Study

of Airplane Flight using 2-Dimensional Airfoil Model

Abstract: The optimization of airplane flight performance relies heavily on calculations of
the aerodynamic of an airfoil. Problems related to airfoils and fluid flows are generally
highly complex, involving asymmetrical geometries. Studying airfoils in a two-dimensional
setting using complex plane and conformal mapping allows solving these problems with
simpler geometrics. The motivation behind this research is not just the fascination of flight
but also the heavy mathematical context being applied to materialize flight in wings.
General principle in airfoil lift comes from the Bernoullis principle and potential fluid flow
over the body of an airfoil. To understanding the principle behind lift force exerting on an
airfoil, it is necessary to find the solution of potential flow of ideal fluid around the cylinder
to find the resulting lift force, which is stated by the Kutta-Joukowski theorem. Finally, to
simplify the problem, Joukowski transformation is used to convert a cylinder in two
dimensions to the shape of an airfoil to help relate the solutions found in simple figure to
more complex figure.

Introduction
by using conformal mapping to transform

a simple shape such as cylinder in two-

The field of aerodynamics has a
dimensional plane to the shape of an
wide variety of applications including
airfoil in another plane. The use of
aircraft, rockets, sailboats, and wind
conformal mapping requires function to
turbines. In each of these uses of
be analytic; therefore, it is assumed that
aerodynamics, the most important
the flow of air is ideal fluid.
observation to make is the relation
The simplified system of the wing
between the airfoil and air movement. An
problem does not ease the complexity of
airfoil is a two-dimensional cross section
the problem. To fully approach the
of the wings; the shape of the airfoil
solution, knowledge of Bernoullis
determines the lift exerted on the airfoil
principle, divergence and curl of ideal
in flowing fluid. An aircraft ascends to the
fluid, complex analysis, different potential
sky by speeding through air where the
flows and conformal mapping must be
difference between relative velocity of the
known to understand the lift in terms of
wind across the top surface and the
numbers and behavior. In the following
bottom surface of the wing causes the
section, I will go over the basic principles
lifting movement of aircraft. The size and
and equations that rely on the lift
shape of the wing determines the
calculations. The results section will
maximum speed of the aircraft, and is
provide solution of lift force on a cylinder,
thus a critical aspect of aircraft design.
illustration of conformal mapping of

The purpose of studying airfoil in
simple airfoil, and complex
two dimensions is to simplify the complex
transformation of different shape of an
mathematical methods to solve problems
airfoil. Finally, I will discuss other
involving wings. An attempt to crack
methods such as the thin airfoil theory
calculation for wing lift requires tedious
that has been approached to solve lift
algebra and various long equations. The
calculation in wings.
simplest method to solution was achieved

Material and Methods

The study of lift in airfoil in two
dimensions using conformal mapping is
largely a mathematical explanation of the
behavior between potential flow around
cylinder and airfoil. This method allows
us to relate simple geometric figure of
cylinders to complex airfoil figures. To
understand this approach I will go over
the basic airfoil compartments,
Bernoullis principle, importance of ideal
fluid and Kutta condition, various
potential flows, and Joukowski
transformation.

An airfoil is the shape of a wing in
two-dimensions designed for studying the
interaction of airflow and wings. Figure 1
provides the cross section of airfoil, and
for this paper, angle of attack () will be
important in determining the speed of air
flowing over a wing.

Figure 1: Chord line is the straight line connecting

the leading edge to the trailing edge, which
separates the body into two cambers. The angle of
attack is the angle between the horizontal relative
wind and the chord line. (T. Johnson)

The basic principle behind lift in
wings is explained by the Bernoullis
principle. The lift in wings is generated by
the pressure difference between the
upper surface and the lower surface of a
wing. The difference in pressure is the
result of air flowing at different speed on
the upper and lower surface of wings.
Importantly, the upward tilt (angle of
attack) and the curvature of airfoil
determine the differing speed of airflows.

(P. Hewitt). Figure 2 shows the force

exerted from the incoming relative wind.

Figure 2: Velocity of the wind will be denoted as !

and interacting with the airfoil at angle will
generate force R. Force R is divided into
components L for lift and D for drag. Ideally, L is
favorable to D, as D is undesired to keep the
airplane flying. (T. Johnson)

In order to find the solution to
problem in potential flow around a
cylinder, certain assumption must be
made in order to simplify the
mathematics. First, assume the flow is an
ideal fluid meaning it is a fluid with zero
viscosity, and that it is incompressible
which will keep the density constant.
Although this is not the case for real life,
this assumption can adjust to an accurate
model if two conditions are met. First
condition is called the Kutta condition,
which states that fluid flowing over the
upper and lower surface of airfoil must meet
at the trailing edge. (T. Johnson). Second
condition is that the speed of the flow is
subsonic, which means that the speed is
below the speed of sound so that it does not
interfere the ideal fluid with shocks.
The solution to potential flow around
a cylinder is analytic and calculated to be the
superposition of three simple potential
flows: uniform, doublet, and vortex. The
cylinder is in with components
and to be u and v respectively. The
uniform flow is given to be a flow in
uniform velocity ! = ! !!" ( ! )
with ! and being real. A doublet flow is
where the axis is the line of angle with the
and of moment (strength) M at ! ,
which the potential is

! =

( !" )

( ! ). Finally, for the

vortex of circulation (real) and center at
! , the potential outside a circular barrier of
radius of cylinder a and center ! is
!!
(!!! )
! = !! ! ! . The potential flow
around a cylinder ! then becomes
! = ! ! ! . (R. S. Burington). This
linear combination of flows can be used to
find the velocity of airfoil for lift
calculation.
The conformal mapping used in
transforming a cylinder to the shape of an
airfoil is called the Joukowski
transformation. Joukowski transformation
!
uses equation = + ! , where cylinder in

turns to airfoil in z plane. With

this transformation finding the velocity of
fluid around airfoil for lift calculation
becomes an algebraic problem in converting
! to ! and ! , which is velocity
component in the z plane.

