Problems in Communication Theory With Solutions

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 Sureohpv dqg Vroxwlrqv
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Hulf E1 Kdoo
Frqwhqwv
4 Ghwhfwlrq Sureohpv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5
414 Ed|hvldq dqg Plqlpd{ Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5
415 Qh|pdqShduvrq Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
416 Orfdoo| Rswlpdo Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <
5 Hvwlpdwlrq Sureohpv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 43
514 Jhqhudo Sureohpv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 43
515 Xqeldvhg Hvwlpdwruv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 44
516 Pd{lpxp Olnholkrrg Hvwlpdwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 46
517 Plqlpxp Phdq Vtxduh Hvwlpdwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 49
518 Kloehuw Vsdfhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:
6 Ghwhfwlrq Vroxwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4<
614 Ed|hvldq dqg Plqlpd{ Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4<
615 Qh|pdqShduvrq Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 56
616 Orfdoo| Rswlpdo Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 76
7 Hvwlpdwlrq Vroxwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 79
714 Jhqhudo Sureohpv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 79
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715 Xqeldvhg Hvwlpdwruv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 83
716 Pd{lpxp Olnholkrrg Hvwlpdwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 86
717 Plqlpxp Phdq Vtxduh Hvwlpdwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 99
718 Kloehuw Vsdfhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :3
41 Ghwhfwlrq Sureohpv
4141 Ed|hvldq dqg Plqlpd{ Whvwv
Sureohp 4141 Dv dq h{dpsoh lq zklfk udqgrpl}dwlrq uhgxfhv wkh pd{lpxp ulvn/ vxssrvh
wkdw d frlq lv nqrzq wr eh hlwkhu vwdqgdug +KW, ru wr kdyh khdgv rq erwk vlghv +KK,1 Wkh
qdwxuh ri wkh frlq lv wr eh ghflghg rq wkh edvlv ri d vlqjoh wrvv/ wkh orvv ehlqj rqh iru dq
lqfruuhfw ghflvlrq dqg }hur iru d fruuhfw ghflvlrq1 Ohw wkh ghflvlrq eh KW zkhq W lv revhuyhg/
dqg ohw wkh ghflvlrq eh pdgh dw udqgrp li K lv revhuyhg zlwk suredelolw| 4 iru KW dqg 4
iru KK1 Vkrz wkdw wkh pd{lpxp ulvn lv plqlpl}hg zkhq 4 ' 1
Sureohp 4151 Frqvlghu d }hur phdq Jdxvvldq udqgrp yduldeoh f zlwk srvlwlyh yduldqfh
j 2 1 Wklv udqgrp yduldeoh lv sdvvhg wkurxjk rqh ri wzr htxdoo| olnho| qrqolqhdulwlhv wr rewdlq
dq rxwsxw t 1 Wkh qxoo k|srwkhvlv Mf lv wkdw t ' f 2 dqg wkh dowhuqdwlyh k|srwkhvlv M lv
wkdw t ' i TEf1 Ghvljq d whvw wkdw rq wkh edvlv ri rqh revhuydwlrq zloo fkrrvh rqh ri wkh
deryh k|srwkhvhv zkloh plqlpl}lqj wkh suredelolw| ri huuru1
Sureohp 4161 Frqvlghu wzr lqghshqghqw/ }hur phdq Jdxvvldq udqgrp yduldeohv f dqg
f2 wkdw xqghu k|srwkhvlv Mf hdfk kdyh xqlw yduldqfh dqg xqghu M hdfk kdyh d yduldqfh
htxdo wr 21 Dvvljq d xqlw frvw wr dq lqfruuhfw ghflvlrq dqg }hur frvw wr d fruuhfw ghflvlrq1
Ilqg d plqlpd{ whvw iru wklv sureohp edvhg xsrq wkh wzr revhuydwlrqv f dqg f2 1
Sureohp 4171 Ohw eh d udqgrp yduldeoh zlwk d ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq jlyhq e|

s E% ' i TEm%m
2
iru doo % 5 U/ dqg frqvlghu d k|srwkhvlv whvwlqj sureohp lq zklfk Mf vwdwhv wkdw t ' dqg
M vwdwhv wkdw t ' n r1 Ohw r ' 2/ dqg dvvxph wkdw wkh sulru suredelolwlhv iru Mf dqg M
duh jlyhq e| f ' f dqg ' fb/ uhvshfwlyho|1 Ghvljq d k|srwkhvlv whvw wkdw plqlpl}hv
wkh suredelolw| ri huuru1 Iru zkdw ydoxhv ri wkh revhuydwlrq t grhv |rxu whvw dqqrxqfh wkdw
wkh vljqdo r lv suhvhqwB
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Sureohp 4181 +D, Ohw X eh d udqgrp yduldeoh zlwk suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq sEw/ dqg
dvvxph wkdw d suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq iru rxu revhuydwlrq f lv jlyhq e| Rw E% zkhq
X ' w1 Vkrz
U wkdw B lv d Ed|hvldq ghflvlrq uxoh li iru hdfk % wkh ghflvlrq BE% lv fkrvhq wr
plqlpl}h U uEwc BE%}Ewm% _w/ zkhuh
sEwRw E%
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lv d frqglwlrqdo suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq ri X jlyhq f ' %1
+E, Frqvlghu d wzr0ghflvlrq sureohp lq zklfk / f dqg / duh/ uhvshfwlyho|/ wkh vhwv ri w0ydoxhv
iru zklfk _f dqg _ duh wkh fruuhfw ghflvlrqv1 Dvvxph wkdw wkh orvv lv f zkhq wkh fruuhfw
ghflvlrq lv pdgh/ dqg rwkhuzlvh lv jlyhq e| uEwc _f ' k li w 5 / dqg uEwc _ ' q li w 5 / f 1
Vkrz wkdw d Ed|hv vroxwlrq frqvlvwv lq fkrrvlqj ghflvlrq _f li
k EX 5 / mf ' % q EX 5 / f mf ' %
dqg ghflvlrq _ li wkh uhyhuvh lqhtxdolw| krogv zkhuh wkh fkrlfh ri ghflvlrq lv lppdwhuldo lq
fdvh ri htxdolw|1
4151 Qh|pdqShduvrq Whvwv
Sureohp 4191 Frqvlghu d Jdxvvldq udqgrp yduldeoh f zlwk phdq w dqg xqlw yduldqfh1 Ohw
kf ' ffD dqg ghvljq d ohyho0kf Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw iru whvwlqj Mf = w ' f djdlqvw M =
w ' fff1 Li zh revhuyh % ' H/ wkhq zloo zh dffhsw ru uhmhfw wkh k|srwkhvlv Mf B Grhv wklv
pdnh vhqvh iru dq rswlpdo whvwB
Sureohp 41:1 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh t dqg wzr suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrqv s dqg
}1 Ohw Mf ghqrwh wkh k|srwkhvlv wkdw t lv glvwulexwhg dffruglqj wr wkh ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq s
dqg ohw M ghqrwh wkh k|srwkhvlv wkdw t lv glvwulexwhg dffruglqj wr wkh ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq }1
D k|srwkhvlv whvw lv ghvljqhg iru wklv vlwxdwlrq vxfk wkdw wkh idovh dodup suredelolw| k ri wkh
whvw lv htxdo wr ff dqg wkh srzhu ri wkh whvw q lv htxdo wr fffbb1 Lv lw srvvleoh wkdw wklv
whvw lv d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw iru wkh ohyho kf ' ffB Zk| ru zk| qrwB
Sureohp 41;1 Frqvlghu d ghwhfwlrq sureohp lq zklfk zh ghvluh wr whvw iru wkh suhvhqfh
ri d ghfd|lqj h{srqhqwldo vljqdo lq }hur phdq/ pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw Jdxvvldq qrlvh1 Zh
zloo edvh rxu ghflvlrq rq & pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw vdpsohv ri wkh uhfhlyhg vljqdo1 Khqfh/ zh
prgho wkh vlwxdwlrq dv iroorzv zkhuh wkh | *v ghqrwh rxu vdpsolqj wlphv=
Mf G f ' iru ' c c &

