What Factors Support or Prevent Teachers from Using

ICT in their Classrooms?

Margaret Cox, Christina Preston and Kate Cox
King's College London, MirandaNet Project University of Surrey

Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference,

University of Sussex at Brighton, September 2-5 1999.

Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to report on the findings of a small project funded by the
Teacher Training Agency and Oracle through the MirandaNet project, set up to
investigate the factors which have contributed to the continuing use of ICT by
experienced ICT and ICT teachers in their teaching. Evidence has been collected
through a literature search, teacher questionnaires, teachers' reports and interviews. The
factors which were found to be most important to these teachers in their teaching were:
making the lessons more interesting, easier, more fun for them and their pupils, more
diverse, more motivating for the pupils and more enjoyable. Additional more personal
factors were improving presentation of materials, allowing greater access to computers
for personal use, giving more power to the teacher in the school, giving the teacher
more prestige, making the teachers' administration more efficient and providing
professional support through the Internet.

1 Introduction
This research project was set up to investigate the factors which motivate teachers to use
ICT and to sustain their use of ICT in teaching. The aim of the project was to use the
factors identified to inform the professional development requirements of practising
teachers to enable them to use ICT appropriately in their teaching. The idea from the
project came from the experience of two projects, MirandaNet, directed by Christina
Preston, and the ICT and Motivation project, conducted by Margaret Cox to investigate
the effects of ICT on the motivation of pupils. More details about the project is reported
in Cox, Preston and Cox (1999).

The purpose of this paper is to present the findings of the literature review conducted
by the project and the research results relating to the uptake of ICT in teaching obtained
from a range of data collected through a survey of ICT and ICT teachers, records of
MirandaNET members' uses of ICT.

2 Evidence from previous research

Over the past 25 years, alongside a series of national and local programmes for the
development of ICT in education, there have been research studies of the uptake of ICT
in education. These include studies of the effects of teacher training (Cox, Rhodes & Hall
1988), levels of resources (Cox, 1993), teachers' pedagogies and practices (Watson, 1993),
and teachers attitudes (Woodrow, 1990). For detailed research papers on many of these
aspects see Passey and Samways (1997). Many of these studies have shown that inspite
of teacher training programmes, an increase in ICT resources and the requirements of
national curricula there has been a disappointingly slow uptake of ICT in schools by the
majority of teachers. Some of the reasons for this lack of more widespread uptake of ICT
are discussed in more detail below.
2.1 Understanding the need for change
In a study of projects to promote educational changes in America, Canada and the UK,
Fullan (1991) found that one of the most fundamental problems in education reform is
that people do not have a clear and coherent sense of the reasons for educational
change, what it is and how to proceed. Thus there is much faddism, superficiality,
confusion, failure of a change programme, unwarranted and misdirected resistance and
misunderstood reform. They maintain that teachers who resist change are not rejecting
the need for change but they are often the people who are expected to lead
developments when they lack the necessary education in the management of change
and are given insufficient long term opportunities to make sense of the new
technologies for themselves.
2.2 Questioning professional practice
There are many studies which have shown that teachers are "not given to questioning
their professional practice" (Underwood, 1997). Once they have finished their initial
training they do not expect to need much further training therefore do not take the
initiative to improve their practice and learn new skills. Desforges (1995), in a literature
review of the shift from novice to expert teachers, found that "many teachers are
perfectly well satisfied with their practices and are unlikely to question prevailing

