WATER TREATMENT PLANT AT JPL

Water Treatment Plant at JPL comprises of following three sections

1) Pre Treatment Plant.
2) DM Plant.
3) CW Treatment Plant
IMPURITIES in Water :
i. Suspended Solids : Muds, Silts, Sand , organics etc.
ii. Dissolved Solids : Salts of Calcium, Sodium and Magnesium, Iron, Manganese,
Fluoride salts and Gases.

Pre Treatment Plant

- Raw Water is taken from raw water reservoir through pumps

having capacity 2200 m3/hr each (2W+2S) into the cascade aerator for deaeration for removal of
Oxidisable impurities like iron etc. then to two stilling chambers where turbulence of raw water
will be broken. Water then flows through individuals 3 nos. of venturi flumes (for flow
measurement) to (3X100%) flash mixer units where water will be then fed to three
clalriflocculators each of 1750-m3/hr. capacities. Chemical such as Alum, Lime &
polyelectrolyte are added at the downstream of each venturi. The clarified Water thus produced
is stored in two compartments reservoir separated by partition wall along with necessary
isolation gauge. The under Sludge from each clarifiers is collected to a common sludge pit from
where sludge is pump out by means of vertical centrifugal pumps. Chlorine is dosed in stilling
chambers by means of 3 vacuums feed chlorinators (cap. -11Kg/hr. each).

DM Plant DM Plant primarily meets heat cycle make up water requirement of 4X250MW
units. It consists (3) DM chains having capacity 100m3/hr.each. (2W+1Stand by for regeneration
& maintenance purpose).

Each chains comprises of following units

DM Feed Pump - DMF-ACF-LBC-DEGASSER TOWER-DEGASSED WATER STORAGE
TANK-Degassed Water Transfer Pump-WBA-SBA-MB-UF Break Tank-UF feed pump-UF
SKID-DM STORAGE TANKS.

10

DMF (Dual Media Filter) It consists of vessel filled with filter media comprising of sand,
supported on graded gravel for filtering of suspended solids carried over from clarifiers. On inlet
design turbidity of 25 NTU & Outlet Turbidity of 2 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit).
ACF (Activated Carbon Filter)- Water from DMF goes down stream into ACF, which consist
of vessel filled with activated carbon in granular form for removal of free chlorine dosed in
clarifier.
LBC (Layered Bed Cation)- Water from ACF goes down stream into LBC, which consist of
vessel filled with Cationic Resin in bead form for removal of cations present in water after its
service cycle is over, it is again regenerated with 5% HCL.
Degasser Tower- It is mounted on a plat form over a degassed water storage tanks where
degassed water is stored. Water from LBC goes down stream into Degasser Towers (3 nos.) each
of rubber lined MS construction to ensure removal of CO2 gas based on the theory of Partial
Pressure Mechanism. A counter current of air to water is provided for effective removal of CO2
by 4 nos. of Air Blowers.
Degassed Water Transfer pumps four horizontal centrifugal type pumps which are capable
are taking suction from Degassed water storage tanks & pumped it to WBA & SBA units.
WBA (Weak Base Anion)- Water from Degassed Water Storage Tanks goes down stream into
WBA, which consist of vessel filled with weakly basic type-high capacity Resin for removal of
anions present in water.