M G f ' i TE| n iru ' c c &
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Dvvxph wkdw wkh *v duh lghqwlfdoo| glvwulexwhg dqg pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw zlwk kdylqj
d }hur phdq Jdxvvldq glvwulexwlrq zlwk d srvlwlyh yduldqfh ghqrwhg e| j 2 1 Xqiruwxqdwho|/
lq wdnlqj rxu vdpsohv zh hqfrxqwhu d sureohp lq v|qfkurql}lqj wkh forfn dw wkh uhfhlyhu1 Lq
sduwlfxodu/ dvvxph wkdw wkh vdpsolqj wlphv |c c |& duh prghohg dv | ' b w zkhuh b : f
dqg w lv d {hg |hw xqnqrzq sdudphwhu wkdw olhv lq wkh lqwhuydo

b b
c
f f
Ghvljq dqg ghvfuleh d ohyho0kf Qh|pdqShduvrq ghwhfwru iru wklv vlwxdwlrq1 Zkdw lv wkh
wkuhvkrog lq whupv ri kf / b/ j/ &/ dqg wB Grhv wkh wkuhvkrog ghshqg rq wB Ilqg dq
h{suhvvlrq iru q lq whupv ri kf / b/ j/ &/ dqg w1
Sureohp 41<1 Frqvlghu wkh iroorzlqj ghflvlrq sureohp= Mf = t ' iru ' c 2c c &
yhuvxv M = t ' r n iru ' c 2c c &c zkhuh r lv d {hg srvlwlyh frqvwdqw dqg zkhuh wkh
*v duh pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw }hur phdq Jdxvvldq udqgrp yduldeohv hdfk zlwk yduldqfh 21
+D, Ohw & ' b1 Zkdw lv wkh vpdoohvw srvlwlyh vljqdo r iru zklfk d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw zlwk
idovh dodup suredelolw| ff kdv d ghwhfwlrq suredelolw| q fb.B
+E, Ohw r ' 1 Zkdw lv wkh vpdoohvw qxpehu ri revhuydwlrqv & iru zklfk d Qh|pdqShduvrq
whvw zlwk idovh dodup suredelolw| ffD kdv d ghwhfwlrq suredelolw| q : fbbB
Sureohp 41431 Frqvlghu d froohfwlrq if c c f? j ri pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ lghqwlfdoo|

glvwulexwhg udqgrp yduldeohv hdfk zlwk d QEwc glvwulexwlrq iru vrph uhdo qxpehu w1 Ohw
Mf ghqrwh wkh k|srwkhvlv wkdw w ' f dqg ohw M ghqrwh wkh k|srwkhvlv wkdw w ' *21 Ohw
kf ' fffD1
+D, Ghvljq d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw iru wklv sureohp dv d ixqfwlrq ri ?1 Zkdw lv wkh srzhu
ri wkh whvw li ? ' bB
+E, Qrz/ frqvlghu d glhuhqw whvw1 Iols d idlu frlq1 Li wkh rxwfrph lv khdgv wkhq shuirup
wkh whvw lq sduw +D, zlwk ? ' 21 Li/ rq wkh rwkhu kdqg/ wkh rxwfrph lv wdlov wkhq shuirup wkh
whvw lq sduw +D, zlwk ? ' S1 Zkdw lv wkh srzhu ri wklv whvwB Zkdw fdq |rx frqfoxgh derxw
whvwv wkdw doorz udqgrp vdpsohv vl}hvB
Sureohp 41441 Frqvlghu d frlq wkdw/ zkhq lsshg/ frphv xs khdgv zlwk suredelolw| R dqg
wdlov zlwk suredelolw| R1 Zh ls wkh frlq wzlfh dqg wkhq pxvw ghflgh zkhwkhu R ' 2
+zklfk zh zloo fdoo k|srwkhvlv Mf , ru R ' +zklfk zh zloo fdoo k|srwkhvlv M ,1 Ghwhuplqh
d surfhgxuh wkdw lv prvw srzhuixo iru whvwlqj Mf djdlqvw M vxemhfw wr wkh frqvwudlqw wkdw
k qrw h{fhhg H 1 Zkdw lv wkh srzhu ri |rxu whvwB
Sureohp 41451 Frqvlghu wkh sureohp ri ghwhfwlqj d frqwlqxrxv vljqdo rE| ' i TE| iru
| f rq wkh edvlv ri wzr vdpsohv1 Dvvxph wkdw wkh revhuydwlrqv duh hlwkhu ri wkh irup
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t ' +zklfk zh zloo fdoo k|srwkhvlv Mf , ru t ' rE n +zklfk zh zloo fdoo k|srwkhvlv
M , zkhuh lv d srvlwlyh frqvwdqw dqg zkhuh ' c 2 Dvvxph wkdw dqg 2 duh }hur
phdq/ pxwxdoo| Jdxvvldq udqgrp yduldeohv vxfk wkdw Hd2 o ' Hd22 o ' dqg Hd 2 o ' 2 1
Ohw kf ' f1 Ghvljq d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw iru wklv vlwxdwlrq1 Zkdw lv wkh srzhu ri wkh
whvw li ' fB
Sureohp 41461 Frqvlghu d sureohp lq zklfk zh zlvk wr whvw iru wkh suhvhqfh ri d nqrzq
srvlwlyh vljqdo rE| ' i TE| ghqhg iru | f rq wkh edvlv ri wkuhh vdpsohv fruuxswhg
e| dgglwlyh Jdxvvldq qrlvh1 Lq sduwlfxodu/ ohw r& ' rEE& iru & ' c 2c dqg : f/
ohw ~ c ~2 c ~ eh pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ lghqwlfdoo| glvwulexwhg Jdxvvldq udqgrp yduldeohv

hdfk zlwk phdq }hur dqg yduldqfh f / dqg ohw f c f2 c f ghqrwh rxu revhuydwlrqv1 Ixuwkhu/
iru & ' c 2c / ohw Mf ghqrwh wkh k|srwkhvlv wkdw f& lv htxdo wr ~& dqg ohw M ghqrwh wkh
k|srwkhvlv wkdw f& lv htxdo wr ~& n r& 1 Ghvljq d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw zlwk d ohyho ri
vljqlfdqfh jlyhq e| kf ' ffD1 Zkdw lv wkh pd{lpxp vdpsolqj lqwhuydo vxfk wkdw wkh
srzhu ri wkh whvw lv qrw ohvv wkdq fbbB
Sureohp 41471 Frqvlghu d elqdu| fkdqqho vxfk wkdw li zh wudqvplw d c}hur* zh uhfhlyh d
c}hur* dw wkh rwkhu hqg zlwk suredelolw| bf dqg zh uhfhlyh d crqh* zlwk suredelolw| bf 1
Ixuwkhu/ li zh wudqvplw d crqh* zh uhfhlyh d crqh* zlwk suredelolw| b dqg zh uhfhlyh
d c}hur* zlwk suredelolw| b 1 +Dvvxph wkdw f bf / f b / dqg bf n b 1,
Frqvlghu wkh wudqvplvvlrq dqg vxevhtxhqw uhfhlsw ri d vlqjoh elqdu| gljlw1 Ohw Mf ghqrwh
wkh k|srwkhvlv wkdw d c}hur* zdv wudqvplwwhg dqg ohw M ghqrwh wkh k|srwkhvlv wkdw d crqh*
zdv wudqvplwwhg1 Ghvljq d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw iru wklv vlwxdwlrq dqg qg wkh srzhu dv d
ixqfwlrq ri wkh vl}h kf iru f kf 1 Vnhwfk dq URF +Uhfhlyhu Rshudwlqj Fkdudfwhulvwlf,
fxuyh iru wkh vshfldo fdvh zkhq bf ' b ' H dqg iru wkh vshfldo fdvh zkhq bf ' b ' *H1
+Dq URF fxuyh lv d sorw ri wkh srzhu ri d whvw dv d ixqfwlrq ri wkh vl}h ri wkh whvw1,
Sureohp 41481 D whvw wr ghwhuplqh zkhwkhu d frppxqlfdwlrqv vdwhoolwh lv lq zrunlqj rughu

