S.NO.

5
Formation of Bus Admittance Matrix using MATLAB Software

Aim:
To develop a computer program to form the bus admittance matrix, Ybus of a power system.
Theory:
The Ybus /Zbus matrix constitutes the models of the passive portions of the power network. Ybus
matrix is often used in solving load flow problems. It has gained widespread applications owing
to its simplicity of data preparation and the ease with which the bus admittance matrix can be
formed and modified for network changes. Of course, sparsity is one of its greatest advantages as
it heavily reduces computer memory and time requirements. In short circuit analysis, the
generator and transformer impedances must also be taken into account. In contingency analysis,
the shunt elements are neglected, while forming the Z-bus matrix, which is used to compute the
outage distribution factors.
This can be easily obtained by inverting the Y-bus matrix formed by inspection method or by
analytical method. The impedance matrix is a full matrix and is most useful for short circuit
studies. Initially, the Y-bus matrix is formed by inspection method by considering line data only.
After forming the Y-bus matrix, the modified Y-bus matrix is formed by adding the generator
and transformer admittances to the respective diagonal elements and is inverted to form the Zbus matrix.
The performance equation for a n-bus system in terms of admittance matrix can be
written as,
Y .... Y V
Y
I
Y
I
Y .... Y V

. .
. .

. .
.
.
Y
I
Y .... Y V
(or)
I = Ybus.V
The admittances Y11, Y12, Y1n are called the self-admittances at the nodes and all other
admittances are called the mutual admittances of the nodes.
1

11

12

21

22

n 1

n 2

In

2 n

nn

Formulae Used:

Y
n

Main diagonal element in Y-bus matrix =

j 1

ij

Bij

where Bij is the half line shunt admittance in mho.

Yij is the series admittance in mho.
Off-diagonal element in Y-bus matrix , Yij = -Yij

where Yij is the series admittance in mho.

Flowchart:
START

Enter the number of buses,n

and lines
Enter the mutual admittance
between the buses

Set the bus count i =1

i = i +1

Calculate the diagonal term,

Yii = sum of all admittances
connected to bus i.

Is i = n

Calculate the off-diagonal

term, Yij=Negative sum of the
admittances connected from
bus i to bus j.
Compute Z bus matrix by
inverting Y bus matrix
Print Y bus and Z bus matrices

STOP

Algorithm:
Step 1:

Read the values of number of buses and the number of lines of the given
system.

Step 2:

Read the self-admittance of each bus and the mutual admittance between the
buses.

Step 3:

Calculate the diagonal element term called the bus driving point admittance, Yij
which is the sum of the admittance connected to bus i.

Step 4:

The off-diagonal term called the transfer admittance, Yij which is the negative
of the admittance connected from bus i to bus j.

Step 5:

Check for the end of bus count and print the computed Y-bus matrix.

Step 6:

Compute the Z-bus matrix by inverting the Y-bus matrix.

Step 7:

Stop the program and print the results.

Sample Problem:
The bus and branch datas for a 3 bus system is given in table below. Form Y bus matrix by
inspection method.
Bus Code
1-2
13
2-3

Impedance
0.06 + j0.18
0.02 + j0.06
0.04 + j0.12

Bus Number
1
2
3

Admittance
j0.05
j0.06
j0.05

Solution:
Formation of Y bus:

Ybus

1
1

j0.05

0.06 j0.18 0.02 j 0.06

0.06 j0.18

0.02 j0.06

1
0.06 j0.18

1
1

j 0.06
0.06 j0.18 0.04 j0.12

1
0.04 j0.12

0.04 j0.12

1
1

j0.05
0.02 j0.06
0.04 j0.12
1
0.02 j0.06

Theoretical output:

Ybus

6.66 j19.95
1.66 j 5
5 j15

1.66 j 5

4.16 j12.44
2.5 j 7.5

5 j15

2.5 j 7.5
7.5 j 22.45

Result:
The Y bus matrix was formed for the given system by direct inspection method and the results
were verified using MATLAB program.

S.NO.6
Z-bus Building Algorithm using MATLAB Software
Aim:
To develop a computer program to obtain the building algorithm for bus impedance matrix of the
given power system.
Theory:
The Ybus /Zbus matrix constitutes the models of the passive portions of the power network. The
impedance matrix is a full matrix and is most useful for short circuit studies. An algorithm for
formulating [Zbus] is described in terms of modifying an existing bus impedance matrix
designated as [Zbus]old. The modified matrix is designated as [Zbus]new. The network consists of a
reference bus and a number of other buses. When a new element having self impedance Zb is
added, a new bus may be created (if the new element is a tree branch) or a new bus may not be
created (if the new element is a link). Each of these two cases can be subdivided into two cases
so that Zb may be added in the following ways:
1. Adding Zb from a new bus to reference bus.
2. Adding Zb from a new bus to an existing bus.
3. Adding Zb from an existing bus to reference bus.
4. Adding Zb between two existing buses.
Type 1 modification:
In type 1 modification, an impedance Zb is added between a new bus p and the reference bus as
shown in Figure 1
1
n
p

Network
Zb

Vp

Ref. Bus
Figure 1. Type 1 modification of Zbus

Let the current through bus p be Ip, then the voltage across the bus p is given by,
Vp = Ip Zb

The potential at other buses remains unaltered and the system equations can be written as,
V1
0 I1


0 I 2
V2

Z bus old 0


0

V
0 I n
n




V p 0 0 0 0 0 Z b I p
Type 2 modification:
In type 2 modification, an impedance Zb is added between a new bus p and an existing bus k as
shown in Figure 2. The voltages across the bus k and p can be expressed as,
Vk(new) = Vk + Ip Zkk
Vp

= Vk(new) + Ip Zp
= Vk + Ip(Zb + Zkk)

where, Vk is the voltage across bus k before the addition of impedance Zb

Zkk is the sum of all impedance connected to bus k.
1
n
Ik + Ip

Network
Z

Ip

p
Ref. Bus
Figure 2.Type 2 Modification of Zbus

The system of equations can be expressed as,

V1
Z 1k

Z 2k
V2

Z bus old

V Z Z Z Z
kk
b
p k1 k 2

I1

I 2



I
n

I
p

Type 3 Modification:
In this modification, an impedance Zb is added between a existing bus k and a reference bus.
Then the following steps are to be followed:
1. Add Zb between a new bus p and the existing bus k and the modifications are done as in
type 2.
2. Connect bus p to the reference bus by letting Vp = 0.
To retain the symmetry of the Bus Impedance Matrix, network reduction technique can be
used to remove the excess row or column.
Type 4 Modification:
In this type of modification, an impedance Zb is added between two existing buses j and k as
shown in Figure 3. From Figure 3, the relation between the voltages of bus k and j can be written
as,
Vk Vj = IbZb
(3)
1
n
Ij + Ib