11

SBA (Strong Base Anion)- Water from WBA goes down stream into SBA which consist of
vessel filled with Strongly Basic type high capacity Resin for removal of anions specifically
Silica present in water.
Regeneration of SBA & WBA: Alkali regeneration system consists of solution tanks ejector
etc. design such that during regeneration Anion resin Bed in SBA is regenerated in 5% of NaOH
& the spent lye is used to regenerate WBA.
MB (Mixed Bed)- Water from SBA goes down stream into MB which consist of vessel filled
with Strong Acid Cation & strong Basic type high capacity Resin for Polishing any slippage of
cations or anion from their respective removal units & water collected at UF break tanks.
Regeneration of MB units: Concurrent regeneration is adopted in MB to regenerate Cationic
Resin with HCl & Anion Resin with NaOH.
Ultra Filtration System Water from UF break tank is pumped by UF feed pumps to three UF
Skid systems having capacity of 100m3/hr. each. Suitable no. of membrane units for each units
are provided for removal of Colloidal Silica. Membrane pore is 10000MWC (Molecular Weight
Cut off). Membrane Material is poly Sulphone/Poly amide & is able to with stand a load of about
250mg/1maximum at a pH range of 1.5 to 13.
DM Storage Tanks- Dematerialized water is collected in two DM Storage tanks having Water
holding Capacity 1000 m3 each by which water is transfer to the heat cycle make up water
requirement of 4X250MW units with the help of Six nos. of DM transfer pumps out of which
three pumps (2W+1S) for Phase-I units (i.e. units-1 &2) & Three pumps (2W+1S) for Phase-II
units (i.e. units-3&4).
DESCRIPTION OF CW SYSTEM: CW System comprises of following three sections:1. Chlorination System
2. Acid Dosing & Chemical Dosing System
3. Side Stream Filtration System
Chlorination System - In CW Chlorination System Cl2 is shock dosed for an average period of
about one hour daily. In the CW bay to prevent microbiological growth. There are three nos. of
Vacuum feed chlorinator each of capacity 200kg/hr. for each set of 2X250MW units. Two
Chlorinators will be in operations & other will be kept on common stand by for each 2 units. The
chlorination system consists of Chlorine Ton container, Booster Pumps, Strainers, piping &
Diffuser systems up to dosing points. The Water to the Booster Pumps is supplied from CW
pump discharge header at a pressure of 2 kg/cm2.
Acid Dosing & Chemical Dosing System Sulphuric acid dosing system comprises of two nos.
conc. Sulphuric acid storage tanks two sulphuric acid day tanks & three sulphuric acid dosing
12

pumps. For addition safe guard against corrosion, scaling & microorganism, corrosion as well as
scale inhibitor pumps has been provided along with chemical dosing tanks.
Side Stream Filtration System- To reduce the turbidity in Cooling Tower, 2% of the
recalculating Water is passed through Vertical Automatic valve less gravity Filters (AVGF).
Total 10 in numbers AVGF for each unit. Each having capacity of 175 m3/hr. The Filters are
getting supply of circulating Water from CW Pump discharge header & after filtration, filtered
water is returned to CW basin.
Note: It is to note that the treatment of Circulating Water at Phase-I & Phase-II is an outsource
activity & carried out by Contractor hence they are accountable to ensure end result/outcome of
guaranteed parameters are under specify limits for Corrosion rates and deposition index. The
monitoring of parameters at CW Phase-I & Phase-II is determined by testing of water for some
parameters at their respective site laboratory at CW treatment Plant Phase-I and is also verified
and recorded at JPL Chemical Laboratory for to make sure the legitimacy of report are under
specify limits & smooth operation of the system could be done
CHEMICAL TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS
Coagulation: Coagulation is simply the accumulation of the smaller particles into larger ones,
which are big enough to settle down .The addition of a coagulant (Alum) neutralizes Charges,
collapsing the "cloud" surrounding the colloids so they can Agglomerate and consequently
become heavy to settle down. This neutralization of surface charge by addition of Co-agulant is
known as Co-agulation.
Flocculation: The floe formed by the agglomeration of several colloids may not be large enough
to settle or dewater at the desired rate. A flocculants gathers together floe particles in a net,
bridging from one surface to another and binding the individual particles into large agglomerates,
this agglomeration of particles is called Flocculation.
Disinfections: Killing of Bacteria or microbiological organism in water by help of Chlorination
or addition of chlorine is known as disinfections.
Turbidity: Turbidity is the optical property of water, which renders objects viewed through it
indistinct in outline. The presence of suspended matter such as silt, clay, course particles of
organic matter, plankton & other microscopic organism caused turbidity.
Resin: Ion Exchange resins are porous materials, which contain an inert base attached to which,
are free ions. These ions are Free to move about within the resin structure and can be replaced by
other ions of the same type from a surrounding solution.
Suspended matter: Such matters, which can be filtered, out physically or can be observed by
naked eye in water, are termed as Suspended matter.
13