pljkw eh uxq dv iroorzv= D yhu| vwurqj vljqdo lv vhqw iurp Hduwk1 Wkh vdwhoolwh uhvsrqgv e|
vhqglqj d vljqdo : f iru ? vhfrqgv li lw lv zrunlqj ru grhv qrw uhvsrqg li lw lv qrw zrunlqj1
Diwhu dq dssursuldwh ghod|/ zh wdnh ? vdpsohv +rqh hdfk vhfrqg, % c c %? dqg zh dvvxph
wkdw rxu revhuydwlrqv duh udqgrp vdpsohv iurp d Jdxvvldq glvwulexwlrq zlwk srvlwlyh nqrzq
yduldqfh j 2 dqg phdq >1 K|srwkhvlv Mf lv wkdw > ' f dqg k|srwkhvlv M lv wkdw > ' 1
Wzr v|vwhpv duh dydlodeoh iru whvwlqj wkh vdwhoolwh1 V|vwhp D kdv d vljqdo wr qrlvh udwlr ri
*j ' 2 dqg V|vwhp E lv vxfk wkdw *j ' 1 V|vwhp D frvwv '4/333/333 dqg V|vwhp E frvwv
'583/3331 Rqh vhfrqg ri wudqvplvvlrq zlwk hlwkhu v|vwhp frvwv '43331 \rx qhhg wr whvw |rxu
vdwhoolwh ff wlphv hdfk |hdu dqg ghflgh wr gr vr hdfk wlph zlwk d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw
ghvljqhg iru d ohyho ri vljqlfdqfh ri ffD1 Dvvxph wkdw hdfk wlph |rx whvw wkh vdwhoolwh/ |rx
zdqw wkh qxpehu ri vhfrqgv ri uhvsrqvh wr eh vx!flhqw wr hqvxuh wkdw wkh srzhu ri |rxu whvw
h{fhhgv fbD1 Zkdw lv wkh frvw wr sxufkdvh dqg rshudwh hdfk v|vwhp iru rqh |hduB
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Sureohp 41491 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f wkdw xqghu k|srwkhvlv Mf kdv ghqvlw|
+ 2
E% n li f %
Rf E% '
f rwkhuzlvh1
dqg xqghu k|srwkhvlv M kdv ghqvlw|

li f %
R E% '
f rwkhuzlvh1
+D, Ilqg d plqlpd{ whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M edvhg xsrq wkh vlqjoh revhuydwlrq f1

+E, Ilqg d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M zlwk vl}h f
edvhg xsrq wkh vlqjoh revhu0
ydwlrq f1
Sureohp 414:1 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f wkdw xqghu k|srwkhvlv Mf kdv d xqlirup
glvwulexwlrq rq Efc dqg wkdw xqghu k|srwkhvlv M kdv d xqlirup glvwulexwlrq rq 2 c 2 1 Ri
wkh iroorzlqj wkuhh whvwv/ zklfk rqh lv ru zklfk rqhv duh Qh|pdqShduvrq whvwv ri Mf yhuvxv
M edvhg xsrq wkh vlqjoh revhuydwlrq f dqg zlwk d ohyho ri vljqlfdqfh htxdo wr H B
+ .
li % :
E% ' H
f rwkhuzlvh
+ D
li % ru % :
2 E% ' 2 H
f rwkhuzlvh
;
A
A li % :
A
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E% ' li %
A e 2
A
A
= f li %
2
Sureohp 414;1 Frqvlghu wkuhh suredelolw| glvwulexwlrqv f / / dqg 2 rq ifc c 2j ghqhg

dv iroorzv=

f Eifj ' f Eij ' f Ei2j '

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Eij ' Ei2j '

2 Eifj ' 2 Ei2j '

Frqvlghu wkh sureohp ri whvwlqj Mf = ifj djdlqvw M = i c 2 j rq wkh edvlv ri rqh vdpsoh1
+D, Grhv wkhuh h{lvw d XPS whvw lq wklv fdvh wkdw kdv d ohyho ri vljqlfdqfh htxdo wr *SB Li
|hv/ wkhq qg wkh whvw1 Li qr/ wkhq h{sodlq zk| qrw1
+E, Grhv wkhuh h{lvw d XPS whvw lq wklv fdvh wkdw kdv d ohyho ri vljqlfdqfh htxdo wr *2B Li
|hv/ wkhq qg wkh whvw1 Li qr/ wkhq h{sodlq zk| qrw1
Sureohp 414<1 Frqvlghu d froohfwlrq it c t2 c c t& j ri udqgrp yduldeohv vxfk wkdw t '
sE| n iru hdfk zkhuh s= U $ U/ zkhuh
f | |2 |& 4c
dqg zkhuh wkh *v duh pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ }hur phdq Jdxvvldq udqgrp yduldeohv hdfk
zlwk srvlwlyh yduldqfh j 2 1 K|srwkhvlv Mf vwdwhv wkdw s E| ' ULtE| dqg k|srwkhvlv M vwdwhv
wkdw s E| ' t?E|1 Ilqg d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw ri Mf djdlqvw M dw vl}h kf edvhg rq
it c t2 c c t& j1 Zkdw lv wkh srzhu ri |rxu whvwB Krz vkrxog rqh fkrrvh wkh vdpsolqj wlphv
lq rughu wr pd{lpl}h wkh srzhuB
Sureohp 41531 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f zlwk d suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq jlyhq e|
;
? E% @
i T li % @
s@cK E% ' K K
=
f li % @
zkhuh @ 5 U dqg K : f1 +Dvvxph wkdw K lv nqrzq1, Ghvljq d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw ri vl}h

kf iru whvwlqj Mf G @ ' @f djdlqvw M G @ ' @ edvhg xsrq f zkhuh @ @f 1 Zkdw lv wkh
srzhu ri |rxu whvwB
Sureohp 41541 Frqvlghu wkh ghwhfwlrq sureohp
Mf G t ' iru ' c c ff

M G t ' 2 n iru ' c c ff
zkhuh c c ff duh pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ Jdxvvldq udqgrp yduldeohv hdfk zlwk phdq
}hur dqg yduldqfh b1 Ilqg d ydoxh ri kf vr wkdw d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M zlwk
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vl}h kf lv dovr d plqlpd{ whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M zlwk uhvshfw wr d orvv ixqfwlrq wkdw dvvljqv d
xqlw orvv wr dq huuru dqg d }hur orvv rwkhuzlvh1
Sureohp 41551 Frqvlghu wkh iroorzlqj suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrqv=

li f %
Rf E% '
f rwkhuzlvh
;
A
A
? e%
A li f %
2
R E% '
A
A e e% li %
A
= 2
f rwkhuzlvh1
Ixuwkhu/ frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f wkdw xqghu k|srwkhvlv Mf kdv ghqvlw| Rf dqg xqghu
k|srwkhvlv M kdv ghqvlw| R Rq wkh edvlv ri wkh vlqjoh revhuydwlrq f=
+D, Ilqg d Ed|hv whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M dvvxplqj wkdw Mf dqg M duh htxdoo| olnho|1
+E, Ilqg d plqlpd{ whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M zlwk uhvshfw wr d orvv ixqfwlrq wkdw dvvljqv d xqlw
orvv wr dq huuru dqg d }hur orvv rwkhuzlvh1