Network
Z

Ib

k
Ik - Ib

Ref. Bus
Figure 3.Type 4 Modification of Zbus

The voltages across all the buses connected to the network changes due to the addition of
impedance Zb and they can be expressed as,
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2 + - - - - - - - - + Z1j(Ij + Ib) + Z1k(Ik Ib)+- - V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2 + - - - - - - - - + Z2j(Ij + Ib) + Z2k(Ik Ib)+ - -

Vj = Zj1I1 + Zj2I2 + - - - - - - - - + Zjj(Ij + Ib) + Zjk(Ik Ib) + - - (4)

Vk = Zk1I1 + Zk2I2 + - - - - - - - - + Zkj(Ij + Ib) + Zkk(Ik Ib) + - -

Vn = Zn1I1 + Zn2I2 + - - - - - - - - + Znj(Ij + Ib) + Znk(Ik Ib) + - - -

On solving the Equations (3) and (4), the system of equations can be rewritten as,

 ( Z 1 j Z 1k )
V1

V2

Z bus old

V
( Z kj Z kk )
n

V
Z bb
p ( Z j1 Z k 1 ) ( Z jk Z kk )

I1

I 2



I
n

I
p

(5)

where,
Zbb = Zjj + Zkk 2 Zjk + Zb

Procedure for formation of Zbus matrix:

Step1: Number the nodes of the given network, starting with those nodes at the ends
of branches connected to the reference node.
Step2: Start with a network composed of all those branches connected to the
reference node.
Step3: Add a new node to the i th node of the existing network.
Step4: Add a branch between i th and jth nodes. Continue until all the remaining
branches are connected.
Sample problem:
Form bus impedance matrix using building algorithm:

Solution:
Step1: Add an element between ref (0) bus and a new bus (1).

Z = [j0.2]

Step2: Add an element between existing bus (1) to a new bus (2).

Z=

j 0.2
j 0.2

j 0.2
j 0.6

Step3: Add an element between existing (2) Bus to a ref (0) Bus.

 j 0.2 j 0.2 j 0.2

Z= j 0.2 j 0.6 j 0.6
j 0.2 j 0.6 j 0.8
New Z Bus:
Z11
Z11
Z12

Z22
Z22

= Z11-(Z31*Z13)/Z33
= j0.2 (j0.2*j0.2)/j0.8
= j0.05
=Z21= Z12-(Z32*Z13)/Z33
= j0.2 - (j0.6*j0.2)/j0.8
= j0.05
=Z22-(Z32*Z23)/Z33
=J0.6-(j0.6*j0.6)/j0.8
=j0.15
Z Bus

j 0.05
j 0.05

j 0.05
j 0.15

Result:
The bus impedance matrix using building algorithm for the given system was formed and the
results were verified using MATLAB program.

S.NO.7
Gauss Seidal Load flow analysis using MATLAB software

Aim:
To develop a computer program to solve the set of non linear load flow equations using Gaussseidal load flow algorithm.
Theory:
Load flow analysis is the most frequently performed system study by electric utilities. This
analysis is performed on a symmetrical steady-state operating condition of a power system under
normal mode of operation and aims at obtaining bus voltages and line/transformer flows for a
given load condition. This information is essential both for long term planning and next day
operational planning. In long term planning, load flow analysis helps in investigating the
effectiveness of alternative plans and choosing the best plan for system expansion to meet the
projected operating state. In operational planning, it helps in choosing the best unit
commitment plan and generation schedules to run the system efficiently for them next days load
condition without violating the bus voltage and line flow operating limits.
The Gauss seidal method is an iterative algorithm for solving a set of non- linear
algebraic equations. The relationship between network bus voltages and currents may be
represented by either loop equations or node equations. Node equations are normally preferred
because the number of independent node equation is smaller than the number of independent
loop equations.
The network equations in terms of the bus admittance matrix can be written as,
I bus Ybus Vbus

(1)

For a n bus system, the above performance equation can be expanded as,
I 1 Y11 Y12 Y1 p Y1n V1

Y Y
Y2 p Y2 n V2
22
I 2 12

I
Y p1 Y p 2 Y pp
Y pn V p
p

Ynn Vn
I n Yn1 Yn 2 Ynp
where n is the total number of nodes.
Vp is the phasor voltage to ground at node p.
Ip is the phasor current flowing into the network at node p.

(2)

At the pth bus, current injection:

I p Y p1V1 Y p 2V2 ............ Y ppV p .............Y pnVn

Y pqVq
n

q 1

Y ppV p

Y pqVq
n

q 1
q p

1
Vp
I p Y pqVq ; p 2,....n
Y pp

q 1

q p
At bus p , we can write Pp jQp = V p I p
Hence, the current at any node p is related to P, Q and V as follows:

Ip

(3)

(4)

( Pp jQ p )

( for any bus p except slack bus s)

(5)
V p
Substituting for Ip in Equation (4),

P
jQ

1
p
p
Vp
Y pqVq ; p 2, .....n
(6)

Y pp V p*

q 1

q p
Ip has been substituted by the real and reactive powers because normally in a power system these
quantities are specified.
Algorithm:
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:
next

Read the input data.