Dematerialization: Demineralization is a process in which mineral salts dissolved in water are

completely removed. Removal of dissolve solids are accomplished with the help of
chemicals/Resins through ion exchange process.
Regeneration: It is a process by which exhausted ion exchanging chemicals are charged back to
their ion exchange replacing forms.
CV: Calorific Value is the amount of heat liberated on combustion of 1 g of any combustible
matter.
HGI: Hard Groove Grindibility Index of Coal
HP & LP Dosing: Chemical (Tri-Sodium Phosphate) Dosing by the aid of High-pressure pump
to Boiler Drum. Chemical Dosing (Hydrazine & Ammonia) at De-aerator by the help of Low
Pressure Pump.
Viscosity -- measurement of a fluid's resistance to flow. The common metric unit of absolute
viscosity is the poise, which is defined as the force in dynes required moving a surface one
square centimeter in area past a parallel surface at a speed of one centimeter per second, with the
surfaces separated by a fluid film one centimeter thick. In addition to kinematics viscosity, there
are other methods for determining viscosity, including Saybolt Universal Viscosity (SUV),
Saybolt Furol viscosity, Engier viscosity, and Redwood viscosity. Since viscosity varies in
inversely with temperature, its value is meaningless until the temperature at which it is
determined is reported
Mechanical Impurities: Presence of Foreign particles or eroded particles due to wear & tear of
mechanical movements in Lubrication oil which can be separated by the help of Micron pore
size filter paper.
De-aeration: Removal of oxygen to reduce corrosion and fouling in Boiler Water tubes.
Organic Fouling: Obstruction in flow of water due to growth of microbiological organism is
known as Organic Fouling.
Scale - is a very hard substance that adheres directly to heating surfaces forming a layer of
insulation. This layer of insulation will decrease heat transfer efficiency. Scale also results in
metal fatigue/failure from overheating, energy waste, high maintenance costs and unnecessary
safety risks. A one-sixteenth inch thickness of scale in a fire tube boiler can result in a 12.5%
increase in fuel consumption.
Corrosion - is defined as the destruction of a metal by chemical or electromechanical reaction
with its environment. The metal is eaten away in much the same manner as fender rusts on a car.
Corrosion dramatically increases maintenance costs and can cause unnecessary safety risks. It
14

will occur when levels of oxygen or carbon dioxide are high, where pH values are low, where
contact occurs between dissimilar metals and in damp environment or corrosive atmospheres.
Corrosion is an electrochemical process in which electricity flows through a solution of ions
between areas of metal. Deterioration occurs when the current leaves the negatively charged
metal or anode and travels through the solution to the positively charged metal or cathode,
completing an electrical circuit in much the same manner as a battery cell. The anode and the
cathode can be different metals or areas of the same metal. Corrosion occurs when there is a
difference in the electrical potential between them.
Fouling - occurs when a restriction develops in piping and equipment passageways and results in
inefficient water flow. The fouling of boiler room equipment directly impacts energy efficiencies
and cost of operations.
Foaming - is a condition in which concentrations of soluble salts, aggravated by grease,
suspended solids or organic matter, create frothy bubbles or foam in the steam space of a boiler.
When these bubbles collapse it creates a liquid that is carried over into the steam system.
Foaming degrades steam quality and in some cases can create a water slug that is discharged into
the steam lines.
Alkalinity: The capacity of water for neutralizing an acid solution. Alkalinity of natural waters is
due primarily to the presence of hydroxides, bicarbonates, carbonates and occasionally borates,
silicates and phosphates. It is expressed in units of milligrams per liter (mg/l) of CaCO3 (calcium
carbonate) or as micro equivalents per liter (ueq/l) 20 ueq/l = 1 mg/l of CaCO3. A solution
having a pH below 4.5 contains no alkalinity. Low alkalinity is the main indicator of
susceptibility to acid rain. Increasing alkalinity is often related to increased algal productivity.
Lakes with watersheds that have sedimentary carbonate rocks are high in dissolved carbonates
(hard-water lakes). Whereas lakes in granite or igneous rocks are low in dissolved carbonates
(soft water lakes).