+F, Ilqg d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M zlwk vl}h ff
1 Zkdw lv wkh srzhu ri wklv
whvwB
Sureohp 41561 Frqvlghu wkh iroorzlqj suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrqv=

i TE% li % : f
sf E% '
f li % f

i TEE% li % :
s E% '
f li %
Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f wkdw xqghu k|srwkhvlv Mf kdv ghqvlw| sf dqg xqghu k|srwkhvlv
M kdv ghqvlw| s 1 Rq wkh edvlv ri wkh vlqjoh revhuydwlrq f=

+D, Ilqg d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M zlwk vl}h f
1 Zkdw lv wkh srzhu ri wkh
whvwB

+E, Ilqg d qrq0udqgrpl}hg Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M zlwk vl}h f
1
Sureohp 41571 Frqvlghu wkh iroorzlqj v|vwhp lq zklfk wkh udqgrp yduldeoh lv Jdxvvldq
zlwk phdq }hur dqg srvlwlyh yduldqfh j 2 dqg wkh udqgrp yduldeoh wdnhv rq wkh ydoxh
zlwk suredelolw| 2 dqg wkh ydoxh zlwk suredelolw| 2 1 Wkxv/ xqghu Mfc t ' / dqg xqghu
M / t ' w n 1 Dvvxph wkdw w lv qrq}hur dqg wkdw dqg duh lqghshqghqw1 Ilqg wkh
irup ri d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M edvhg rq wkh vlqjoh revhuydwlrq t 1 +\rx gr
qrw qhhg wr qg wkh wkuhvkrog1, Lv |rxu whvw xqlirupo| prvw srzhuixo ryhu doo qrq}hur wB
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T

Sureohp 41581 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f wkdw kdv d Srlvvrq glvwulexwlrq zlwk sdud0
phwhu b1 Wkdw lv/ dvvxph wkdw
b&
Ef ' & ' i TEb
&-
iru & ' fc c 2c 1 Dvvxph wkdw b ' bf xqghu Mf dqg wkdw b ' b xqghu M zkhuh
b : bf : f1 Iru zkdw ydoxhv ri kf zloo wkhuh h{lvw d qrqudqgrpl}hg Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw
ri Mf yhuvxv M B Ilqg d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M li bf ' dqg kf ' ff21
4161 Orfdoo| Rswlpdo Whvwv
Sureohp 41591 Frqvlghu wkh ghwhfwlrq sureohp
Mf G t ' iru ' c c &

M G t ' r n iru ' c c &
zkhuh & lv d srvlwlyh lqwhjhu/ zkhuh r lv d srvlwlyh frqvwdqw vljqdo/ dqg zkhuh c c & duh
pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw udqgrp yduldeohv hdfk zlwk suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq

s E% ' E %2 iru m%m
e
+D, Ilqg wkh irup ri d orfdoo| rswlpdo whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M 1 +\rx gr qrw qhhg wr qg wkh
wkuhvkrog1,
+E, Xvh wkh uhvxow ri Sduw +D, wr qg wkh irup ri d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw ri Mf yhuvxv M 1
+Djdlq/ |rx gr qrw qhhg wr qg wkh wkuhvkrog1,
Sureohp 415:1 Frqvlghu wkh iroorzlqj ghflvlrq sureohp= Mf = f ' iru ' c 2c yhuvxv
M = f ' r n iru ' c 2c / zkhuh r lv d {hg +xqnqrzq, srvlwlyh frqvwdqw dqg zkhuh
/ 2/ dqg duh pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw udqgrp yduldeohv hdfk zlwk d suredelolw| ghqvlw|
ixqfwlrq jlyhq e|

s E% ' i TEm%m
2
<
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iru % 5 U1
+D, Ghvljq d orfdoo| rswlpdo whvw iru wklv sureohp vxemhfw wr wkh frqvwudlqw wkdw wkh idovh

dodup suredelolw| qrw h{fhhg S 1
+E, Zkdw lv wkh vpdoohvw ydoxh ri r iru zklfk wkh ghwhfwlrq suredelolw| q lv qrw ohvv wkdq
febB
+F, Xqghu zkdw flufxpvwdqfhv zloo q h{fhhg 2 B
Sureohp 415;1 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh wkdw srvvhvvhv d suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq
ri wkh irup

s E% '
ZE n %2
Ohw f eh d udqgrp yduldeoh wkdw xqghu Mf lv htxdo wr dqg xqghu M lv htxdo wr n r
zkhuh r lv srvlwlyh1 Zh ghvluh wr ghwhuplqh wkh wuxh k|srwkhvlv Mf ru M edvhg rq wkh vlqjoh
revhuydwlrq f1
+D, Ilqg wkh irup ri d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw iru wklv sureohp1 +\rx gr qrw qhhg wr qg wkh
wkuhvkrog1, Lv lw xqlirupo| prvw srzhuixo ryhu doo srvlwlyh vljqdov rB Zloo lw dozd|v dqqrxqfh
wkdw wkh vljqdo lv suhvhqw zkhqhyhu wkh revhuydwlrq lv pxfk odujhu wkdq rB
+E, Ilqg wkh irup ri d orfdoo| rswlpdo whvw iru wklv sureohp1 +\rx gr qrw qhhg wr qg wkh
wkuhvkrog1, Zloo lw dozd|v dqqrxqfh wkdw wkh vljqdo lv suhvhqw zkhqhyhu wkh revhuydwlrq lv
pxfk odujhu wkdq rB
51 Hvwlpdwlrq Sureohpv
5141 Jhqhudo Sureohpv
Sureohp 5141 Frqvlghu d pdudwkrq zlwk sduwlflsdqwv1 Ixuwkhu/ dvvxph wkdw wkhvh
uxqqhuv duh hdfk zhdulqj dq lghqwli|lqj wdj glvsod|lqj d glhuhqw qxpehu ehwzhhq dqg
1 Dv |rx gulyh e| |rx vhh d uxqqhu zhdulqj wkh qxpehu H.1 Krz pljkw |rx xvh wkdw
lqirupdwlrq wr hvwlpdwh B
Sureohp 5151 Ohw f eh d Jdxvvldq udqgrp yduldeoh zlwk phdq w dqg srvlwlyh yduldqfh j 2 1
Ilqg wkh Ilvkhu lqirupdwlrq UEw wkdw f frqwdlqv derxw wkh sdudphwhu w1
Sureohp 5161 Ohw f eh d Jdxvvldq udqgrp yduldeoh zlwk phdq w dqg srvlwlyh yduldqfh j 2 1
Ilqg wkh Ilvkhu lqirupdwlrq UEj 2 wkdw f frqwdlqv derxw wkh sdudphwhu j 2 1
43
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Sureohp 5171 Ohw f / f2 / dqg f eh pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw udqgrp yduldeohv zlwk f dqg
f2 lghqwlfdoo| glvwulexwhg1 Ixuwkhu/ ohw f wdnh rq wkh ydoxhv f dqg 2 hdfk zlwk suredelolw|