Find out the admittance matrix.
Choose the flat voltage profile 1+j0 to all buses except slack bus.
Set the iteration count p = 0 and bus count i = 1.
Check the slack bus, if it is the generator bus then go to the next step otherwise go to

step 7.
Step 6: Before the check for the slack bus if it is slack bus then go to step 11 otherwise go to
next
step.
Step 7: Check the reactive power of the generator bus within the given limit.
Step 8: If the reactive power violates a limit then treat the bus as load bus.
Step 9: Calculate the phase of the bus voltage on load bus

Step 10: Calculate the change in bus voltage of the repeat step mentioned above until all the bus
voltages are calculated.
Step 11: Stop the program and print the results

Flowchart:

FLOWCHART:
Start

Read the input data values

Form Y Bus matrix

Set flat voltage profile 1+j0 except slack bus

Set iteration count, p=0

A

Set the bus count, i = 1

D

Yes
Y

Check for
slack bus

No

It is a load bus
calculate

No

p 1
ical

Check for
Gen bus

Yii

Yes

Q Im Vip Y V Y V

Calculate
p1

* i 1

p1

k 1

ik

k i

ik

Pi jQi j 1
Y
V
Y
V

ik
k
ik
k
*
k 1
j 1

Vi

Yes
Check

Qi

p 1

Qmin

Set
Qi=Qi min

No

Yes
Check

Qi

p 1

Qmax
No
B

Set
Qi=Qi max

Treat this as gen bus & calculate Vpi

i 1
n

1 Pi jQ
p 1
Y
V
Yik Vkp
Vi p 1

ik k
*
Yii Vi
k 1
k i 1

Calculate the change in voltage

Vi p 1

Increment the bus count

No

Check
i n
A

Yes
No

Check
Vi p 1

Increment
iteration count
P = P+1
Yes

Print the result

Stop

Sample Problem:
The load flow data for a 3 bus system is given in tables below. The voltage magnitude at bus 2
is to be maintained at 1.04 p.u. The maximum and minimum reactive power limits for bus 2 are
0.5 to 0.2 respectively. Taking bus 1 as slack bus, determine voltages of the various buses at
the end of first iteration starting with flat voltage profile for all buses except slack bus using
Gauss-Seidal method with acceleration factor of 1.6.

Bus Code
12
13
23
Bus Code
1
2
3

Impedance
0.06 + j0.18
0.02 + j0.06
0.04 + j0.12
Assumed
Voltage
1.06 + j0
1 + j0
1 + j0

Bus Number
1
2
3
Generation
MW
MVAr
0
0
0.2
0
0
0

Admittance
j0.05
j0.06
j0.05
Load
MW MVAr
0
0
0
0
0.6
0.25

Solution:
Formation of Ybus:

Ybus

6.66 j19.95
1.66 j 5
5 j15

1.66 j 5

4.16 j12.44
2.5 j 7.5

5 j15

2.5 j 7.5
7.5 j 22.45

Calculation of Q2:
* n
Q2 = Im V2 YpqVq
q 1

= Im1.04(1.66 j 5)(1.06) (4.16 j12.5)1.04 (2.5 j 7.5)

= Im1.04(1.763 j 5.30) (4.16 j12.5)1.04 (2.5 j 7.5)
= Im0.07 j 0.14
Q2 = 0.14, it violates the limits of the reactive power.
Q2 = Q min = 0.2 as Q2 Qmin
[ If suppose, Q2 Qmax then Q2 = Qmax]
Calculation of Bus voltages:
0 .2 j 0 .2

(1)
V2 = 0.075 71.63
((1.66 j 5)(1.06) (2.5 j 7.5)(10)) Volts
1.04

= 0.075 71.634.452 j12.99

(1)

V2 = 1.047+j 0.007 volts

Accelerated voltage,
(1)
V2 = 1.04+ 1.6(1.047+j0.007 -1.04)
= 1+0.048-j0.048
(1)
V2 =1.0512+j0.0112 Volts

V3 =0.0423 71.49 0.6 j 0.25 ((5 j15)(1.06) (2.5 j 7.5)(1.0512 j 0.0112))

(1)

V3

(1)

= 1.041 j 0.017 Volts

Accelerated voltage,
(1)

V3 = 1+1.6(1.041 j 0.17- 1 )
V 3(1) = 1.0656-j0.272 Volts
Theoretical Output:

(1)

V1=1.06+j0 Volts, V2 =1.0512+j0.0112 Volts, V 3(1) = 1.0656-j0.272 Volts

Result:
The given set of load flow equations for a given power system were solved using Gauss-Seidal
method.

S.NO.8
Newton Rapshson load flow analysis using MATLAB software
Aim:
To develop a software program to obtain real and reactive power flows, bus voltage magnitude
and angles by using N R method.
Theory:
Load flow study in power system parlance is the steady state solution of the power system
network. The main information obtained from this study comprises the magnitudes and phase
angles of load bus voltages, reactive powers at generator buses, real and reactive power flow on
transmission lines, other variables being specified. This information is essential for the
continuous monitoring of current state of the system and for analyzing the effectiveness of
alternative plans for future system expansion to meet increased load demand.
Newton-Raphson method is an iterative method that approximates the set of non linear
simultaneous equations to a set of linear simultaneous equations using Taylors series expansion
and the terms are limited to first approximation. The rate of convergence is fast as compared to
the FDLF program and also it is suitable for large size system. So we go for N-R method.
The non-linear equations governing the power system network are,
I p Y pqV p for all p
pq

where Ip is the current injected into bus p.

The complex power in pth bus is given by,
S p V p I *p

V p Y pqVq
q 1

V p Y pq* Vq* ; p 2, ..................n.

q 1

(1)

Let , V p V p e jp
V q V q e j q

pq p q and

Y pq Y pq e jpq

In polar co-ordinates, the power on pth bus is given as,

S p Pp jQ p V p Vq e j p q | Y pq | e jpq
n

q 1

(2)

Separating the Real and Imaginary parts we get,

Pp
Qp

V p Vq
n

q 1
n

V p Vq

q 1

Y pq cos( p pq q )
Y pq sin( p pq q )

(3)

The Newton Raphson method requires that a set of linear equations be formed expressing the
relationship between the changes in real and reactive powers and the components of the bus
voltages as follows:
(r )
(r)
(r )
(r )
( r )
P2
P2
P2
P2( r ) P2
|

V
V

2
n
n

2

(r )
(r)
(r )
(r )

Pn
Pn
P2
Pn

(r )
P ( r )

V
V

2
2
n
n
n

|
(4)

(r)
(r )
(r )
(r )
(r )
V ( r )
Q2
Q2
Q2
Q2 Q2
2
|

V
V

2
n
n

(r )
(r )
(r )
(r )

Qn
Qn
Q2
Qn

(
)
r

Qn
n
V2
Vn Vn( r )
2

where, the coefficient matrix is known as Jacobian matrix.

