Running Head: HURRICANE INTERACTIONS WITH THE EARTH SYSTEM

Impact of Hurricanes on the Earth System and the Effects of the

Spheres on the Storms Evolution
Nayiri Krzysztofowicz
Virginia Earth System Science Scholars

HURRICANE INTERACTIONS WITH THE EARTH SYSTEM

Abstract
Hurricanes are one of the strongest, most destructive natural disasters that occur on Earth.
Caused by atmospheric disturbances and powered by warm, moist air, the storms evolve into
swirling masses of destruction. The storms both affect and are affected by the atmosphere,
biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Hurricanes cause strong winds in the atmosphere and
flooding and erosion in the lithosphere, which in turn pollutes the hydrosphere and destroys the
biosphere. Likewise, the land mass of the lithosphere and the shearing winds of the atmosphere
cause the hurricane to dissipate, while the heating atmosphere from global warming is thought to
eventually lead to an increased frequency of hurricanes. Overall, hurricanes illustrate the
interactions among the spheres of the Earth System and the spheres constant interdependency.

HURRICANE INTERACTIONS WITH THE EARTH SYSTEM

Impact of Hurricanes on the Earth System and the Effects of the

Spheres on the Storms Evolution
The hurricane has been called the greatest storm on Earth. Known to have sustained
winds of over 155 miles per hour, the hurricane can release during its life cycle as much energy
as 10,000 nuclear bombs (Graham, 2006). Because of its tremendous amount of energy, the
hurricane affects every sphere of the Earth System; it causes flooding in the hydrosphere, erosion
of the lithosphere, and strong winds in the atmosphere, which all contribute to the destruction of
the biosphere. However, the Earth System also possesses significant impacts on hurricanes;
warmer atmospheric and hydrosphere temperatures lead to conditions conducive to hurricane
formation, while land masses and high-altitude shear winds lead to its dissipation.
Hurricane Overview
Location
Hurricanes form in the Atlantic Ocean along the equator, where the water is warmest. All
recent major hurricanes formed in this area of the ocean. Hurricane Katrina, the most destructive
hurricane in history, formed August 23rd, 2005, over the southeastern Bahamas (Medlin, 2015).
In 2008, Hurricane Ike started as a tropical depression on September 1st, approximately 1750
miles east of Puerto Rico (Hurricane Ike, 2014). Almost four years ago, in 2012, Hurricane
Sandy formed in the central Caribbean on October 22nd (Hurricane Sandy, n.d.).
All the above locations of hurricane formation, whether around the Bahamas, Puerto
Rico, or Caribbean, are areas of warm atmospheric and ocean temperatures, leading to an
abundance of heat and water vapor, which act as energy to fuel the developing hurricanes.

HURRICANE INTERACTIONS WITH THE EARTH SYSTEM

Storm Formation and Evolution

Hurricanes are prevalent in the summer and early fall months of the year (June 1st
November 30th), since these times are when warm, moist air is most prevalent (Graham, 2006). A
hurricane begins as nothing more than a tropical disturbance over the Atlantic Ocean, though it
evolves into a powerful environmental phenomenon that causes widespread destruction and
damage.
Tropical Disturbance. Hurricanes begin as a tropical disturbance over the Atlantic
Ocean. This disturbance often consists of a thunderstorm over an area of warm water that pulls in
warm surface air from all directions and begins a slight circulation of the warm air and water
vapor (Stages of Development, n.d.).
Tropical Depression. Once the tropical disturbance has winds reaching at least 20 knots,
it becomes classified as a tropical depression. Tropical depressions have at least one closed
isobar (area of constant pressure) with lower pressure at the center of the storm (Stages of
Development, n.d.).
Tropical Storm. The storm becomes classified as a tropical storm when its wind reaches
35 knots. The tropical storm resembles hurricanes because of its increased air circulation
(Stages of Development, n.d.).
Hurricane. Finally, the tropical storm becomes a hurricane when wind speeds reach 65
knots. As the hurricane gains energy, surface pressures continue to drop. The hurricane consists
of well defined rotations about a central core with rain bands around the eye of the storm
(Stages of Development, n.d.).