2
dqg ohw f wdnh rq wkh ydoxhv dqg D2 hdfk zlwk suredelolw| 2 1 Qrz/ frqvlghu wkh sureohp
ri hvwlpdwlqj zklfk ri wkhvh wkuhh glvwulexwlrqv kdv wkh odujhvw phdq1 D qdwxudo phwkrg
ri surfhhglqj lv wr wdnh d udqgrp vdpsoh iurp hdfk glvwulexwlrq dqg wkhq wr vhohfw wkh
glvwulexwlrq wkdw surgxfhv wkh odujhvw vdpsoh phdq1 Dqvzhu wkh iroorzlqj txhvwlrqv xqghu
wkh dvvxpswlrq wkdw vxfk d surfhgxuh lv xvhg1
+D, Zkdw lv wkh suredelolw| ri fruuhfwo| ghwhuplqlqj wkh glvwulexwlrq zlwk wkh odujhvw phdq
li zh wdnh rqh vdpsoh iurp hdfk glvwulexwlrq1
+E, Zkdw lv wkh suredelolw| ri fruuhfwo| ghwhuplqlqj wkh glvwulexwlrq zlwk wkh odujhvw phdq li
zh wdnh rqh vdpsoh iurp wkh glvwulexwlrqv ri f dqg f2 dqg wzr vdpsohv iurp wkh glvwulexwlrq
jryhuqlqj f B
+F, Zloo dq hvwlpdwh edvhg xsrq ? vdpsohv dozd|v eh dw ohdvw dv jrrg dv dq hvwlpdwh edvhg
rq 6 vdpsohv li ? : 6B
Sureohp 5181 Ohw f dqg t eh udqgrp yduldeohv zlwk suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrqv s E%w
dqg s2 E% w/ uhvshfwlyho|/ zkhuh w lv vrph {hg |hw xqnqrzq uhdo qxpehu1 Dvvxph wkdw s
dqg s2 duh frqwlqxrxv dqg hyhq1
+D, Li s Ef : s2 Ef wkhq vkrz wkdw Emf wm 0 : Emt wm 0 iru vrph srvlwlyh ydoxh
ri 01
+E, Qrz/ ohw & : eh d {hg lqwhjhu/ ohw w eh d {hg |hw xqnqrzq uhdo qxpehu/ dqg ohw f
dqg f2 eh lqghshqghqw udqgrp yduldeohv hdfk zlwk d ghqvlw| jlyhq e| s E% w zkhuh
&
s E% '
2E n m%m&
Dovr/ frqvlghu d frvw ixqfwlrq 0 wkdw dvvljqv d frvw ri 4 wr huuruv wkdw duh odujhu lq pdjqlwxgh
wkdq vrph srvlwlyh frqvwdqw 0 dqg wkdw dvvljqv d }hur frvw wr vpdoohu huuruv1 +Lq sduwlfxodu/
dq hvwlpdwru w ri w lv jrrg li Em w wm 0 lv odujh1, Ohw t ghqrwh wkh vdpsoh phdq ri f
dqg f2 1 Vkrz wkdw wkhuh h{lvwv vrph srvlwlyh 0 iru zklfk Emf wm 0 : Emt wm 01
Wkdw lv/ vkrz wkdw d vlqjoh revhuydwlrq pd| |lhog d ehwwhu hvwlpdwh ri wkh phdq wkdq zloo d
vdpsoh phdq ri wzr revhuydwlrqv1
5151 Xqeldvhg Hvwlpdwruv
Sureohp 5191 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f wkdw kdv d Srlvvrq glvwulexwlrq zlwk sdudphwhu
b : f> wkdw lv/ dvvxph wkdw
b% i TEb
Ef ' % '
%-
44
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iru % ' fc c 2c 1 Frqvlghu wkh sureohp ri hvwlpdwlqj wkh sdudphwhu i TEb edvhg xsrq
rqh vdpsoh iurp wkh glvwulexwlrq iru f1 Vkrz wkdw A Ef ' E2f lv dq xqeldvhg hvwlpdwru
iru i TEb1 Lv A Ef d uhdvrqdeoh hvwlpdwru iru i TEbB
Sureohp 51:1 Frqvlghu dq xqeldvhg hvwlpdwru A ri d sdudphwhu w1 Ilqg d frqglwlrq wkdw

lv erwk qhfhvvdu| dqg vx!flhqw iru A 2 wr eh dq xqeldvhg hvwlpdwru ri w 2 1
Sureohp 51;1 Ohw eh d {hg srvlwlyh lqwhjhu1 Wrvv d frlq wlphv dqg/ iru /
ohw f eh ru f dffruglqj wr zkhwkhu wkh wk wrvv lv d khdg ru d wdlo1 Ohw wkh suredelolw| ri
wrvvlqj d khdg eh jlyhq e| vrph {hg |hw xqnqrzq ydoxh w iurp wkh lqwhuydo dfc o1 Iru zkdw
ixqfwlrqv }= dfc o $ U gr wkhuh h{lvw xqeldvhg hvwlpdwruv ri }EwB
Sureohp 51<1 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f zlwk d Srlvvrq glvwulexwlrq jlyhq e|
b& i TEb
Ef ' & '
&-
iru hdfk qrqqhjdwlyh lqwhjhu & dqg iru vrph {hg srvlwlyh ydoxh ri b1 Ohw A E% eh dq|
qrqfrqvwdqw ixqfwlrq ri % vxfk wkdw A Ef surylghv dq hvwlpdwh ri *b1 Vkrz wkdw A Ef
fdqqrw eh dq xqeldvhg hvwlpdwru ri *b1
Sureohp 51431 Frqvlghu d sdudphwhul}hg idplo| isw G w 5 Uj ri suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqf0

wlrqv lq zklfk sw lv d Jdxvvldq ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq zlwk phdq w dqg xqlw yduldqfh1 Ohw
f c c f? ghqrwh d froohfwlrq ri lghqwlfdoo| glvwulexwhg/ pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw udqgrp
yduldeohv hdfk kdylqj d ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq jlyhq e| sw iru vrph {hg |hw xqnqrzq ydoxh
ri w1 Ohw A Ef c c f? eh dq xqeldvhg hvwlpdwru iru w1 Ilqg d srvlwlyh orzhu erxqg iru
YDUw EA Ef c c f?1
Sureohp 51441 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f vxfk wkdw

b& i TEb
Ef ' & '
&-
iru & ' fc c 2c dqg iru vrph {hg/ exw xqnqrzq/ srvlwlyh frqvwdqw b1 +Wkdw lv/ ohw f kdyh
d Srlvvrq glvwulexwlrq zlwk sdudphwhu b1 Qrwh wkdw Hdfo ' YDUdfo ' b1, Ilqg wkh Ilvkhu
lqirupdwlrq wkdw f frqwdlqv derxw wkh sdudphwhu w ' i TEb1 Ohw

li % ' f
A E% '
f li % 9' f1
Lv A Ef dq xqeldvhg hvwlpdwru ri wB Lv A Ef dq h!flhqw hvwlpdwru ri wB Klqw= Qrwh wkdw

i TE% : % n iru doo qrq}hur %1
45
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5161 Pd{lpxp Olnholkrrg Hvwlpdwlrq
Sureohp 51451 Frqvlghu d udqgrp vdpsoh f c c f? iurp d glvwulexwlrq zlwk d {hg |hw
xqnqrzq qlwh phdq w 5 U1 Li d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwh iru w h{lvwv zloo lw dozd|v eh
jlyhq e| wkh vdpsoh phdq ? Ef n n f? B Zk| ru zk| qrwB
Sureohp 51461 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f iru zklfk Ef ' ' R dqg Ef ' f '
R zkhuh R lv d {hg |hw xqnqrzq hohphqw iurp c 2 1 Ilqg d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg
hvwlpdwh iru R1 Zkdw lv wkh phdq vtxduh huuru iru wklv hvwlpdwhB Ilqg d frqvwdqw hvwlpdwru
iru R zklfk dozd|v kdv d vpdoohu phdq vtxduh huuru wkdq wkh pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru
wkdw |rx irxqg1
Sureohp 51471 Frqvlghu d frlq zlwk d suredelolw| ri khdgv jlyhq e| vrph {hg |hw xqnqrzq
ydoxh ri w iurp wkh lqwhuydo Efc 1 Grhv wkhuh h{lvw d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru ri w
edvhg xsrq d vlqjoh ls ri wkh frlq1 Li qrw/ zk| qrw/ dqg li vr wkhq qg rqh1 Li |rx irxqg
wkdw d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru grhv qrw h{lvw wkhq fdq |rx wklqn ri d vlpsoh uhphg|B
Grhv |rxu uhphg| surylgh d uhdvrqdeoh hvwlpdwruB
Sureohp 51481 Frqvlghu d ghwhfwlrq sureohp lq zklfk Mf vwdwhv wkdw f ' iru '
c c & dqg M vwdwhv wkdw f ' w n iru ' c c & dqg mwm : f zkhuh wkh *v duh lghq0
wlfdoo| glvwulexwhg dqg pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw hdfk zlwk d }hur phdq Jdxvvldq glvwulexwlrq
zlwk d srvlwlyh yduldqfh j 2 1 Zkhq +dv lq wklv fdvh, d XPS whvw grhv qrw h{lvw zh vrph0
wlphv xvh d jhqhudol}hg olnholkrrg udwlr whvw1 D jhqhudol}hg olnholkrrg udwlr whvw lv vlpso| d
wkuhvkrog whvw lq zklfk wkh surfhvvru lv jlyhq e|
s E wE% c c %& c %c c %&