In the above equation, bus 1 is assumed to be the slack bus. The Jacobian matrix gives
the linearized relationship between small changes in voltage angle i(r ) and voltage magnitude
Vi r with the small changes in real and reactive power Pi r and Qir . Elements of the

Jacobian matrix are the partial derivatives of (2) and (3) evaluated at ir and Vi r .
The above relationship can be written in a compact form as,
P J11 J12

Q J
21 J 22 V

The elements of Jacobian matrix are defined as,

(5)

J 11 :
Pp

J 22 :

V p V q Y pq sin( pQ
p pq V Yq ) sin( q p )
q p
p
pq
p
pq
q
q
Vq
The elements of jacobian
matrix are defined as
n
Pp
n
Q
V p V q Y pq sin( p p2Vpqp Ypp sin
q ) pp V q Y pq sin( p pq q )
p
q 1
Vp
q 1
q p

J 12 :
Pp

Vq

Vp
Q p
q

Q p
p

q p

2 V p Y pp cos pp V q Y pq cos( p pq q )

J 21 :

q 1
q p

V p V q Y pq cos( p pq q )

V
n

q 1
q p

(7 )

q p

V p Y pq cos( p pq q )

Pp

(6)

q p

V q Y pq cos( p pq q )

on when solved for , V gives the correction to be applied to |V| and , i.e.
|V|(r+1) = |V|(r) + |V|(r)

(r+1) = (r) + (r)

All
quantit
ies in
the
(11)
linear
Equati
on (4)
pertai
n
to
(12 )
iterati
on r.
(13 )
The
linear
equati

(10)

(14)
(15)

Next we get a new set of linear equations evaluated at (r+1)th iteration and the process is
repeated. Convergence is tested by the power mismatch criteria. This method converges to high
accuracy nearly always in 2 to 5 iterations from a flat start (|V| = 1 p.u. and =0 ) for all buses
where |V|, are unknown, independent of system size.
At PV bus at the end of an iteration and if it violates the limits, the PV bus is switched to
a PQ bus. When Q is within limits, then it is switched back to PV bus.

(8)
(9 )

Flowchart:
Start

Read bus data, line data, bus power & tolerance

Form [Y bus ] matrix

Initialize all bus voltages

Set iter count = 0

Iter = Iter +1

Update voltage
magnitude and phase
angles

V V V
at
new

new

old

Calculate real power & reactive power

mismatch [P] [Q] using the current values
of

& V

taking Q limit violations in to

account

old

all buses except slack

bus

No

Ptol
Qtol
Yes

Solve the equation

1 2 P
V Q
3

Calculate real & reactive

line flows in all the lines
Print the result

Solve the equation

P H M
Q N L V


To find & V

Algorithm:

Stop

The computational procedure for Newton-Raphson method using polar coordinate is as follows:
Step 1: Form Ybus matrix.

Step 2: Assume initial values of bus voltages V p o and phase angles op for load buses
and phase angles for PV buses. Normally we set the assumed bus voltage

magnitude and its phase angle equal slack bus quantities V1 = 1.0, 1 =0o.
Step 3: Compute Pp and Qp for each load bus from the Equations (2) and (3).
Step 4: Compute the scheduled errors Pp and Q p for each load bus from the
following relations:

Ppk Pp sp Ppk cal

Q kp Q p sp Q kp cal

p 2,3.....n

p 2,3.....n

For PV buses, the exact value of Q p is not specified, but its limits are known. If
the calculated value of Q p is within limits, only Pp is calculated. If the
calculated value of Q p is beyond the limits, then an appropriate limit is imposed
and Q p is also calculated by subtracting the calculated value of Q p from the
appropriate limit. The bus under consideration is now treated as a load on
(PQ) bus.
Step 5: Compute the elements of the Jacobian matrix using the estimated V p and p
from step2.
Step 6: Obtain and V p from Equations (4) and (5).

Step 7: Using the values of p and V p calculated in step 6, modify the voltage
magnitude and phase angle at all loads by the Equations (14) and (15). Start the
next iteration cycle at step 2 with these modified V p and p .
Step 8: Continue until scheduled errors Ppk and Q kp for all load buses are within a

specified tolerance, ie, Ppk < , Q kp <

where, denotes the tolerance level for load buses.
Step10: Calculate line flows and power at the slack bus exactly in the same manner as in
the Gauss Seidal method.
Sample Problem:
The load flow data for a 3-bus system is given in tables 1 and 2. The voltage magnitude at bus 2
is to be maintained at 1.0 p.u. The maximum and minimum reactive power limits for bus 2 are
0.3 and 0 p.u. respectively. Taking bus 1 as slack bus, determine the voltages of the various

buses at the end of first iteration starting with a flat voltage profile for all buses except slack bus
using N-R method.
Table 1: Impedance for sample system
Bus code
Impedance
Line charging
admittance ypq /2
1-2
0.06+j0.18
j0.05
1-3
0.02+j0.06
j0.06
2-3
0.04+j0.12
j0.05
Table 2: Assumed bus voltages, Generation and loads
Bus code
Voltages
Generation
Load
MW
MVAR MW
p.u
p.u
p.u
p.u
1
1.06
0
0
0
2
1
0.2
0
0
3
1
0
0
0

Solution:
Formation of Ybus :

Ybus

Y11 Y12
= Y21 Y22
Y31 Y32

Y13
Y23
Y33

1
=-(1.667-j5)
0.06 j 0.18
= 5.27 108.4 0

Y12 = -

1
=-(5-j15)
0.02 j 0.06
= 15.81 108.4 0

Y13 = -

1
=-(2.5-j7.5)
0.04 j 0.12
= 7.906 108.4 0

Y23 = -

1
1
+
+ j0.05+j0.06 =6.667-j19.89
0.06 j 0.18
0.02 j 0.06
=21.97 71.50

Y11 =

MVAR
p.u
0
0
0.25

1
1
+
+ j0.05+j0.05 =4.167-j12.4
0.06 j 0.18
0.04 j 0.12
=13.08 71.50

Y22 =

1
1
+
+ j0.06+j0.05=7.5-j22.39
0.02 j 0.06
0.04 j 0.12
=23.61 71.50

Y33 =

21.97 71.5 0 5.27108.4 0

Ybus = 5.27108.4 0 13.08 71.5 0

15.81108.4 0
7.906108.4 0

15.81108.4 0

7.906108.4 0
23.61 71.5 0

Flat start profile:

Given V1 = 1.06+ j0 ; 1 = 00 ; V3 = 1 0 0
Choose V20 =1+j0 and 20 = 30 = 0
Calculation of change in real and reactive powers:
Pp = Pp(specified) Pp(calculated)

Qp = Qp(specified) Qp(calculated)
Pp V p Vq Y pq cos( p pq q )
n

q 1

Q p V p Vq Y pq sin( p pq q )
n

q 1

P2(cal) = |V2|2|Y22|cos 22 + |V2||V1||Y21|cos(2 + 21 - 1) + |V2||V3||Y23|cos(2 + 23 3)

= 1 13.08 cos(-71.5) + 1 1.06 5.27cos(108.4) + 1 7.906cos(108.4)
= -0.11p.u
P3(cal) = |V3|2|Y33|cos 33 +|V3||V1||Y31|cos(3 + 31 1) + |V3||V2|Y32|cos( 32 + 3 - 2 )
= 1 23.61 cos(-71.5) + 1 1.06 15.81cos(108.4) + 1 7.906cos(108.4)
=- 0.3 p.u
Q2(cal) = |V2|2|Y22|sin 22 + |V2||V1||Y21|sin(2 + 21 1) + |V2||V3||Y23|sin(2 + 23 3)
= 1 13.08 sin(-71.5) + 1 1.06 5.27sin(108.4) + 1 7.906sin(108.4)
= 0.4 p.u

Q3(cal) = |V3|2|Y33|sin 33 + |V3||V1||Y31|sin(3 + 31 1) + |V3||V2||Y32|sin(3 + 32 2)

= 1 23.61 sin(-71.5) + 1 1.06 15.81sin(108.4) + 1 7.906sin(108.4)
= 1.02 p.u.
Calculation of specified quantities :
P2(specified) = PG2 - PD2 = 0.2 0.0 = 0.2 p.u
Q2(specified) = QG2 - QD2 = 0 p.u
P3(specified) = PG3 - PD3
Q3(specified) = QG3 - QD3

= 0.0 p.u
= -0.25 p.u

The change in real and reactive powers are,

P20 = P2(specified) P2(calculated) = 0.2 + 0.11 = 0.31 p.u.
P30 = 0 +( - 0.3) = -0.3 p.u.
Q20 = 0- 0.4 = -0.4 p.u.
Q30 = -0.25 -1.02 = -1.27 p.u.
Calculation of Jacobian matrix elements :
Elements of J1:
P2
2 |V2||Y22|cos 22 +|V1||Y21|cos(2 + 21 - 1) + |V3||Y23|cos(3 + 23 2)
V2

= 2 1 13.08 cos(-71.5) + 1.06 5.27cos(108.4) + 1 7.906cos(108.4)

= 4.04
P2
|V2||Y23|cos(2 + 23 3)
V3
= 1 7.906 cos(108.4)
= -2.5
P3
|V3||Y32|cos( 32 + 2 - 3 )
V2
= 1 7.906 cos(108.4)
= -2.5
P3
2|V3||Y33|cos 33 +|V1||Y31|cos(1 + 31 3) + |V2||Y32|cos( 32 + 2 - 3 )
V3
= 2 1 23.61 cos(-71.5) + 1.06 15.81cos(108.4) + 1 7.906cos(108.4)
= 7.2

Elements of J2:
P2
|V2||V1||Y21|sin(2 + 21 1) - |V2||V3||Y23|sin(3 + 23 2)
2
= 1 1.06 5.27sin(108.4) 1 1 7.906 sin(108.4)
= -12.8
P2
- |V2||V3||Y23|sin(2 + 23 3)
3
= - 1 1 7.906 sin (108.4)
= -7.5
P3
- |V3| |V2||Y32|sin(3 + 32 2)
2
= - 1 1 7.906 sin (108.4)
= -7.5
P3

3
=
=

-|V3||V1||Y31|sin(3 + 31 1) - |V3||V2||Y32|sin(3 + 32 2)
- 1 1.06 15.81sin(108.4)-1 1 7.906sin(108.4)
- 23.4

Elements of J3:
Q2
{2|V2||Y22|sin 22 + |V1||Y21|sin(2 + 21 1) +|V3||Y23|sin(2 + 23 3 ) }
V2
= {2 1 13.08 sin(-71.5) + 1.06 5.27sin(108.4) + 1 7.906sin(108.4)}
= - 12.01

Q2
{ |V2||Y23|sin(2 + 23 3) }
V3
={ 1 7.906sin(108.4)}
= 7.5
Q3
{ |V3||Y32|sin(2 + 32 3)}
V2
= { 1 7.906sin(108.4)}
= 7.5
Q3
{ 2|V3||Y33|sin 33 - |V1||Y31|sin(3 + 31 1) - |V2||Y32|sin(3 + 32 2)
V3
= {2 1 23.61 sin(-71.5) +1 1.06 15.81sin(108.4) + 1 7.906 sin (108.4)}
= 21.4
Elements of J4:

Q2
{ |V2||V1||Y21|cos(2 + 21 - 1)+ |V2||V3||Y23|cos(2 + 23 3) }
2
= 1 1.06 5.27cos(108.4) + 1 7.906cos(108.4)
= -4.26
Q2
{ |V2||V3||Y23|cos(2 + 23 3) }
3
= - { 1 7.906cos(108.4)}
= 2.5
Q3
{ |V3||V1||Y31|cos(3 + 31 1) + |V3||V2||Y32|cos(3 + 32 2)
3
= 1 1.06 15.81cos(108.4) + 1 7.906cos(108.4)
= - 7.8

The general matrix form of load flow equation is,

P J 11
Q J
21

J 12
J 22

0.31 4.04 2.5 12.8 7.5 v 2

0.3 2.5
7.5 23.4 v3
7.2

0.4 12.01 7.5 4.26

2.5 2

7.8 3
21.4
2.5
1.27 7.5
Result:
The load flow study of the given power system using Newton-Raphson method was conducted
using MATLAB and results was verified.