Results


The solution of potential flow of
ideal fluid around a cylinder is used to
relate the flow of fluid around the shape
of an airfoil using conformal mapping.
The non-symmetrical shape of airfoil
requires tedious and complex calculation
that can be simplified using cylinders in
two dimensions.
I stated that the potential flow is
analytic, and this is proved based on the
fact that the fluid is incompressible which
gives us the fact that velocity v has
divergence equal to zero, = 0. The
lack of frictional force in the flow makes
the flow irrotational, which the curl of
velocity in potential flow equal to zero,
= 0. Vector field can be expressed
as the gradient of scalar potential
function such that = . The
gradient of scalar potential function is

then substituted then = 0, which

becomes ! = 0 (Laplaces equation).
This proves that the potential function is
harmonic and general formula under
becomes
= , + , where , is
the velocity potential and , is
stream function. (R.S. Burington).
The solution to the potential flow
(! = ! + ! ) is found to be ! = !
! ! . Now we can properly model the
flow around cylinder by requiring the
flow across the boundary of the cylinder
! = !" be zero. (T. Johnson). This
means that the imaginary part of ! is
zero (! = 0) and the moment becomes
= ! ! . (R. S. Burington). The velocity
of this flow then becomes
!"
!" = ! !
and by the Bernoullis equation,
!"
!

! !!

(! ! )! = ! + ! = . R is

the total force from the addition of drag

(! ) and lift (! ). If the angle of attack is
!!!

!!

zero, then ! = ! ! (1 + ! ! ) where the

circular boundary (r) equals radius of
cylinder (a) the lift becomes ! = ! .
(T. Johnson). This formula refers to the
Kutta-Joukowski theorem where if the
radius of cylinder represents the
boundary of cross section of an infinitely
long, solid, cylindrical body placed in an
inviscous airstream, then the body will
experience a per unit length lift force of
measure ! at right angle to the
stream. (R. S. Burington). This theorem is
significant because it holds for any simple
body in uniform cross section, which we
may use this result for airfoils.
Lord Rayleigh using Joukowski
transformation did the first mapping from
cylinder to airfoil. Illustrative description
is shown in the figure below.

Figure 4: The top airfoil is the Joukowski airfoil and

the bottom airfoil is achieved using Karman Trefftz
transformation. The difference between the two
airfoils is the shape of the trailing edge. (Wiki).

The mapping equation for Karman-Trefftz

transformation is = (
!

Figure 3: This is the conformal mapping from to

= + . This helps preserve the

angles and the potential flow of fluid around the

shape in two-dimensional plane.

Using the Joukowski transformation, the

velocity of potential flow can be
converted from the cylinder to the airfoil
by dividing the potential function to the
derivative of . ! (Velocity in complex z-
!
!
plane) = !" ! = !! , which can be used to
!"

!! !
!

find other properties of flow such as the

coefficient of pressure or the lift force.
(Wiki).

There are other transformations
other than Joukowski that shapes into
similar but different airfoils. Joukowski
transformation maps an airfoil with a
cusp shape at the trailing edge, but it can
be found that we can map an airfoil with a
non-zero angle at the trailing end using
the transformation called Karman Trefftz.
(Wiki)

!
!
!
!
! !
! !
(!! ) !(!! )
!
!

(!! )! !(!! )!

where n = 2 !, and is the trailing edge

angle. (Wiki). Similarly, to find the
velocity in the respective plane, we take
the potential function and divide it by the
derivative of z.

Discussion


Although the principle of lift in
aerodynamics is qualitatively simple, as
shown above, quantitative calculations of
lift can often be difficult and tedious. The
application of conformal mapping to lift
calculations is but one of many examples
of the tremendous utility of complex
analysis in modern technological
advances. The method I have written is
the simplest mathematical method in
calculating lift in airfoil, but even in the
simplest form, one must be
knowledgeable in the field of
aerodynamics, laws of physics involving
fluid flow, and complex variables. Another
way this was approached was using the
thin airfoil theory, which is relating the
angle of attack to lift for incompressible
and inviscid (zero viscosity) fluids. The
theory idealizes imagining airfoil of zero
thickness and infinite wingspan. This
method is similar to the potential flow
theory in that it uses ideal fluid and ideal
situation to simplify the complexity of the
problem. However, the thin airfoil theory
has lift coefficient that uses and applies to
the angle of attack. (A. Mackie). The
importance to this study was relating
math to real life applications. By finding

the mathematical solution to lift in airfoil,

it helped me visualize the behavior of air
flow around wings, which by this
research, it helped me reach closer to
understanding the values of math in real
life application.


Reference

Johnson, T. (2013, June 4). Retrieved from
https://www.math.washington.edu/~mo
rrow/336_13/papers/thomas.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joukowsk
y_transform

Burington, R. S.. (1940). On the Use of
Conformal Mapping in Shaping Wing
Profiles. The American Mathematical
Monthly, 47(6), 362373.
http://doi.org/10.2307/23036

Mackie, A. G.. (1968). Some Comments on
Existence and Uniqueness Theorems in
Applied Mathematics with an Application
to Thin Airfoil Theory. SIAM Review,
10(2), 196207. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2027304

Hewitt, P. G.. (2004). Bernoulli's Principle:
Understanding Bernoulli's principle as it
applies to aerodynamic lift. The Science
Teacher, 71(7), 5155. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/24155514