\} E% c c %& '
sf E% c c %&
zkhuh sfE% c c %& lv d mrlqw suredelolw| ghqvlw| iru wkh f *v xqghu k|srwkhvlv Mf / zkhuh
s Ewc %c c %& lv d mrlqw suredelolw| ghqvlw| iru wkh f *v xqghu k|srwkhvlv M dvvxplqj
wkdw w lv wkh wuxh sdudphwhu/ dqg zkhuh wE% c c %& lv d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru ri
w edvhg xsrq wkh f *v xqghu k|srwkhvlv M 1
+D, Ilqg w1 Lv lw xqeldvhgB Lv lw h!flhqwB
+E, Ilqg d jhqhudol}hg olnholkrrg udwlr whvw iru wklv h{dpsoh1 Zkdw lv wkh srzhu ri |rxu whvwB
+F, Dvvxph wkdw w lv nqrzq wr eh srvlwlyh/ dqg qg d XPS whvw1 Zkdw lv wkh srzhu ri wklv
whvwB Krz grhv wklv srzhu frpsduh wr |rxu uhvxow lq +E,B
Sureohp 51491 Frqvlghu d idplo| ri suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrqv isw G w 5 Uj zkhuh
sw E% ' Ldw3 cwn o E%

2 2
46
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+Uhfdoo wkdw L E% htxdov li % 5 dqg htxdov f rwkhuzlvh1, Iru d {hg srvlwlyh lqwhjhu
?/ ohw f c c f? eh d froohfwlrq ri pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ lghqwlfdoo| glvwulexwhg udqgrp
yduldeohv hdfk zlwk d suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq jlyhq e| sw iru vrph {hg |hw xqnqrzq
ydoxh ri w1 Ilqg d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru iru w dv d ixqfwlrq ri f c c f? 1 Lv wklv
pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru xqltxhB
Sureohp 514:1 Frqvlghu d idplo| ri suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrqv isw G w 5 Efc 4j zkhuh

sw E% ' LEfcwo E%
w
Iru d {hg srvlwlyh lqwhjhu ?/ ohw f c c f? eh d froohfwlrq ri pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ lghq0
wlfdoo| glvwulexwhg udqgrp yduldeohv hdfk zlwk d suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq jlyhq e| sw iru
vrph {hg |hw xqnqrzq ydoxh ri w1 Ilqg d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru iru w dv d ixqfwlrq
ri f c c f?1 Lv wklv pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru xqeldvhgB
Sureohp 514;1 Dq hvwlpdwru w lv vdlg wr eh dgplvvleoh zlwk uhvshfw wr wkh vtxduhg huuru
frvw ixqfwlrq li wkhuh h{lvwv qr hvwlpdwru 7w vxfk wkdw Hw dEw7w2 o Hw dEw w2 o iru doo doorzdeoh
ydoxhv ri w zlwk wkh lqhtxdolw| ehlqj vwulfw iru vrph ydoxh ri w1 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh
f zlwk d glvwulexwlrq jlyhq e| Ef ' ' w dqg Ef ' f ' w zkhuh w 2 1
+D, Ilqg d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru ri w edvhg rq rqh vdpsoh iurp wkh glvwulexwlrq ri
f1
+E, Frqvlghu wkh froohfwlrq ri doo hvwlpdwruv wk wkdw duh ri wkh irup

k li % ' f
w kE% '
k li % '
zkhuh k 2 1 +Iru zkdw ydoxh ri k lv w kEf htxdo wr wkh hvwlpdwru wkdw |rx irxqg lq
sduw +D,B, Vkrz wkdw wkh pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru |rx irxqg lq sduw +D, kdv d odujhu
phdq vtxduh huuru wkdq w k iru dq| k vxfk wkdw k 2 1
+F, Lv wkh pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru |rx irxqg lq sduw +D, dq dgplvvleoh hvwlpdwruB
Sureohp 514<1 Ohw sw eh d ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq ri d wuldqjxodu glvwulexwlrq rq d {hg lqwhuydo

dfc o zkhuh : f dqg zkhuh wkh shdn ri wkh wuldqjoh lv dw % ' w zkhuh w lv vrph {hg |hw
xqnqrzq hohphqw iurp Efc 1 Wkdw lv/
;
A 2%
A
A li f % w
? w
sw E% '
A
A 2E %
A
= li w %
E w
47
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Frqvlghu d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru w ri w edvhg xsrq ? vdpsohv % c c %? iurp wkh

glvwulexwlrq sw zkhuh zh dvvxph zlwkrxw orvv ri jhqhudolw| wkdw wkh ? revhuydwlrqv kdyh ehhq
duudqjhg vr wkdw f % %2 %? 1
+D, Vkrz wkdw d pd{lpxp ri wkh olnholkrrg ixqfwlrq lv dwwdlqdeoh rqo| zkhq w lv htxdo wr
rqh ri wkh ? revhuydwlrqv1
+E, Suryh ru Glvsuryh= Iru wkh wk vdpsoh wr eh d srvvleoh pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru
iru w lw pxvw eh wuxh wkdw

%
? ?
+F, Pxvw w eh jlyhq e| dq| sduwlfxodu rughu vwdwlvwlf ri wkh vdpsohB Li vr/ zklfk rqhB +Qrwh=
Frqvlghu d froohfwlrq f c c f? ri udqgrp yduldeohv ghqhg rq vrph suredelolw| vsdfh
Elc +c 1 Iru hdfk / 5 l/ ohw ~ E/ wdnh rq wkh vpdoohvw ydoxh lq wkh vhw if E/c c f?E/j/
ohw ~2 E/ wdnh rq wkh qh{w vpdoohvw ydoxh lq wkdw vhw/ dqg vr rq xqwlo ~? E/ zklfk wdnhv rq
wkh odujhvw ydoxh lq wkdw vhw1 Wkh udqgrp yduldeoh ~& lv fdoohg wkh &wk rughu vwdwlvwlf ri wkh
vhw if c c f? j1,
Sureohp 51531 Frqvlghu lqghshqghqw udqgrp yduldeohv f dqg f2 hdfk zlwk d suredelolw|
ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq jlyhq e|
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+D, Ilqg d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwh ri w edvhg xsrq f 1 +Wkdw lv/ qg d vroxwlrq
wr wkh olnholkrrg htxdwlrq dqg vkrz wkdw |rxu vroxwlrq fruuhvsrqgv wr d pd{lpxp1, Lv
|rxu hvwlpdwh xqeldvhgB Lv |rxu hvwlpdwh dgplvvleoh zlwk uhvshfw wr wkh vtxduhg huuru frvw
ixqfwlrqB
+E, Ilqg d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwh ri w edvhg xsrq f dqg f2 1 +Iru wklv sduw ri wkh
sureohp |rx qhhg rqo| qg d vroxwlrq wr wkh olnholkrrg htxdwlrq1 \rx gr qrw qhhg wr suryh
wkdw |rxu vroxwlrq fruuhvsrqgv wr d pd{lpxp1,
Sureohp 51541 Ohw f c f2c f eh pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ lghqwlfdoo| glvwulexwhg udqgrp