S.NO.9
Fast Decoupled Load Flow Analysis using MATLAB Software
Aim:
To become proficient in the usage of software in solving load flow problems using Fast
decoupled load flow method.
Theory:
Load flow study is useful in planning the expansion of power system as well as determining best
operation of the system. The principle obtained from load flow study is the magnitude and phase
angle of the voltage at each bus and real and reactive power flowing in each line. Load flow
analysis may be performed using A.C. network analyzer and also by digital computer. But nowa-days digital computer oriented load flow analysis is a standard practice.
The fast decoupled load flow method is a very fast method of obtaining load flow
solutions. This method requires less number of arithmetic operations to complete an iteration
consequently. This method requires less time per iterations. In N-R method, the elements of
Jacobian are to be computed in each iteration .So the time per iteration is considerably more in
N-R method than in FDLF. The rate of convergence in FDLF method is slow requiring
considerably more number of iterations to obtain a solution than in the case of N-R method.
However accuracy is same in both the cases. In this method both the speeds as well as the
sparsity are exploited. This is an extension of N-R method formulated in polar co-ordinates with
certain approximation which results into a fast algorithm for load flow solution.
In practice, transmission system operating under steady state possesses strong
interdependence between active powers and bus voltages, angles, similarly there is strong
interdependence between bus voltage and reactive power

H km
J km
H pq

Pk
m

Qk
m

N km

Lkm

Pp

Pk E m
E m

Qk E m

L pq

E m

QP E q

E q
q
The equation for power flow are again expressed below for calculating elements of Jacobian (ie
H & L)

Pp E p E qY pp cos pp

E
n

E q Y pq cos pq p q

Q p E p E q Y pp sin pp E p E q Y pq sin pq p q
q 1, p

Therefore the elements of Jacobian (ie H & L) can be calculated as from the equations above of
power. OFF diagonal element of H is
Pp
H PQ
sin pq p q
q

Flowchart:
Start

Read the input data

Form the Y bus matrix

Form B and B matrix

Set flat voltage profile except for slack bus

Set convergence criterion
C

Set iteration count p=0

Calculate real & reactive power

P H
Q N

P Q
,

V V

Calculate

P Q
,

V V

Are

Yes

Calculate real & reactive line

flow, bus powers

No

Find & V by solving the

equations:
1 2 V

3 4 Q

V V V

Uptate voltage magnitude t phase

angles
new

Print the results

M
L V

new

old

old

Stop
C

Algorithm:
Step 1: Read the slack bus voltages, real bus powers and reactive bus powers, bus
voltage magnitudes and reactive power limits.
Step 2: Form the Y bus matrix without line charging admittance and shunt admittance.
Step 3: Form B matrix, form Y bus matrix obtained in step 2.
Step 4: Form Y bus matrix with double the line charging admittance.
Step 5: Form B matrix from Y bus matrix obtained in step 4.
Step 6: Calculate the inverse of B & B matrices.
Step 7: Initialize the bus voltage.
Step 8: Calculate [P/|V|] , [Q/|V|]
Step 9: If P/ |V| & Q/|V| are less than or equal to tolerance limit, solution has convergence
and go to step 12 otherwise increase iteration count and go to step 10.
Step 10: Calculate [] = [B]-1 [P/ |V|]
[|V|] = [B]-1[Q/|V|]
Step 11: Update [] & [|V|] for all buses except slack bus.
[]new = []old + [ ]; [|V|]new = [|V|] old + [|V|]
Step 12: Compute slack bus power, line flows, real power loss, reactive power loss etc.
Sample Problem:
For the system shown in Figure 4.4 determine the voltage at the end of the 1st iteration by FDLF
method. The line reactances are marked in the figure.
1

j 0.1

2
j 0.2

j 0.2
Figure 4.4

Bus specifications:
Bus
code
1
2
3

Assumed volt. Generation

Load
P
Q
P
1
1.1
5.52 0QG25.5
0.7
3.65

Q
0.1
0.53

Solution:
P2 = PG2-PD2 = 4.82 p.u
P3=PG3-PD3 = -3.65 p.u
Q3= QG3-QD3= -0.53 p.u
15 90
j15 j10 j 5

Ybus j10 j15 j 5 1090

590
j 5
j 5 j10
15 5
B'

5 10

1090
590
15 90 590
590
10 90

B'' 10

Flat voltage profile:

V10 1 j 0 1.00 0

V20 1.1 j 0 1.10 0

V30 1 j 0 1.00 0

V p Vq

Calculation of P and Q:
Pp

q 1

Y pq cos( p pq q )

P20,cal 0
P30,cal 0

Q p V p Vq Y pq sin( p pq q )
n

= V2 .V1 .Y21 sin 21 1 2 V2 .V2 .Y22 sin 22 V2V3Y33 sin 23 3 2

q 1

= -1.65
As 0QG25.5
Q2= QG2-QD2
QG2=-1.65+0.1
= -1.55
Hence it is not within the specified limits.

Q3= V3 .V1 .Y31 sin 31 1 3 V3 .V2 .Y32 sin 32 2 3 V3V3Y33 sin 33

= 0.5
Calculation of change in power:
P2 P2.spec P2.cal 4.82 0 4.82

P3 P3.spec P3.cal 3.65 0 3.65

Q3 Q3.spec Q3.cal 0.53 0.5 1.03

Find the largest value of P2, P3, Q3

Let the largest change of E= 4.82
E E; 4.820.01
Find and V :

B ' 1 P

V B

'' 1

' 1

'' 1

15

0.08
=
0.04

5
10

0.04
0.12

1 / 10 0.1

0.08

0.04

0.04 P

0.12 V

2 0.08 0.04 4.38

0.04 0.12 3.65

3
2=0.2045

3=-0.2627

V 0.1 Q

V3 0.103
Find the new values of phase angle and magnitude of the voltage:

i p 1 i p i p

Vi
Vi Vi
p =0; i=2,3
21 20 20 0.2045 rad 11.710
p 1

31 30 30 0.2627 rad 15.05 0

p =0; i=3
1
0
0
V3 V3 V3 1 0.103 0.897

New values are:

V1' V1' 1' 10 0 ( Slack bus )

V2' V2' 2' 1.10 0 (Generator bus )

V3' V3' 3' 0.897 15.05 0 ( Load bus )

Result:
The load flow study on the given power system using Fast decoupled method was conducted
using MATLAB and results was verified.