BOILER WATER TREATMENT:

High pressure boiler (operating above 60 kg/cm2) design needs a close look at water & steam
quality to avoid (1) corrosion control and (2) deposition on turbine blades. The cost of corrosion
and deposition is very high due to repairs and loss of production (shutdowns).Thus the successful
operation of high pressure boilers and turbine units require a strict vigil on the Water Treatment
practices and controls, particularly for high pressure drum type and once through boilers.
a. MAKE - UP WATER TREATMENT
15

Total solids and silica are the main constituents for carry-over and deposition. These constituents
are to be controlled and maintained at low levels in makeup water. Silica in particular, is
CARRIEDOVER in the form of VAPOUR at high pressures. Contaminated Feed water, used for
de-superheating spray, directly enters the superheated steam and may cause boiler tube corrosion
and deposition on turbine blades. More blowdown, to control contamination, is uneconomical.
Hence feed water is required to be very pure for high pressure boilers. Modern demineralisation
plants are capable of producing the required quality of makeup water with specific electrical
conductivity less than 0.2 micro mhos/cm and silica 0.02/0.01 ppm.
b. INTERNAL CORROSION
Corrosion is a common phenomenon in high pressure boilers. Corrosion in boiler circuits as
well as in pre-boiler circuits can cause tube failures followed by force shut down of boilers.
The causes of corrosion are :
1. pH ( acidity or high alkalinity ) value.
2. Oxygen
3. Excessive ammonia (on copper base alloys )
4. Concentration of alkalising agents due to localised over heating
5. Poor quality of passivating layer or breaking of passivating layer due to thermal shocks
6. Decomposition of organics into corrosive products.

c. EFFECT OF pH
The reaction of feed water on steel is spontaneous and rapid at high temperatures. For protecting
this reaction a passivated layer of magnetite (Fe3O4) / hydrated iron oxide (FeOOH) is created on
the steel surface. Maintaining alkalinity in boiler water protects this oxide film.
It was found that the protective layer is getting dissolved at pH values below 5.0 and above 13.0
Minimum corrosion is indicated at pH of 9.0 to 11.0 An optimum pH of 8.8 to 9.2 is
recommended for feed water. Any excess presence of ammonia (indicated by higher pH values)
will cause copper corrosion in the pre-boiler system.
Another parameter of different temperature / pressure ranges in boiler water different pH values
are to be maintained to minimize corrosion.
Accordingly boiler water pH requirements are higher than the feed water limits and different for
different pressure ranges. Boiler water pH is elevated as per recommended levels using
Trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4). The use of caustic soda is not recommended for this purpose as
it has the danger of concentration and destruction of protective oxide film to cause corrosion.
d. EFFECT OF OXYGEN
Oxygen free feed water is essential to avoid corrosion. Small quantities of dissolved oxygen are
capable of causing severe corrosion pitting in boiler tubes. A combination of poor oxygen
16

control and chlorides in boiler water can result in serious hydrogen damage type corrosion of
water wall tubes. Continuous monitoring of oxygen is required in high pressure system.
Poor start-up procedures are also responsible for oxygen ingress. Feed water at a temperature
less than 100 0C contains excessive quantities of dissolved oxygen. Deaerator is the main
equipment to control oxygen within 0.01 - 0.02 ppm. This problem can be reduced by
pressurising the deaerator with steam at about 0.5 kg/cm2 .
With the main oxygen removal by deaeration, residual oxygen in small quantities can be reduced
further by reducing agents such as hydrazine N2H4). Hydrazine being a volatile chemical, should
only be used for high pressure boilers. Hydrazine reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen and water
( N2H4 + O2 2H2O + N2 ). It is advantageous to add hydrazine to the cycle at the outlet of
deaerator.