educational processes" (Feiman-Nemser & Buchanan (1985) in Desforges (1995)). In

order for teachers to make changes to their professional practice, according to Desforges
"a considerable effort is necessary to create the possibilities of restructuring knowledge
(about teaching and learning) in the face of experience............... In regard to old
knowledge we can speculate that the impact of new experience (e.g. using ICT) will be
severely attenuated if it is in conflict with teachers' basic ontological categories, e.g. their
beliefs about the nature of their job or the nature of childhood". Therefore if teachers see
no need to change or question their current professional practice they may not accept
the use of ICT in their teaching
2.3 Pedagogical practice versus technical skills
Previous studies (Cox et al, 1988, Cox, 1994) have shown that until recently the majority
of courses offered in the UK to train teachers in the uses of ICT have focused on the
technical aspects of ICT with little training about the pedagogical practices required and
how to incorporate ICT in the curriculum. In many ICT professional development
courses, teachers are not often taught how to revise their pedagogical practices, how to
replace other traditional lessons without depleting the curriculum coverage and so on.
This means that after teachers had attended a course they still did not know how to use
ICT for teaching pupils, They only knew how to run certain software packages and to
fix the printer. There were many such courses offered all round the UK which had very
little long term impact on the uptake of ICT in schools.
2.4 Support from the whole school
Much research by Fullan (1991) and others has shown that the most effective way to
bring about the adoption of an innovation in schools is to engage the whole school in a
democratic process of planning change. This means that all the teachers are involved in
the decision to adopt ICT in the school and are supportive of any individual teacher
going on a course and willing to learn from their new knowledge and skills when they
return. If the school, and particularly the head teacher, are not committed to adopting
change and particularly ICT, then if one teacher goes on a course, the rest of the school
sets up antibodies to any new ideas which the unfortunate teacher brings back into the
school. The last thing the other teachers will then do is to change their practice.
2.5 Losing control of the learning
The majority of teachers first priority is to maintain order in the classroom and to have a
controlled learning environment. Any suggestion of adopting very innovative teaching
techniques such as using ICT is therefore seen as threatening this orderly pattern and

therefore not desirable. There is a genuine fear amongst many teachers about ICT and
scepticism of its value to their pupils
2.6 Inadequate resources
Even if the above problems are overcome there is often a difficulty for teachers who
have had some training to be able to use ICT because there are insufficient ICT resources
in the school or there is not enough time to review then and plan lessons incorporating
their use.
In spite of the problems listed above and many others, some positive things have been
learnt from previous experiences of different initiatives and training programmes.
Where schools have had the backing of the head teacher and there is a long term policy
for the school to integrate ICT into the teaching then they have been successful in
gradually developing the use of ICT in different areas.
Projects in which individual teachers have been given portable computers to develop
their own personal ICT skills have shown that teachers then start to use them in their
teaching as well. (NCET, 1994)
Teachers who have gone on longer courses, spread over a year have had the time to
practice in between sessions back in schools and have had the time to assimilate enough
expertise and knowledge to be able to continue to use them within their curriculum.
(Cox, Rhodes & Hall, 1988).
More recently, studies of teachers who belong to an Internet network of supporting
teachers, such as the MirandaNet, have shown that the support enables them to use
them in their teaching even if few other teachers in the school are doing so (Preston,
1999).
Lessons from the past have shown us that there are effective as well as ineffective
strategies for providing professional development for teachers which will lead to their
successful integration of ICT in their teaching. The next section discusses some of the
specific skills which teachers need to have to make the best use of ICT in the classroom

3 Factors contributing to using ICT in the classroom

As a result of the literature review discussed above and in Cox, Preston and Cox (1999),
there are a number of factors which have been identified which might influence and
support teachers in using ICT in the classroom. In order to investigate these factors

further in relation to teachers' ICT use we have used Ajzen's theories of attitudes and
behaviour (Ajzen, 1988) and Weiner's review of motivation (Weiner, 1990), discussed
more fully in the other BERA conference paper on motivation (Cox, Preston, and Cox,
1999). For the purpose of this paper we have considered a wider range of supporting or
preventing factors, relating these to the theory of Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw (1989),
discussed below.
Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw (1989) developed a theory of 'action relating to reasons'
(Technology acceptance model) based on the work of Fishbein and Ajzen (in Davis et al,
1989) to investigate the reasons why some people use computers and their attitudes
towards them. Their model, shown in Figure 1, links the perceived usefulness and ease
of use with attitude towards using ICT and actual use (system use). They tested this
model with 107 adult users, who had been using a managerial system for 14 weeks.
They found that people's computer use was predicted by their intentions to use it and
that perceived usefulness was also strongly linked to these intentions.