yduldeohv vxfk wkdw Ef ' ' Ef ' f ' w iru vrph {hg |hw xqnqrzq ydoxh ri w
iurp wkh lqwhuydo dfc o1 Ohw t ' f2 f 1 Ilqg d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwh ri w edvhg rq
f dqg t 1
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3w w 3
w 2 w % iru f % w2
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48
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www.MathGeek.com
zkhuh w dqg w2 duh srvlwlyh frqvwdqwv1 Ohw f c c f? eh d froohfwlrq ri pxwxdoo| lqghshq0

ghqw/ lghqwlfdoo| glvwulexwhg udqgrp yduldeohv hdfk zlwk suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq sw cw2 1
+D, Dvvxph wkdw w lv d nqrzq srvlwlyh frqvwdqw1 Ilqg d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwh iru w2
dv d ixqfwlrq ri f c c f?1 Eh vxuh wr vkrz wkdw |rxu vroxwlrq fruuhvsrqgv wr d pd{lpxp
ri wkh olnholkrrg ixqfwlrq1
+E, Dvvxph wkdw w2 lv d nqrzq srvlwlyh frqvwdqw1 Ilqg d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwh iru
w dv d ixqfwlrq ri f c c f?1 Djdlq/ eh vxuh wr vkrz wkdw |rxu vroxwlrq fruuhvsrqgv wr d
pd{lpxp ri wkh olnholkrrg ixqfwlrq1
Sureohp 51561 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f wkdw kdv d suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq ri
wkh irup
n w%
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zkhuh % dqg w dqg zkhuh/ dv xvxdo/ zh dvvxph wkdw w lv {hg exw
xqnqrzq1 Ilqg d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwh ri w dv d ixqfwlrq ri f1 Lv |rxu hvwlpdwh
xqeldvhgB Zkdw lv wkh phdq vtxduh huuru ri |rxu hvwlpdwhB Lv |rxu hvwlpdwh dgplvvleohB
Sureohp 51571 Frqvlghu d froohfwlrq f c c f? ri pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ Jdxvvldq udq0

grp yduldeohv hdfk zlwk phdq w dqg yduldqfh w2 zkhuh w lv vrph {hg/ exw xqnqrzq/
srvlwlyh uhdo qxpehu1 Ilqg d fdqglgdwh iru d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwh ri w dv d ixqfwlrq
ri f c c f?1 +\rx gr qrw qhhg wr suryh wkdw |rxu fdqglgdwh fruuhvsrqgv wr d pd{lpxp1,
Sureohp 51581 Frqvlghu pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ lghqwlfdoo| glvwulexwhg udqgrp yduldeohv

f c c f? vxfk wkdw hdfk kdv d suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq ri wkh irup

i TEE% w li % w
sw E% '
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zkhuh w lv vrph {hg/ exw xqnqrzq/ uhdo qxpehu1 Ilqg d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwh ri
w dv d ixqfwlrq ri f c c f?1 Lv |rxu hvwlpdwh xqeldvhgB
5171 Plqlpxp Phdq Vtxduh Hvwlpdwlrq
Sureohp 51591 Frqvlghu d }hur phdq/ zlgh vhqvh vwdwlrqdu| udqgrp surfhvv ifE| G | 5 Uj
zlwk dxwrfruuhodwlrq ixqfwlrq -E ' HdfE|fE| n o1 Ilqg d plqlpxp phdq vtxduh olqhdu
hvwlpdwh ri fE| n & dv d ixqfwlrq ri fE| zkhuh & lv dq| {hg srvlwlyh uhdo qxpehu1
Sureohp 515:1 Frqvlghu d }hur phdq/ zlgh vhqvh vwdwlrqdu| udqgrp surfhvv ifE| G | 5 Uj
zlwk dxwrfruuhodwlrq ixqfwlrq -E ' HdfE|fE| n o1 Ilqg d plqlpxp phdq vtxduh olqhdu
49
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www.MathGeek.com
hvwlpdwh ri fE| lq whupv ri fEf dqg fEA zkhuh A lv dq| {hg srvlwlyh uhdo qxpehu1
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zlwk dxwrfruuhodwlrq ixqfwlrq -E ' HdfE|fE| n o1 Il{ d srvlwlyh uhdo qxpehu A dqg
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whupv ri fEf dqg fEA 1
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zlwk dq dxwrfruuhodwlrq ixqfwlrq jlyhq e| -E ' HdfE| n fE|o ' i TEm m1 Zh ghvluh
wr hvwlpdwh fE| yld d olqhdu frpelqdwlrq ri fE| dqg fE| 2 vr dv wr plqlpl}h
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k fE| n k2 fE| 2 vr wkdw HdEfE| s EfE| c fE| 22 o lv plqlpl}hg1 Ilqg wkh
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dq lqsxw %E| zlwk E| zkhuh E| ' li f | dqg E| ' f hovhzkhuh1 Vlqfh zh fdqqrw
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lqwhuydo dfc o1 Ilqg d plqlpxp phdq vtxduh d!qh hvwlpdwh ri f lq whupv ri f 2 dqg f1
Zkdw lv wkh phdq vtxduh huuru ri |rxu hvwlpdwhB
5181 Kloehuw Vsdfhv
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sEf ' f1 Ohw ns n ghqrwh wkh vxsuhpxp +ohdvw xsshu erxqg,Uri wkh vhw ims E|m G | 5 dfc oj1

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wkh ixqfwlrq E wkdw pdsv d srlqw lq M wr wkh srlqw lq wkdw lv qhduhvw wr 1 Wkdw
lv/ lv wkh ruwkrjrqdo surmhfwlrq ri M rqwr 1
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www.MathGeek.com
+D, Vkrz wkdw E E ' E iru doo 5 M1
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www.MathGeek.com
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www.MathGeek.com
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www.MathGeek.com
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www.MathGeek.com
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www.MathGeek.com
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56
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www.MathGeek.com
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www.MathGeek.com
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www.MathGeek.com
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www.MathGeek.com
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www.MathGeek.com
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www.MathGeek.com
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www.MathGeek.com
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www.MathGeek.com
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www.MathGeek.com
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Problems in Communication Theory With Solutions

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 Sureohpv dqg Vroxwlrqv

414 Ed|hvldq dqg Plqlpd{ Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5

415 Qh|pdqShduvrq Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6

416 Orfdoo| Rswlpdo Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <

514 Jhqhudo Sureohpv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 43

515 Xqeldvhg Hvwlpdwruv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 44

516 Pd{lpxp Olnholkrrg Hvwlpdwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 46

517 Plqlpxp Phdq Vtxduh Hvwlpdwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 49

518 Kloehuw Vsdfhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:

6 Ghwhfwlrq Vroxwlrqv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4<

614 Ed|hvldq dqg Plqlpd{ Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4<

615 Qh|pdqShduvrq Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 56

616 Orfdoo| Rswlpdo Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 76

714 Jhqhudo Sureohpv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 79

715 Xqeldvhg Hvwlpdwruv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 83

716 Pd{lpxp Olnholkrrg Hvwlpdwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 86

717 Plqlpxp Phdq Vtxduh Hvwlpdwlrq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 99

718 Kloehuw Vsdfhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :3

4141 Ed|hvldq dqg Plqlpd{ Whvwv

Sureohp 4171 Ohw  eh d udqgrp yduldeoh zlwk d ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq jlyhq e|

lv d frqglwlrqdo suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq ri X jlyhq f ' %1

4151 Qh|pdqShduvrq Whvwv

Mf G f '  iru  ' c    c &

Sureohp 41431 Frqvlghu d froohfwlrq if c    c f? j ri pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ lghqwlfdoo|