e. BOILER WATER TREATMENT

The principal objective of boiler water treatment is to prevent:
1. Scaling.
2. Corrosion.
3. Steam contamination.
1. SCALING :
Water contains many impurities like dissolved salts and / or suspended matter. The
suspended impurities such as biological growth, mud, and bacterial growth can be removed
easily as compared to dissolved solids. These dissolved impurities are insoluble at an
elevated temperature. When temperature rises, solubility of these dissolved salts decreases
and some precipitation occurs locally. These precipitations are sticky in nature and form
coating on the metallic surface. This is called scaling. It can also be described as continuous,
adherent layer of foreign material formed on the waterside of a surface through which heat is
exchanged. Scales are objectionable because of their heat insulating effect.
It is sometimes said that a thin layer of CaCO3 ( Calcium Carbonate) should be maintained to
protect the surface from corrosion. But it is impossible to lay down uniform thickness of
scale, because the scale thickness depends upon the amount of heat being transferred, which
is not same in all sections of boiler.
Any scale in the boiler, however, is absolutely undesirable. Scales and deposits are formed
because the compounds, of which they are composed, are insoluble under high temperatures
prevailing in the boiler. Certain dry calcium salts especially sulphate, decrease insolubility as
temperature and pressure increase. Similarly, solubility of CaSO4 decreases rapidly with
increasing temperature, producing extremely hard adhering coating on boiler tubes,
especially in location where heat flux is high. Accumulation in boiler drums are most often in
17

the form of mud or sludge. When oil is present as a contamination in boiler water, loose
scales may form particularly in water tubes. Oil serves as a nucleus and of scaling at hot
spots. The oil balls found in steam drum and water wall headers.
PREVENTION OF SCALING :
The most effective method of prevention of scaling is to eliminate scale-forming elements
from the feed water, or to transform them by some means into a safe form. That is the reason
why deminerlised water is used in the system. Demineralisers can produce water quality
with nearly zero hardness. All ionized salts are removed in these processes, which greatly
minimize the potential for boiler deposits, corrosion and turbine fouling. On line removal of
scales forming salts are done by phosphate treatment. These salts are inevitably present in
the boiler water in the form of residual hardness even after demineralization.
The tri-sodium phosphate, which is used, as phosphate treatment tends to increase the pH
value while di-sodium phosphate formed as a byproduct, is a neutral salt. Tri-sodium
phosphate reacts with salts of Magnesium and Calcium to form sludge ( Calcium &
Magnesium phosphate) . The reason is as follows :
2Na3PO4 +

CaSO4

Ca3(PO4)3

3Na2SO4

Na3PO4

H2O

NaOH

Na2HPO4

Na2HPO4 +

H2O

NaOH

NaH2PO4

The advantages of Phosphate treatment are:

Adequate alkalinity can be maintained in the boiler water.

Na2HPO4 is additionally available to form phosphate sludges.

Self-containing hydrolysis, hence proper control over pH ( above pH = 10.2 reactions
reverts to left) can observed.

No problem of caustic corrosion.
The only disadvantage of phosphate treatment is phosphate hide- out.
PHOSPHATE HIDEOUT:
Sometimes, objections are raised against co-ordinated phosphate treatment because of the
phenomenon of the phosphate hideout. At higher loads phosphate comes out of the solution
because of its low solubility at raised temperatures. But when the load is reduced it goes back
into the solution adding to the total phosphate content of water. This may lead to excessive total
dissolved solids content of boiler water in drum. However, there is no danger in phosphate
hideout. It is nothing more than a nuisance to the operators for control of boiler water chemistry
18

regarding (PO4) level control. Any phosphate salts, hidden out, are available to take care of any
hardness in water it is never advisable to resort to any boiler water treatment with free caustic,
even in small amounts. It does much more damage to the boiler tubes than any phosphate
hideout.
The recommended boiler water limits for phosphate & drum water pH are as follows:
Phosphate should be , 3- 10 ppm.

& pH = 9.4 9.7.

2. CORROSION :
Scattered pitting in the presence of oxygen is sometimes observed in the water line in the
steam drum and in the down-comer tubes of boilers. Economizer, on account of their high
temperature, is susceptible to corrosion by oxygen. The mechanism of pitting in a metallic
surface produced by a bubble of air is shown in the figure below;
4e + O2
4(OH)

+
+

H2O
2Fe

4(OH)