HURRICANE INTERACTIONS WITH THE EARTH SYSTEM

Components
Eye. The eye of a hurricane is an area of sinking air and light winds at the center of the
storm, normally between 10 and 65 kilometers in diameter. Containing no clouds, the eye is the
calmest part of the storm because the strong winds along the surface of the Earth spin around the
eye, never reaching the exact center of the hurricane (Graham, 2006).
Eye Wall. In contrast with the eye of the hurricane, the eye wall is a ring of
thunderstorms that produce the heaviest rainfall and strongest winds in the hurricane (Stages of
Development, n.d.).
Rain Bands. The rain bands circulate about the eye of the hurricane, and lead to the
storms rotation. These bands are composed of clouds that spiral around the eye (Graham, 2006).
Outflow. The outflow of the hurricane is the air that spreads out over the top of the
storm, which is important in the development of the hurricane. The air consists of clouds above
the hurricane at heights over 35,000ft in the atmosphere (Graham, 2006).
Earth System Interactions
Hurricanes Effects on the Spheres
Storm Surge, Flooding, and Erosion. The low pressure of the hurricane pulls up the
water level, causing a storm surge along the shore, leading to massive destruction to life and
property. The surge combines with normal tides, causing the level of water to increase by more
than 15 feet (Stages of Development, n.d.). The storm surge causes large-scale erosion of the
lithosphere, even leading to changes to the coastline as the shore erodes in the storm. Finally, the
flooding of the hurricane kills many components of the surrounding biosphere, such as trees and
vegetation.
Winds. The hurricane causes high speed winds in the atmosphere, which leads to the
erosion of the lithosphere. The wind also uproots the trees of the biosphere and leads to severe
damage in the biosphere.
Tornadoes. When hurricanes pass over land, they often provide the conditions needed to
create a tornado. The lithosphere causes the winds of the hurricane to slow down faster at the

HURRICANE INTERACTIONS WITH THE EARTH SYSTEM

surface than at high elevations, causing a vertical wind shear that leads to tornado formation
(Hurricanes and Tornadoes, 2012).
Pollution. The destruction of a hurricane causes large-scale pollution. Its flooding leads
to erosion in the lithosphere, which in turn causes the pollution of the hydrosphere and often
contaminates many fresh water sources that the biosphere relies on. The high speed winds also
cause the displacement of many components of the lithosphere, leading to the contamination of
surrounding areas as materials such as waste are blown into other areas.
Effects of Spheres on Hurricanes
Passing Over Land. When a hurricane passes over a land mass, it weakens because of
the sudden lack of warm moist air, present over the ocean. The hurricane, after much destruction
of the lithosphere, eventually dies out over the lithosphere as it releases all its energy, which is no
longer replenished by the abundant water vapor normally found above the ocean.
Global Warming. The global warming trend of the Earth has caused a rise in
atmospheric temperature, which in turn causes the hydrosphere to heat. Current scientific theory
predicts that a long-term effect of global warming will be an increase in frequency of hurricanes
as well as an increase in the storms average maximum potential; an increase of ocean
temperatures by 2-2.5oF will lead to the average intensity of hurricanes increasing by 6-10
percent (Graham, 2006). The effect of a warmer atmosphere was already seen in 2005, when the
record warm temperatures in the summer led to a larger number of hurricanes that year.
Storms in the Troposphere. A tropical disturbance in the troposphere of the atmosphere
is what causes the initial spark in the formation of a hurricane. In addition, high rainfall density
is an important ingredient in hurricane formation, and is tracked by NASA instruments such as
the TRMM Precipitation Radar to detect whether massive tropical thunderstorms could cause a
hurricane to begin developing (Gutro, 2003).
Warm and Cold Waters. In order for a hurricane to form, water at the oceans surface
must be at least 27oC. Warm water leads to more water vapor, which stores a large amount of

HURRICANE INTERACTIONS WITH THE EARTH SYSTEM

energy from the sun. As the vapor rises, cools, and condenses into clouds, it releases that energy,
which is used to power the hurricane.
Cold waters, in turn, are powerful forces that dissipate hurricanes. After passing over
such waters, the hurricane loses much of its energy because of the cold waters inability to
provide warm, moist tropical air for the hurricane to use as its energy source (Graham, 2006).
El Nio and La Nia. El Nio refers to the phenomenon where the ocean surface
becomes warmer than normal in the central east Pacific Ocean. It increases hurricane activity in
the Eastern Pacific and decreases in the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. This is
because El Nio causes a vertical wind shear over the Caribbean and Atlantic while less wind
shear in the Eastern Pacific. La Nia consists of the cooling of water along the equatorial Pacific.
Therefore, it suppresses hurricane activity in the Eastern Pacific and increases it in the Atlantic
(Bell, 2014).

HURRICANE INTERACTIONS WITH THE EARTH SYSTEM

Shearing Wind. When a hurricane moves into an area where strong winds high in the
atmosphere disperse latent heat, it dissipates because of the reduction of warm temperatures and
the increase in surface pressure (Graham, 2006).
Conclusion
Overall, hurricanes erode the lithosphere, destroy the biosphere, and pollute the
hydrosphere. The spheres in turn affect the hurricane, with land and shearing winds dissipating
the hurricane, and the presence of warm water and the global warming trends causing an increase
in hurricanes. The hurricanes evolution is a perfect microcosm for the interactions between the
spheres of the Earth System; by analyzing hurricanes, we are actually exploring the
interdependency of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.

HURRICANE INTERACTIONS WITH THE EARTH SYSTEM

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