Figure 1 - Technology acceptance model (Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1989)

Firstly we consider the factors influencing the uptake of ICT identified and discussed in
section 2 in relation to this model
3.1 External variables
In Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw's model, the external variables represent the many
influences on teachers which come from outside their sphere of control. These will
include:
the requirements of a national curriculum or national guidelines;

 requirements in England and Wales of the Teacher Training Agency's ICT skills of
new teachers;
the new national opportunities fund for the training of teachers in the UK;
the changes in society with the rapid growth in the uses of the Internet and ICT in
general;
school policies on using ICT;
opinions of colleagues;
responsibilities of the teacher;
pressure from parents and pupils;
the influence of the local education authority.
Although these have been identified as very important by a number of research studies,
in leading teachers to understand the need for change and to question their professional
practice, discussed earlier, only a few could be investigated within the scope of this
project. The main focus of our research is on how teachers perceive ICT's contribution to
teaching and learning, and whether this is in conflict with their pedagogical and
epistemological beliefs. These factors come within Davis et al's perceived usefulness and
perceived ease of use components.
3.2 Perceived ease of use
From previous studies there are a number of factors which have been identified which
relate to the perceived ease of use of ICT, which in our case is for experienced practising
ICT/IT users. The Impact project (Watson, 1993) and other studies identified a wide
range of skills and competencies which teachers felt they needed in order to find ICT
easy to use. Some of these are given in Table 1 below.
Table 1 - Positive and negative factors influencing perceived ease of use
Positive factors

Negative factors

regular use and experience of ICT

outside the classroom

difficulties in using software/hardware

ownership of a computer

need more technical support

confidence in using ICT

not enough time to use ICT

easy to control the class

is too expensive to use regularly

easy to think of new lesson ideas

insufficient access to the resources

can get help and advice from

colleagues

restricts the content of the lessons

3.3 Perceived usefulness

If teachers see no need to question or change their professional practice then according
to studies discussed in section 2.2, they are unlikely to adopt the use of ICT. However, if
they perceive ICT to be useful to them, their teaching and their pupils' learning, then
according to the empirical evidence of previous studies (see also Cox, Preston and Cox,
1999) they are more likely to have a positive attitude to the use of ICT in the classroom.
In our review of the literature we identified a number of factors which will contribute to
teachers' perceived usefulness of ICT. Some of these factors are given in Table 2 below.

Table 2 - Positive and negative factors influencing perceived usefulness

Positive factors

Negative factors

makes my lessons more interesting

makes my lessons more difficult

makes my lessons more diverse

makes my lessons less fun

has improved the presentation of

materials for my lessons

reduces pupils' motivation

gives me more prestige

impairs pupils' learning

makes my administration more

efficient

restricts the content of the lessons

gives me more confidence

is not enjoyable

makes the lessons more fun

takes up too much time

enhances my career prospects

is counter-productive due to
insufficient technical resources

help[s me to discuss teaching ideas

Teachers' attitudes to many of these factors will depend upon how easy they perceive
using ICT to be on a personal level as well as for teaching in the classroom.
According to Davis et al's technology acceptance model shown in Figure 1, the more
positive the responses to the above factors of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of
use, then the more positive the attitudes of teachers will be to the use of ICT and the
more likely they will be to use ICT in their teaching. One major aim of our research
project was to investigate the reliability of this model using experienced ICT teachers,
and to find out which of the factors were considered to be important to the sample of
teachers.