2Fe(OH)2 + 4e

It ultimately forms a cell and is continuous in nature unless surface of oxygen is removed.
Corrosion of iron and copper in condensate system leads to formation or porous deposits
under which salts in boiler water concentrate and damage the underlying surface of boiler
steel. Then, even in absence of deposits, caustic gauging can occur owing to the
concentration of sodium hydroxide particularly in places where the rate of heat transfer is
unusually high. Other possibilities are the corrosion of stressed metal. The severity of these
effects can be controlled of some extent by reducing the concentration of oxygen and free
alkali, and by eliminating products introduced from pre-boiler system.
Corrosion is the oxidation of metal by some oxidizing agent in the environment. The area
over which the metal is oxidized is called the anode and at which the oxidizing agent is
reduced is called cathode. These areas are necessarily separated but usually are not far apart.
As corrosion products, electrons flow between these areas through the metal while ions
migrate through the solution. This system constitutes an electro-mechanical cell. In boiler the
oxidation of iron is accompanied by the reduction of hydrogen ions supplied by the hot
water.
3Fe

4H2O =

Fe3O4

4H2 .(A)

Fe

Fe++

H2 (B)

In case of acidic water :

2H+

19

The reaction (A) is self-limiting on account of the barrier of Fe3O4 that forms on the surface
of the metal. The reaction (B) on the contrary, continues until the supply of hydrogen ion is
depleted in boilers. Both reactions are opposed by an irreversible potential called the
hydrogen over-voltage, which is affected, by the condition of the surface of the metal.
Prevention of Corrosion:
I. Removal of Oxygen:
Oxygen is introduced into the boilers dissolved in feed water. When this water enters the
steam drum, most of the oxygen flashes into steam space, producing characteristics
pitting at the water wall lines and in the vicinity of the discharge of the feed line.
In addition, several local corrosion, pinhole failures and pitting in the rear furnace wall
tubes in high-pressure boiler, are attributable to attack by the dissolved oxygen.
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in feed water should be less than 0.03 ppm and
preferably less than 0.005 ppm in water for high-pressure boilers. Cold water saturated
with air contains about 10 ppm of oxygen . This can be reduced to 0.3 to 0.7 ppm in an
open heater and about 0.01 ppm in a spray type deaerator normally used in a power
plant. The greater part of corrosive gases, and carbon dioxide and oxygen that are
dissolved in water can be removed by deaeration. Open heaters are suitable for low
pressure but spray type deaerating heaters are commonly used. In these units steam heats
the feed water in primary heater and also scrubs the heated water. Hot spray flows down
through a baffle arrangement against a rising flow of steam that sweeps the liberated
gases out through a vent at the top of the vessels, while deaerated water collects in a
storage section at the bottom. The vent is equipped with a condenser through which cold
feed water flows to prevent excessive wastage of steam. The oxygen concentration of less
than 0.007 ppm can be obtained through this method. Because of volatilization of CO2
and thermal decomposition of bicarbonate the pH of deaerated water is normally between
8.5 & 9.5.
2 HCO3
H+

HCO3

CO3 +

CO2

CO2

H2O

H2O

So far the mechanical deaeration has been discussed. Now it may be seen how effectively
the corrosive oxygen can be removed with the help of chemicals. There are two
chemicals, which are primarily used to remove oxygen.
a. Sodium Sulphite.
b. Hydrazine.

20

Sodium Sulphite is commonly used in boilers operating at less than 60 kg/cm2. While
hydrazine is the reducing agent at higher pressures. The reaction of hydrazine is as
follows:
N2H4

O2

3N2H4
2NH3

CO2

N2

2H2O.

4NH3 +

(NH4)2CO3 ( at 270 0C)

N2 ( at 2000C )

Effect of time and temperature on reactions between hydrazine and dissolved oxygen.
Nitrogen being inert gas liberated and is removed as non-condensable gas.
Advantages of hydrazine treatment are ;
Low equivalent weight.
Does not increase dissolved solid content of drum water.
Disadvantages of hydrazine treatment are :
Vapour toxic nature.
Excess of hydrazine at high temperature disintegrates into ammonia.
Concentrated solution of hydrazine is flammable.
At the economizer inlet the concentration of hydrazine is to be limited to 0.050 ppm.
The presence of porous deposits on the water side of boiler tubes lead to serious
corrosion, especially when there is free alkali in the water. Various conditioners are
added to disperse insoluble materials and prevent the accumulation of sludge on surface
where the heat is transferred. Recently polyacrylates and other synthetic polymers have
come into use.
Small amount of particulate matter comprising finely divided oxides of copper often
contaminate condensate. These oxides, besides to causing foaming deposit on boiler
tubes at a rate proportional to the heat flux. The rate of deposition increases rapidly above
55 kg/cm2. The presence of these deposits causes over heating of the tubes and
sometimes-ductile hanging. Direct reaction of steel with particles of ferric oxide is also
possible.
4Fe2O3
II.