S.NO.10
Symmetrical Fault Analysis using MATLAB Software
Aim:
To develop a computer program to carry out simulation study of a symmetrical three phase short
circuit on a given power system.
Theory:
Short circuits and other abnormal conditions often occur on a power system. Short circuits are
usually called faults by power system engineers. Some defects, other than short circuits are
also termed as faults.
Faults are caused either by insulation failures or by conducting path failures. The failure
of insulation results in short circuits which are very harmful as they may damage some
equipment of the power system. Most of the faults in transmission and distribution lines are
caused by over voltages due to lightning or switching surges, or by external conducting objects
falling on overhead lines. Overvoltages due to lightning or switching surges cause flashover on
the surface of insulators resulting in short circuits. Short circuits are also caused by tree branches
or other conducting objects falling on the overhead lines.
The fault impedance being low, the fault currents are relatively high. The fault currents
being excessive, they damage the faulty equipment and the supply installation. Also, the system
voltage may reduce to a low level, windings and busbars may suffer mechanical damage due to
high magnetic forces during faults and the individual generators in a power station or group of
generators in different power stations may loose synchronism
The symmetrical fault occurs when all the three conductors of a three-phase line
are brought together simultaneously into a shortcircuit condition as shown in Figure 1.
A
B
C
IA

IB

IC

Short circuit
Figure 1 Symmetrical Fault on Three-Phase system
This type of fault gives rise to symmetrical currents i.e. equal fault currents with 1200
displacement. Thus referring to Figure 5.1, fault currents IA, IB and IC will be equal in magnitude
with 1200 displacement among them. Because of balanced nature of fault, only one phase needs to
be considered in calculations since condition in the other two phases will also be similar.

A three-phase short circuit occurs rarely but it is most severe type of fault involving largest
currents. For this reason, the balanced short-circuit calculations are performed to determine these
large currents to be used to determine the rating of the circuit breakers.
Flowchart:
Start
Read line data, Bus data,fault impedance etc

Compute Ybus matrix & modified Ybus matrix

Compute Zbus matrix by inverting modified bus

I=0

Find the bus at which fault occurs I = I+1

Compute fault current at faulted bus and

bus voltage at all buses
Compute all line current at unfaulty
area & gen currents

No

Is
I < nb
Yes

Print the Result

Stop

Formula Used:

V
Z f Z pp

i)

Fault Current, If =

ii)

Fault Voltage, Vf = V (1

Z bus
)
Z f Z pp

where Zf Fault impedance

Zpp Line impedance
Algorithm:
Step 1: Read line data, machine data, transformer data, fault impedance etc.
Step 2: Compute [Ybus] matrix and calculate [Ybus]modi.
Step 3: Form [Zbus] by inverting the [Ybus] modified.
Step 4: Initialize count I = 0.
Step 5: Find the bus at which fault occurs I=I+1.
Step 6: Compute fault current at faulted bus and bus voltage at all buses.
Step 7: Compute all line and generator currents.
Step 8: Check if I< number of buses, if yes go to step 5 else go to step 9.
Step 9: Print the results and stop the program.
Sample problem:
For a simple power system as shown in figure, find with the help of bus-impedance matrix
method the post fault currents in all the branches and post-fault voltages at all buses, if a three
phase dead short circuit occurs at bus-3. The pre- fault currents are neglected.

E1=1.0

E2=1.0

j0.25

j0.2

j0.13

j0.08

j0.03
3

S
If=0

Single line diagram

Solution:
Formation of bus impedance matrix:
1
1
1
Y11 =

j 24.19
j 0.25 j 0.13 j 0.08
Y22 =

1
1
1

j 46.02
j 0.20 j 0.13 j 0.03

Y33 =

1
1

j 45.83
j 0.03 j 0.08

Y12=Y21==

Y13=Y31==

Y23=Y32==

1
j 7.69
j 0.13
1
j12.5
j 0.08
1
j 33.33
j 0.03

We can formulate the bus admittance matrix

j 7.69
j12.5
j 24.19

Ybus = j 7.69
j 46.02 j 33.33
j12.5
j 33.33 j 45.83
By inversion of Ybus , we get

j 0.1270
Zbus = j 0.0979
j 0.1059

j 0.1059
j 0.1214 j 0.1150
j 0.1150 j 0.1343
j 0.0979

Vk0
1.0

j 7.462 p.u.
Fault current, I =
Z 33
j 0.1343
f

Bus voltages during the fault are,

Z Z 13 0
V1f = 33
Vk
Z 33

j 0.1059
0.2114 p.u.
= 1
j 0.1343

Z Z 23 0
V2f = 33
Vk
Z 33

j 0.1150
= 1
0.143 p.u.
j 0.1343

V3f = 0

Short circuit currents in the lines are,

V f V2 f 0.2114 0.143
I12f = 1
j 0.69 p.u.

Z
j
0
.
0979
12

I13

V1 f V3 f 0.2114 0
=
j1.999 p.u.

j 0.1059
Z 13

V f V3 f
I23f = 2
Z 23

0.143 0
j1.2434 p.u.

j 0.115

Result:
The program to carry out the simulation study of a symmetrical three phase short circuit on a
given power system was developed and the results were verified.

S.NO.11
Economic Dispatch using MATLAB Software
Aim:
To develop a program for solving economic dispatch problem without transmission losses for a
given load condition using direct method and Lambda-iteration method.
Theory:
A modern power system is invariably fed from a number of power plants. Research and
development has led to efficient power plant equipment. A generating unit added to the system
today is likely to be more efficient than the one added some time back. With a very large number
of generating units at hand, it is the job of the operating engineers to allocate the loads between
the units such that the operating costs are the minimum. The optimal load allocation is by
considering a system with any number of units. The loads should be so allocated among the
different units that every unit operates at the same incremental cost. This criterion can be
developed mathematically by the method of lagrangian multiplier.
Statement of Economic Dispatch Problem:
In a power system, with negligible transmission losses and with N number of spinning thermal
generating units the total system load PD at a particular interval can be met by different sets of
generation schedules.
PG1(K), PG2(K). PGN(K) ;
k =1,2,.NS
Out of these NS sets of generation schedules, the system operator has to choose that set
of schedule which minimizes the system operating cost which is essentially the sum of the
production costs of all the generating units. This economic dispatch problem is mathematically
stated as an optimization problem. Given the number of available generating units Ns their
production cost function, their operating limits and the system load PD.
To determine the set of generating schedule PG,

F .P
N

Min FT =

i 1

(1)

PGi PD =0
i

Gi

(2)

PGi min PGi PGi max

i 1

F P a P b P c

(3)
The unit production cost function is usually approximated by a quadratic function.
2

Gi

Gi

Gi

i=1,2N

(4)

where ai, bi and ci are constants.