4 The Study
Informal research by the MirandaNet project began in 1992 with the collection of the
reports from the MirandaNet members. This was followed by the commissioned study
which began in May 1998. The research is now in the final stage of analysis and
reporting. For a more detailed description of all the research objectives, see Cox, Preston
and Cox (1999).
The focus of this paper is on the investigation into the factors which contributed to the
perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use discussed in section 2. The project
methodology is discussed briefly below. A more detailed description is given in the
paper on motivation (Cox, Preston and Cox, 1999).
4.1 Research methodology
In order to investigate the factors which influence the uptake of ICT, a range of methods
were used to collect evidence from practising teachers.
Stage 1 Literature Search and Examination of MirandaNet Data
Stage 1 involved:
the analysis of a range of paper based and electronically based evidence collected
from members of MirandaNet since 1992.

 an on-going literature review of other research publications and practical accounts of

the motivation of teachers to use ICT and other relevant factors about teachers' uptake
of ICT in their teaching.
Stage 2 Questionnaire survey
A questionnaire was designed to collect evidence from teachers and other educators
about their ICT experiences, expertise and use in teaching, their attitudes to the value of
ICT for teaching and learning, the training they had received and, when relevant, their
reasons for being a member of an association. The main sections in the questionnaire are
shown in Table 3 below. The complete questionnaire will be provided in the final report
of the project.
Table 3 - Main sections of the ICT in education questionnaire
Section Title of section

Type of information requested

Number
of items

Personal information

name, age, teaching commitments, subjects

taught

16

Personal use of
computers

ownership, type of computer, ICT skills, ICT

uses, Internet uses

24

Use of computers in
school/institution

number of years used, types of use, use in

teaching, Web sites valued

23

Using ICT in your

teaching

value and difficulties of using ICT,

advantages and disadvantages of using ICT

33

Using the Internet in

your teaching

number of staff with email addresses, useful

Web sites, Internet services, NGFL issues,
purpose of using the Internet

48

Professional
development

Types of courses attended, membership of

professional associations, benefits of inservice
training, types of training received and its
location, contribution to the professional
development of others

25

Using ICT for

administration

types of ICT use, responsibility for task

Professional association
information

purpose of membership, length of

membership, perceived value of service

25

provided

Total number of items

203

The sample who were sent the questionnaire consisted of:

15 members of MirandaNet, with an extra 2 each to give to their colleagues (total 45);
15 members of The National Association of Co-ordinators and IT Teachers (ACITT),
with an extra 2 each to give to their colleagues (total 45);
15 members of Teachernet UK with an extra 2 each to give to their colleagues (total
45).
Two further stages involved designing a framework for the professional development of
teachers (Stage 3) and a focus group meeting (Stage 4) to consider the issues revealed
during stages 1, 2 and 3 of the project and to obtain further feedback on these issues and
our analysis from practising teachers.
4.2 Research evaluation strategies
The research evaluation strategies involved:
(a) Qualitative analyses of the MirandaNet data and evidence from the literature;
(b) Design, pilot evaluation and modification of the questionnaire. (The design of the
questionnaire was reviewed by 10 peers from four different associations and was
revised in the light of their feedback).
(c) Quantitative analysis of the questionnaire;
(c) Evaluation of the framework and recommendations for dissemination
The focus group of 20 teachers and other educators, many of whom also responded to
the questionnaire, was used to review the results and contribute to more detailed
explanations relating to the specific responses to the questionnaire and other data.

5 Results

Results relevant to this paper, focusing on the teachers' perceived ease of use and
perceived usefulness are presented here in three subsections. The first consists of the
variables describing the sample. The second subsection presents the results relevant to
factors associated with perceived ease of use. The third consists of the relevant factors
about perceived usefulness. The data from the questionnaire has been analysed using
SPSS and EXCEL Further results about specific factors regarding the motivation of
teachers are discussed in Cox, Preston and Cox (1999). The interpretation of the uptake
of ICT results are discussed in Section 6.
5.1 Description of the questionnaire sample
Questionnaires were returned by 82 educators, 60.7% of the total of 135 questionnaires
that were sent. Table 4 and Figure 2 show the proportion of male and female
respondents and the distribution of ages respectively.
Table 4 - Biological sex of the respondents
Sex

Number

Percent

male

44

61.1

female

28

38.9

The mean age of the respondents was 42 years, which shows that, for our sample of
experienced ICT users, the majority were in the middle aged bracket. This is contrary to
some previous research findings reported in the literature that ICT is mostly conducted
by newly qualified and younger teachers, although since many of the secondary school
respondents held senior positions in their own departments, i.e. as IT/ICT co-ordinator,
it is not unexpected that they would have several years' teaching experience already and
therefore be older than the majority of newly qualified teachers.