Fe+

3Fe3O4

Monitoring Feed / Condensate water pH :

21

The metallic surface on the water side of a boiler tube is naturally protected by a thin film
of magnetite formed by the action of hot water on steel.
3Fe

4H2O =

Fe3O4 +

4H2

Ideally there is no further oxidation of metal after the protective layer is formed. The
minimum rate of corrosion is realized at pH value 11 to 12. At lower pH values hydrogen
ions are discharged where as the values greater than 12, the magnetite layer thickness
peptizes (digest) to some extent and is made porous by diffusion of ions from underlying
metal. Above pH value of 13, the magnetic layer is completely destroyed. With the
pressure above 40 kg/cm2 hydrogen may diffuse into metal blistering and weakening it
severely. Hydrogen atom reacts with carbon in steel to form methane. The pressure
generated in this may cause fissures along the grain boundaries, so ideally the pH of 8.5
to 9.5 should be maintained. The recirculation of small amount of alkaline boiler water
through BFP has been recommended but this can lead to plugging of feed lines in
economizer, feed water heaters by insoluble phosphate.
At lower pH values than 8.5 in the drum , the removable sludge formed by phosphate
treatment of scale forming salts becomes very sticky itself. Also at lower pH values the
silica carry over (Distribution Ratio x1/pH) increases very rapidly, not to say rapidly
increasing rate of corrosion due to pH values lower than those recommended.
3. STEAM CONTAMINATION :
Carryover of salts in steam occurs either due to mechanical or vapour carryover. Efficient
drum internal scan only reduce mechanical carryover. Silica is always carried over in
vapourous form. The vapourous carryover of remaining salts mainly sodium salts is
significant only at pressure above 180 kg/cm2. The carryover may occur in the following
four types:
i.
Leakage carryover.
ii.
Spray or mist carryover.
iii.
Priming.
iv.
Foaming.
i. Leakage Carryover :
Leakage of water droplets through seals or gasketed joints of steam purifying equipment
cause this type of carryover. It is usually highly localized and may not be detected in
steam purity test unless the sampling points are very near to the leakage point. This will
be revealed that steam purity will deteriorate with increase in load. The change water
level may not alter the degree of contamination.

22

At this type of carryover is most frequently localized. This causes for localized super
heater failure. It is suspected then new gasketing or seal welding may be required to
eliminate this problem.
ii. Spray or mist carryover:
In this case, atomized droplets of water will be carried with the steam. This is common in
all boilers to some extent. Spray or mist carryover can be avoided by installing steam
purification equipments. If the steam purification equipment is under designed, this will
be present even after the installation of these equipments.
iii. Priming :
It is relatively unimportant in present power plant boilers and is rarely encountered.
Carryover of this type is characterized by a sudden carryover of gross quantities of boiler
water, which would show up a drastic deterioration of steam purity. It can be caused by
the variation in pressure such as large pressure drop. In this case the water in the boiler
would swell due to expansion of steam and formation of additional steam. This action is
similar to the bumping experienced when water is boiled in an open beaker. It is more
violent spasmodic action, resulting in the throwing slugs of boiler water with steam flow.
iv. Foaming :
The important factors that affect the carryover in steam are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Drum and its internals.

Water level in the drum.
Boiler water concentration.
Foaming and vapourous and carryover.

To achieve purity of steam for power or industrial units, mechanical contrivances are
provided inside the boiler drum. These are known as drum internals. They distribute and
mix feed and chemicals added to boiler water while removing entrained moisture from
steam as it leaves the drum.
The three basic effects by the internal arrangements are:

Centrifugal action to produce separation force, which is many times greater than
gravity.

