponding stress S = iM/Z, I = Stress intensification factor Analysis of Thermal Displacements and
ExpansionMovements
Threesimplerulesarequitehandyinthisanalysis.
1. For a coplanar piping, thermal movement of pipe perpendicular to the axis depends upon to. length of
pipingirrespectiveofpipingrouting.

ExpansionatpointBinboththecasesissame.
2. For a vertical stretch of piping of length L, if two anchored horizontal segments of lengths m and are
connectedthen,thenildisplacementpointdivideslengthlintherationm:n.

Also,theverticalexpansionisintheratioofm:n.
3. Displacement triangle rule for a pipe: If is displacement of one end y with respect to other a, then
displacementatanypointwillbesuchthat

SlopeforPiping
Topreventpocketingofwaterorcondensateatlowpointofthepipe,thepipemustbeslopedsuchthatSlope=
4whereisthedeflectionofpipe.

ExpansionJoints:
Expansionjointsareusedforfollowingreasons:
1.Reduceexpansionstresses
2.Reducepipingreactionsonconnectedequipment
3.Reducepressuredropinsystembyavoidinglongexpansionloops
4.Isolatemechanicalvibration
VarioustypesofExpansionJointsareusetotakecareofdisplacementsin
a.Axial
b.Lateral

c.AngularRotationand
d.Torsion
Proper guide spacing is essential for successful operation of Expansion Joints. The Expansion Joint
Manufacturers Association Inc. (EJMA), a US based body, recommends a guide spacing from expansion joint
basedonthepipediameter,D,asfollows:
Firstguideatadistanceof4Dfromthejoint
Secondguideatadistanceof14Dfromfirstguide
Iftheinbuiltflexibilityofthepipingsystemisnotadequatetotakecareofthermalexpansion,thepipingsystem
wouldbesubjectedtostressesexceedingyieldpointlimit,causingplasticdeformationandpermanentdamageof
thesystem.Expansionjointareemployedinsuchcases.Theyarecapableofabsorbingthethermaldeflections/
expansionsinamannersafeguardingthepipingsystem.
Thereare3typesofexpansionjointscommonlyused.
1.Sliptype/telescopetype.
2.Corrugatedtype/bellowstype
3.Expansionloops
1.SlipType/TelescopeType
It consists of a slipelement sliding telescopically within fixed piping, serving as outer jacket. The lean path
between jacket and slip element is sealed using packing materials. Compatible with the fluid a operating
temperatures.
Thistypeofjointhasfollowingcharacteristics:
a)Sincetheleaktightnessisobtainedbythepacking,itresultstwocontradictoryrequirements.
i.Forproperleaktightnessahightighteningpressureisrequired.
ii.Foreasymovementsoftelescopesleeve,lowtighteningpressureisrequired.
Inactualpracticetherefore,thereislimitforapplyingtighteningpressureandthusaperfectleakproc..point
cannotbeobtained.
Thereforeitisnotsuitableforzeroleakageoperations(i.e.fortoxicchemicalradioactiveservicesetc.)
b)Packingmaterialwearsoutduetocyclicmovementofthesleeve,causingcontaminationofpackingmaterial.
Itthereforerequiresperiodicreplacement/maintenanceandcontaminationmakesunsuitablefor
food/pharmaceuticalservices.
c)Requireshighlyaccuratealignmentofpipingoneithersidetoensureuniformtightnessallaround.
d)Packingmaterialsbeingessentiallynonmetallicelements,ithasitsownlimitationsforpressuretemperature
applications.

e)Suitableonlyforaxialexpansion.Anyangular(rotation),lateral(offset)displacementofpipescauseunequal
compressionofpacking&henceleakage.
f)Essentiallysuitableforlowtemp.Lowpressureapplications.
2.BellowsType
Metallic bellows of compatible materials (using stainless steels) and thinner than piping thickness are to
compensatethethermalexpansion.Thicknessofbellowsisoftheorderof1.0to2.0mm.
Bellowtypejointshaveseveraladvantagesovertelescopictype.
a)Nopackingmaterials,hencenopotentialleakagepoints.
b) No contamination problems, no wear and tear of packing and no replacement shutdown changing the
packingmaterials.
c) Can by used in services, which also call for some degree of angular movement or movements, in addition to
axialmovements,Howevercannotabsorbtorsionalmovements.
d)Metalbellowsarethinnerthanpipingmaterials,hencesusceptibletorupturebyoverpressure.
e)Bellowscanalsofailinfatiguedueto:
i.Stressconcentrationatcrestorvalleyofcorrugations.
ii.Repeatedexposuretocyclicstresses.
3.ExpansionLoops
Expansionloopsareofsamepipematerial.Theycanabsorbbendingandtorsionofpipe.Theyaremostsuitable
for high pressure/ temperature applications. However, they occupy larger space and are heavy and bulky.
Althoughseveraltypesofconfigurationsarepossible,themostpreferredisUtypeinsingleplaneortwoplane.

PipeSupports:
Pipesupportsareprovidedasmeanstotransfertosoil:
a.Theloadofpipingsystem(deadload,productload)
b.Loadsduetopressureinducedeffects,vibrations,windetc.
c.Transientloadeffects.
Thepipingsupportingelementsshallbeprovidedinsuchamannerthat:
1.Pipingsupportsdonotcauseexcessiveinterferencewiththermalexpansionandcontractionofpipe,whichis
otherwiseadequatelyflexible.

2. They should not contribute to leakage at joints or excessive stresses at the points where they support piping
system.
3.Besuchthatacompletereleaseoftheloadwillbepreventedintheeventofspringfailures,ortransientloads
imposedonpipingsystem.
Supportscanbebroadlyclassifiedas:
Hangertype(Suspendedfromceiling)
Supportorrestingtype(ongroundorstructure)
Secondarysupports(Notdirectlyattachedtopipe)
Hangerrodsmaybewithorwithoutsprings.Springsarealsousedinrestingtypes.
SpringSupports
Springsupportsareoftwotypes:
Variablesprings
Constantsprings
Constantspringsareusedwhenexpecteddisplacementsareofveryhighmagnitudeand/orsupportsarelocated
nearbycriticalandsensitiveequipmentsuchaspumps,turbinesetc.Thisistopreventloadbeingtransferredto
connectedequipmentafterdisplacement.
Variable springs are used at balance applications. These can be safety used, for variation of loads below 25%.
LoadvariationV,isdefinedas:

V=

x100

(ColdloadHotload=Springratextravel)
Variable springs transfer the differential load (occurring due to displacement) to connected equipment or
adjacentsupports.

Figure 1.3 Chart for determining shell thickness of components under external pressure when constructed of

carbonorlowalloysteels(specifiedminimumyieldstrength24,000psito,butnotincluding,30,000psi)[Note
(1)]

Figure 1.4 Chart for determining shell thickness of components under external pressure when constructed of
carbonorlowalloysteels(Specifiedminimumyieldstrength30,000psiandoverexceptformaterials
withinthisrangewhereotherspecificchartsarereferenced)andtype405andtype410stainlesssteels[Note(1)]
AppendixB

Figure1.5Nomenclatureformiterbends