The ED problem is given by the equations (1) to (4). By omitting the inequality constraint the
reduced ED problem may be restated as an unconstrained optimization problem by augmenting

the objective function with the constraint function multiplied by Lagrange multiplier to
obtain the Lagrange function L as,
Min: L(PG1,..PGN, )=

F P P P
N

i 1

L
dF P
0 i Gi
dPGi
PGi
N
L
0 PGi PD
i 1

Gi

i 1

Gi

(5)

The necessary conditions for the existence of solution to (5) are given by,
;

i=1,2..N

(6)

(7)

The solution to ED problem can be obtained by solving simultaneously the necessary conditions
(6) and (7) which state that the economic generation schedules not only satisfy the system power
balance equation (8) but also demand that the incremental cost rates of all the units be equal to
which can be interpreted as incremental cost of received power when the inequality constraints
(3) are included in the ED problem the necessary condition (6) gets modified as

dFi PGi
= for PGi,min PGi PGi, max
dPGi
for PGi = PGi,max
for PGi = PGi, min

(8)

Methods of Solution for ED without Loss

The solution to the ED problem with the production cost function assumed to be a quadratic
function, equation (4), can be obtained by simultaneously solving (6) and (7) using a direct
method as given below,

dFi ( PGi )
= 2aiPGi + bi = ;
dPGi

i = 1,2, .......... N

From Equation (9) we obtain

PGi = ( bi) /2ai ;
i = 1,2,............N
Substituting Equation (10) in Equation (7) we obtain

(9)

(10)

( b ) / 2ai = PD
N

i 1

(1 / 2ai ) (b1 / 2a1 ) PD

i

i 1

i 1

( PD (bi / 2ai )) / (1 / 2ai )

Flowchart:

i 1

i 1

(11)

FLOWCHART:
Start

Read the data co-efficients ai,bi,ci and PD

Assume initial value of Lagrangian, 1

Find Pgi = - bi/2ai ; i= 1,2,.NG

Is PGi<
PD

No

Yes
Assume 2< 1 Value

Assume 2 > 1 Value

Find Pgi = 2-bi/2ai

Yes

Check
Pgi = Pd
No

Calculate 3 = 2 +

2 1
Pd PG2
PG2 PG1

Find Pgi= 3- bi/2ai

Print the generator real power

as output

Stop

The method of solution involves computing using equation (11) and than computing the
economic schedules PGi; i=1,2,........N using equation (10). In order to satisfy the operating limits
(3) the following iterative algorithm is to be used.
Algorithm for ED without loss (For quadratic production cost function)
Step 1: Compute using Equation (11)
Step 2: Compute using Equation (10) the economic schedules, PGi ; i = 1,2,........N
Step 3: If the computed PGi satisfy the operating limits
PGi, min PGi PGi, max ; i = 1,2,.........N
Then stop, the solution is reached. Otherwise proceed to step 4
Step 4: Fix the schedule of the NV number of violating units whose generation PGi
violates the operating limits (12) at the respective limit, either PGi,max or PGi,min
Step 5: Distribute the remaining system load PD minus the sum of the fixed generation
schedules to the remaining units numbering NR (= N-NV) by computing using
Equation (11) and the PGi; i NR using equation (10) where NR is the set of
remaining units.
Step 6: Check whether optimality condition (8) is satisfied. If yes, stop the solution
Otherwise, release the generation schedule fixed at PGi,max or PGi,min of
those generators not satisfying optimality condition (8), include these units in the
remaining units, modify the sets NV , NR and the remaining load. Go to step 5.
Sample Problem:
Economic Dispatch without loss:
A power plant has three units with the following cost characteristics:
C 1 0.5 P12 215 P1 5000 Rs / h

C 2 1.0 P22 270 P2 5000 Rs / h

C 3 0.7 P32 160 P3 9000 Rs/h

where Pis are the generating powers in MW. The maximum and minimum loads allowable on
each unit are 150 and 39 MW. Find the economic scheduling for a total load of
ii) 200 MW

i) 320 MW

Solution:
Knowing the cost characteristics, incremental cost characteristics are obtained as
IC 1 1.0 P1 215 Rs / MWh

IC 2 2.0 P2 270 Rs / MWh

IC 3 1.4 P3 160 Rs / MWh

Using the equal incremental cost rule

1.0 P1 215

2.0 P2 270

1.4 P3 160

Case i) Total load = 320 MW

Since P1 + P2 + P3 = 320 we have

215 270 160

320
1.0
2.0
1.4

i.e. [

1
1
1
215 270 160

320
1.0 2.0 1.4
1.0
2.0
1.4

i.e. 2.2143 = 784.2857

This gives = 354.193 RM / MWh
Thus P1 = ( 354.193 - 215 ) / 1.0 = 139.193 MW
P2 = ( 354.193 - 270 ) / 2.0

42.0965 MW

P3 = ( 354.193 -16.0 ) / 1.4 = 138.7093 MW

All P i' s lie within maximum and minimum limits. Therefore, economic scheduling is
P1 = 139.193 MW
P2 = 42.0965 MW
P3 = 138.7093 MW

Economic Dispatch without loss using Lamda Iteration method:

The fuel cost equations are given by,
F1 = 0.035 P12 + 15P1 + 20
Rs / hr
F2= 0.04 P22+ 10P2 + 30
Rs / hr
Assuming both the units are operating at all time then total load varies from 40 to 200 MW and
that the maximum and minimum load of each unit is 100 and 20 MW respectively. Find the
Incremental Production Cost and allocation of load between two units for minimum overall cost
the given load.
P1 = 20 MW
P2 = 80 MW
dF1
0.07(20) 15 16.4
dP1

dF2
0.08(80) 10 16.4
dP2

dF1 dF2

= 16.4
dP1 dP2
Solving the above Equations, we get
F1 = 0.035 (20)2 + 15(20) + 20 = 334 Rs / hr
F2 = 0.04 (80)2+ 10(80) + 30 = 1086 Rs / hr
FT = F1 + F2 =1420 Rs / hr

Result:
The economic dispatch problem without transmission losses for a given load condition using
direct method and Lambda-iteration method was studied by developing a MATLAB program.