To direct the steam water mixture so that the upward velocity vector is zero.

Provision of drainable wetted surface in which fine spray can coalesced.

23

Foaming is the condition resulting from the formation of bubbles on the surface of boiler
water. The foam produced may entirely fill the steam space of the boiler or may be
relatively minor depth. In either case this foaming condition causes appreciable
entrainments of boiler water with steam. Generally presence of organic matter and/or oil
will promote foaming.
Silica Carryover :
Certain dissolved solids in the boiler water are carried away with the steam as vapour and
the internals have no control over such vapourous carryover. One of the detrimental
constituents is silica. In order to limit silica carryover, the concentration of silica in the
drum water must be limited to a specified value for a given operating pressure range.
In order to control the silica in boiler water, the most effective method used is blowdown.
Blow-down :
As steam leaves the boiler, solids introduced in feed water are concentrated in the water
left behind in the drum. If this concentration were allowed to continue, the less soluble
components in the water eventually crystallize on the internal surface and in addition, the
steam would contaminate .In ideal operation, the concentration of solids is allowed to
reach the limit after which the concentrated boiler water is bled off at such a rate that the
amount of solids entering in feed water is exactly balanced by that method in bleed
steam. This process is called continuous blow-down.
Suspended solids in the presence of iron tend to collect as sludge in the lower parts of
boiler i.e. down-comers or ring header. Opening the intermittent blow-down can blow out
the concentrated sludge. The turbulence caused by opening the valve disperses the
sludge. So there is no point in leaving the valve open longer than 15 secs. It is usual
boiler practice that water wall headers should never been blown down because the
circulation of water through them is usually critical when the boiler is on load.
The outlet of CBD should be below the level where the riser tubes enter the steam drum
because this is where the dissolved solids in recirculating water are most concentrated.
Chemicals for internal treatment (phosphate, sulphite etc.) should be introduced above
the down-comer tubes to prevent sludging on the hot risers, and also to promote mixing
and reaction with salines in the entering feed water. If the chemicals are injected near the
blow-down outlet, short circulating will occur.

24

Continuous blow-down is the most effective way for controlling the amount of solids in
boiler water after the rate of withdrawal has been adjusted properly. If the rate of blowdown is too high, heat and water are wasted, if too low the permissible limits will be
exceeded.
f. CONDENSER LEAKAGE
Condenser leakage is a major source for corrosion. The type of cooling water and its interaction
with boiler water determines whether boiler water pH will become more acidic or alkaline during
a period of condenser leakage. It is very important to prevent condenser leakage of sea water as it
results in acidic boiler water. The hardness chloride salts present abundantly in sea water
generate hydrochloric acids at boiler water temperatures.
Uncontrolled large leakages of sea water can cause within hours extensive corrosion (hydrogen
damage) of water wall tubes. There should be no hesitation to shutdown and save the unit if
boiler water specifications, as recommended cannot be maintained during the condenser leakage.
Any unit should have an on-line instrument with a cation column at the outlet of condenser to
monitor conductivity continuously and detect immediately any condenser leakage.

AUTOMATIC VALVELESS GARVITY FILTER (AVGF)

Automatic valve-less gravity filter (AVGF) operates automatically, on the loss of head principle.
Around 3 5% of CW Pump discharge water is taken into this AVGF system for filtration. It is
used as Side Stream Filtration. Unfiltered water falls from a Raw Water Chamber and passes
downward through a filter. After filtration the filter water level increases and enters into
Backwash storage tank and another part of filter water passes through filter water outlet line.
During the process of filtration the filter is gradually chocked by silts, mud, etc. and unfiltered
water level above the filter bed starts increasing. As a result water level increases inside the
backwash pipe line. When the water reaches to its optimum level, backwash starts due to
symphonic action. When the water level inside backwash water chamber falls below the siphon
breaker inlet line backwashing stops and again normal filtration starts.

25

When more than one filter is used, the flow is divided equally among all the filters by means of a
flow splitting box. In addition, an interlock between filters is provided to prevent more than one
unit backwashing at any time.

26