Sureohp 41481 D whvw wr ghwhuplqh zkhwkhu d frppxqlfdwlrqv vdwhoolwh lv lq zrunlqj rughu

dqg xqghu k|srwkhvlv M kdv ghqvlw|

Sureohp 414;1 Frqvlghu wkuhh suredelolw| glvwulexwlrqv f /  / dqg 2 rq ifc c 2j ghqhg

zkhuh @ 5 U dqg K : f1 +Dvvxph wkdw K lv nqrzq1, Ghvljq d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw ri vl}h

Sureohp 41541 Frqvlghu wkh ghwhfwlrq sureohp

Mf G t '  iru  ' c    c ff

Sureohp 41551 Frqvlghu wkh iroorzlqj suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrqv=

Sureohp 41561 Frqvlghu wkh iroorzlqj suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrqv=

4161 Orfdoo| Rswlpdo Whvwv

Sureohp 41591 Frqvlghu wkh ghwhfwlrq sureohp

Mf G t '  iru  ' c    c &

+F, Xqghu zkdw flufxpvwdqfhv zloo q h{fhhg 2 B

5141 Jhqhudo Sureohpv

5151 Xqeldvhg Hvwlpdwruv

Sureohp 51:1 Frqvlghu dq xqeldvhg hvwlpdwru A ri d sdudphwhu w1 Ilqg d frqglwlrq wkdw

Sureohp 51<1 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f zlwk d Srlvvrq glvwulexwlrq jlyhq e|

Sureohp 51431 Frqvlghu d sdudphwhul}hg idplo| isw G w 5 Uj ri suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqf0

Sureohp 51441 Frqvlghu d udqgrp yduldeoh f vxfk wkdw

Lv A Ef dq xqeldvhg hvwlpdwru ri wB Lv A Ef dq h!flhqw hvwlpdwru ri wB Klqw= Qrwh wkdw

5161 Pd{lpxp Olnholkrrg Hvwlpdwlrq

s E wE% c    c %& c %c    c %& 

+D, Ilqg w1 Lv lw xqeldvhgB Lv lw h!flhqwB

Sureohp 51491 Frqvlghu d idplo| ri suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrqv isw G w 5 Uj zkhuh

sw E% ' Ldw3  cwn  o E%

Sureohp 514<1 Ohw sw eh d ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq ri d wuldqjxodu glvwulexwlrq rq d {hg lqwhuydo

Frqvlghu d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru w ri w edvhg xsrq ? vdpsohv % c    c %? iurp wkh

Sureohp 51541 Ohw f c f2c f eh pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ lghqwlfdoo| glvwulexwhg udqgrp

Sureohp 51551 Frqvlghu d suredelolw| ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq ri wkh irup

zkhuh w  dqg w2 duh srvlwlyh frqvwdqwv1 Ohw f c    c f? eh d froohfwlrq ri pxwxdoo| lqghshq0

Sureohp 51571 Frqvlghu d froohfwlrq f c    c f? ri pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ Jdxvvldq udq0

Sureohp 51581 Frqvlghu pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ lghqwlfdoo| glvwulexwhg udqgrp yduldeohv

5171 Plqlpxp Phdq Vtxduh Hvwlpdwlrq

5181 Kloehuw Vsdfhv

+D, Vkrz wkdw n n lv d qrup rq f1

+E, Vkrz wkdw g lv frqyh{1

+F, Vkrz wkdw wkhuh lv qr srlqw lq g zlwk plqlpxp qrup1

+D, Vkrz wkdw  E E '  E iru doo  5 M1

+F, Vkrz wkdw    ' f li dqg rqo| li    ' f1

vxemhfw wr wkh iroorzlqj frqvwudlqwv rq }=

415 Qh|pdqShduvrq Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6

615 Qh|pdqShduvrq Whvwv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 56

Sureohp 4171 Ohw eh d udqgrp yduldeoh zlwk d ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq jlyhq e|

4151 Qh|pdqShduvrq Whvwv

Mf G f ' iru ' c c &

Sureohp 41431 Frqvlghu d froohfwlrq if c c f? j ri pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ lghqwlfdoo|

dqg xqghu k|srwkhvlv M kdv ghqvlw|

Sureohp 414;1 Frqvlghu wkuhh suredelolw| glvwulexwlrqv f / / dqg 2 rq ifc c 2j ghqhg

zkhuh @ 5 U dqg K : f1 +Dvvxph wkdw K lv nqrzq1, Ghvljq d Qh|pdqShduvrq whvw ri vl}h

Mf G t ' iru ' c c ff

Mf G t ' iru ' c c &

+F, Xqghu zkdw flufxpvwdqfhv zloo q h{fhhg 2 B

Lv A Ef dq xqeldvhg hvwlpdwru ri wB Lv A Ef dq h!flhqw hvwlpdwru ri wB Klqw= Qrwh wkdw

s E wE% c c %& c %c c %&

sw E% ' Ldw3 cwn o E%

Sureohp 514<1 Ohw sw eh d ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq ri d wuldqjxodu glvwulexwlrq rq d {hg lqwhuydo

Frqvlghu d pd{lpxp olnholkrrg hvwlpdwru w ri w edvhg xsrq ? vdpsohv % c c %? iurp wkh

Sureohp 51541 Ohw f c f2c f eh pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ lghqwlfdoo| glvwulexwhg udqgrp

zkhuh w dqg w2 duh srvlwlyh frqvwdqwv1 Ohw f c c f? eh d froohfwlrq ri pxwxdoo| lqghshq0

Sureohp 51571 Frqvlghu d froohfwlrq f c c f? ri pxwxdoo| lqghshqghqw/ Jdxvvldq udq0

+D, Vkrz wkdw E E ' E iru doo 5 M1

+F, Vkrz wkdw ' f li dqg rqo| li ' f1

iru hdfk %1 Ohw B eh dqrwkhu uxoh/ dqg qrwh wkdw

' oEsc B

Vlqfh wkh ghflvlrq uxoh Bf jlyhq e|

k EX 5 / mf ' % ' q EX 5 / f mf ' %

6151 Qh|pdqShduvrq Whvwv

Qrwh wkdw qEb ' xEf.S ' fe1

dqg xqghu M / wkh f *v kdyh mrlqw ghqvlw|

iru % ' d% c c %? o dqg r ' dr c c r? o 1 Wkxv/

Hdr P3 ff P3 ro ' r P3Hdff oP3 r

zkhuh r ' i TEE dqg

Wkxv/ zh vhhn wkh odujhvw ydoxh ri iru zklfk

f E\Et : A n Rf E\Et ' A ' kf

q ' E\Et : A n R E\Et ' A

Vroxwlrq 41481 Iurp fodvv qrwhv/ zh nqrz wkdw wkh Qh|pdqShduvrq

iru f % 1 Uhgxflqj wkh whvw/ zh rewdlq d whvw ri wkh irup

q ' Ef A ' _% ' fef.D

+D, Iru whvwlqj Mf G if j yhuvxv M G i j zh kdyh=

+E, Iru whvwlqj Mf G if j yhuvxv M G i j zh kdyh=

Xqghu M / f& lv Jdxvvldq zlwk phdq

dqg yduldqfh 2 1 Zh fkrrvh A vr wkdw f Ef& : A ' kf 1 Vlqfh

q ' E7Ef : A n RE7Ef ' A

' 2A n eE E A 2E E A 2

kf ' f Ef : A n Rf Ef ' A

ff2 ' f Ef : n Rf Ef '

+E, Qrwh wkdw xqghu M c

E~ ' ' E : r E2 : r E : r

+F, Wkh srzhu q lv qhyhu juhdwhu wkdq 2 1

Iljxuh 615= Qh|pdqShduvrq surfhvvru iru Sureohp 415;

Wkxv/ Hd2f o ' / zklfk phdqv wkdw 2f lv dq xqeldvhg hvwlpdwh ri 1 Lq jhqhudo/

+E, Qrwh wkdw 2 Ef n f2 kdv d ghqvlw| ixqfwlrq jlyhq e|