Figure 2 - Age distribution of sample

There were many more males than females in the sample, which could be due to there
being more male IT teachers and co-ordinators nationally. The detailed reasons for this
can be investigated at a later stage.
The majority of the sample were not members of the professional organisations that
were targeted for this project. 37 respondents were from the three associations, namely
MirandaNet, ACITT, and TeacherNet, whereas the remaining 45 were their colleagues.
The distribution of the groups of the respondents is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 4 below shows the distribution of the phases in which the respondents teach. The
majority were teachers in secondary schools with just over a quarter from primary
schools. A very small minority stated that they teach in the 6th form or were involved in
cross phase work. Some of the respondents were teacher educators or held other
positions outside of schools. Figure 5 shows the job distribution of the respondents,
indicating that the largest group were IT teachers or co-ordinators, with 20% being
other class teachers, and approximately 20% being managers. The remainder (under
10%) were in a range of other educational positions, such as librarians, special needs
teachers and IT technicians.

Figure 3 - Distribution of the groups of the respondents

Figure 4 - Distribution of respondents by education sector

5.2 Teachers' perceptions about perceived ease of use

Data presented here relates to the factors given in Table 1, regular use and experience,
ownership of a computer, confidence in using ICT. The results are presented in three
sections, personal home use, administrative use and use in the classroom
Personal home use
Figure 6 shows the most frequent uses of ICT at home being word-processing, and Table
5 below shows that at least 76% of the teachers
performed a range of IT basic tasks, such as formatting disks and file management at
home.

Figure 6 - the forms of ICT use made most frequently at home

Table 5 - ICT tasks performed by teachers at home

No. of
respondents

% of
responses

% of cases

load software

74

16.2

97.4

format disks

65

14.2

85.5

virus checking

59

12.9

77.6

file management

72

15.8

94.7

connecting to external devices

69

15.1

90.8

using help facilities

60

13.1

78.9

creating sub directories

58

12.7

76.3

Task

Only three people did not have access to a computer at home with over 75% having
Email at home, shown in Figure 7 below.

Similar data were collected from a range of factors relating to the personal
use of ICT, indicating that the large majority of the teachers perceived that they had no
difficulties with using software and hardware and that they were confident in using ICT
for their personal requirements.
Administrative use
Teachers were asked a range of questions about using ICT for correspondence, timetabling, preparing worksheets, pupils records and assessing pupils. The majority of the
respondents use ICT for many of this tasks with little evidence of any difficulties in this
use. Most of the respondents agreed that it made their administration more efficient
Teaching use
A list of all the questions relating to the teachers' opinions about how easy it was to use
ICT in the classroom are provided in Appendix A. The results are also correlated with
each other and with the teachers' extent of ICT use. These results show that many of the
factors reported in previous studies as deterring teachers from using ICT and given in
Table 1, were not found to be prominent amongst our sample of experienced ICT and IT
teachers. Some of these results are given in more detail below.

Figure 8 - Responses relating to the extent to which using ICT makes it difficult to
control the class
Figure 8 shows that the majority of the sample disagreed that using ICT in a lessons
made the class more difficult to control. Similar findings were obtained for other ease of
use factors, with less agreement in some cases:
ICT makes the lesson more difficult for me - majority disagreed
ICT makes preparing the lessons more difficult - majority disagreed, but with a
significant minority agreeing;
Hardware and software problems often disrupt lessons - majority agreed;
Using ICT in teaching is expensive - majority agreed.
There were specific aspects still perceived as inadequate, for example Figure 9 shows
that over 65% of the respondents would like more ICT resources for their teaching.

Figure 9 - Distribution of teachers wanting more resources

Although some of the responses given above indicate that there are some negative
influences on the teachers' perceived ease of use of ICT, they all reported regular use in
their personal life and in their teaching. The results below show the teachers
perceptions of the usefulness of ICT in their teaching.
5.3 Perceived usefulness of ICT in teaching
Analysis of the full list of factors relating to class use shown in Appendix A reveals a
very positive attitude amongst the majority of the teachers to using ICT in their
teaching. The majority (85%) agreed that using ICT made their lessons more interesting,
and 90% thought that ICT made their lessons more enjoyable.

Figure 10- Responses relating to the extent to which IT was considered to make
lessons more interesting

Figure 11- Responses relating to the extent to which using IT in teaching was
considered to be unenjoyable
The responses to other perceived usefulness factors include:
makes lessons more fun - 75% agreed
lesson more diverse - 95% agreed
improves presentation of materials 95% agreed
and for negative factors:
makes lessons more difficult 65% disagreed
reduces pupils' motivation 70% disagreed
impairs pupils learning 95% disagreed

Figure 12- Responses relating to the extent to which using IT in teaching enhances
their career prospects

Data were also collected about the teachers' perceptions relating to other benefits of
using ICT. Figure 12 above shows that s significant minority of respondents believed
that using ICT enhanced their career prospects.
Additional factors included:
ICT gives me more power in school
About 1/3 said they agreed/strongly agreed with this, although further analysis of this
result is needed since many of the respondents were already heads of departments or
deputy heads of schools
ICT gives me more prestige
Again a substantial minority agreed with this
Using ICT in teaching has given me more confidence using computers
most agreed.
Using ICT in teaching has given me greater awareness of its uses
again many agreed.

Substantial data was collected about the effects of previous training and the types of
training the teachers had experienced. We also collected data on the teachers' plans for
extending their uses of ICT to the national grid for learning, as shown in Figure 13, and
the value of the Internet for a range of supporting uses of ICT in their teaching, an
example of which is given in Figure 14. Figures 13 and 14 show that even though the
teachers in the sample were already using ICT extensively in their teaching and still
wished for further resources, they still intended to make further uses of ICT in the
future.

Figure 13- Responses relating to the extent to which teachers plan to use the NGFL in
the future for their teaching

Figure 14 Responses relating to the extent to which teachers value the Internet for
discussing teaching ideas
It seems foolish to attempt to work on ICT development in isolation when with a little
communication, ideas can be shared, discussed and refined
(Design and Technology and co-ordinator of staff ICT training)

6 Conclusions
The review of the previous literature has revealed a range of issues relating to the
uptake of ICT in teaching, including specific factors to do with teachers' perceptions
about the value and use of ICT in their teaching. Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw's model
shows that ease of use and perceived usefulness can have a positive influence on
teachers' use of ICT. Our results have shown that the teachers who are already regular
users of ICT have confidence in using ICT, perceive it to be useful for their personal
work and for their teaching and plan to extend their use further in the future.
The factors which were found to be most important to these teachers in their teaching
were: making the lessons more interesting, easier, more fun for them and their pupils,
more diverse, more motivating for the pupils and more enjoyable. Additional more
personal factors were improving presentation of materials, allowing greater access to
computers for personal use, giving more power to the teacher in the school, giving the
teacher more prestige, making the teachers' administration more efficient and providing
professional support through the Internet.
These findings have implications for training other teachers to become regular users
since as was discussed in section 2, many of the professional development courses focus
on teachers acquiring basic IT skills. Our research has shown that the perceived
usefulness factors are probably equally important to teachers, therefore professional
courses should increase the training of teachers in the pedagogical issues if teachers are
to be convinced of the value of using ICT in their teaching.

Acknowledgements
The project team would like to acknowledge the support for this study from the Teacher
Training Agency, who funded most of the work, Oracle who funded the focus group
and other meetings, conference presentations and teachers' on-line communications,
MirandaNet who initiated the project and whose members provided valuable
information about their uses of Information and Communications Technologies,

members of The National Association of Co-ordinators and IT Teachers (ACITT),

Teachernet UK, and the Learning Circuit who responded to the questionnaire survey
and attended the focus group meeting.
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