The Bible - A Concise Overview of Its Development and Contents

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BibleWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Bible
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
TheBible(fromKoineGreek,t
bibla,"thebooks"[1])isacollectionoftexts
sacredinJudaismandChristianity.Itisa
collectionofscriptureswrittenatdifferenttimes
bydifferentauthorsindifferentlocations.Jews
andChristiansconsiderthebooksoftheBibleto
beaproductofdivineinspirationoran
authoritativerecordoftherelationshipbetween
Godandhumans.
Thereisnosinglecanonical"Bible"manyBibles
haveevolved,withoverlappinganddiverging
TheGutenbergBible,thefirstprintedBible
contents.[2]TheChristianOldTestamentoverlaps
withtheHebrewBibleandtheGreekSeptuagint
theHebrewBibleisknowninJudaismastheTanakh.TheNewTestamentisacollectionofwritingsby
earlyChristians,consistingofnarratives,letters,andapocalypticwritings.AmongChristiandenominations
thereissomedisagreementaboutthecontentsofthecanon,primarilyintheApocrypha,alistofworksthat
areregardedwithvaryinglevelsofrespect.
AttitudestowardstheBiblealsovaryamongstChristiangroups.RomanCatholics,AnglicansandEastern
OrthodoxChristiansstresstheharmonyandimportanceoftheBibleandsacredtradition,whileProtestant
churchesfocusontheideaofsolascriptura,orscripturealone.ThisconceptaroseduringtheProtestant
Reformation,andmanydenominationstodaycontinuetosupporttheuseoftheBibleastheonlysourceof
Christianteaching.
Withestimatedtotalsalesofover5billioncopies,theBibleiswidelyconsideredtobethebestsellingbook
ofalltime.[3][4]Ithasestimatedannualsalesof100millioncopies,[5][6]andhasbeenamajorinfluenceon
literatureandhistory,especiallyintheWestwheretheGutenbergBiblewasthefirstmassprintedbook.It
wasthefirstbookeverprintedusingmovabletype.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Development
3 HebrewBible
3.1 Torah
3.2 Nevi'im
3.3 Ketuvim
3.4 Originallanguages
4 Septuagint
4.1 IncorporationsfromTheodotion
4.2 Finalform
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible
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4.2 Finalform
5 ChristianBibles
5.1 OldTestament
5.2 NewTestament
5.3 DevelopmentoftheChristiancanons
6 Divineinspiration
7 Versionsandtranslations
8 Views
8.1 Otherreligions
8.2 Biblicalstudies
8.3 Highercriticism
9 Archaeologicalandhistoricalresearch
10 Criticism
11 BiblesGallery
12 Illustrations
13 Seealso
14 Endnotes
15 Referencesandfurtherreading
Etymology
TheEnglishwordBibleisfromtheLatinbiblia,fromthesamewordinMedievalLatinandLateLatinand
ultimatelyfromKoineGreektabiblia"thebooks"(singularbiblion).[7]
MedievalLatinbibliaisshortforbibliasacra"holybook",whilebibliainGreekandLateLatinisneuter
plural(gen.bibliorum).Itgraduallycametoberegardedasafemininesingularnoun(biblia,gen.bibliae)
inmedievalLatin,andsothewordwasloanedasasingularintothevernacularsofWesternEurope.[8]Latin
bibliasacra"holybooks"translatesGreektabibliatahagia,"theholybooks".[9]
Theworditselfhadtheliteralmeaningof"paper"or"scroll"andcametobeusedastheordinary
wordfor"book".Itisthediminutiveofbyblos,"Egyptianpapyrus",possiblysocalledfromthe
nameofthePhoenicianseaportByblos(alsoknownasGebal)fromwhenceEgyptianpapyruswas
exportedtoGreece.TheGreektabiblia(lit."littlepapyrusbooks")[10]was"anexpressionHellenisticJews
usedtodescribetheirsacredbooks(theSeptuagint).[11][12]Christianuseofthetermcanbetracedtoc.223
CE.[7]ThebiblicalscholarF.F.BrucenotesthatChrysostomappearstobethefirstwriter(inhisHomilies
onMatthew,deliveredbetween386and388)tousetheGreekphrasetabiblia("thebooks")todescribe
boththeOldandNewTestamentstogether.[13]
Development
ProfessorJohnK.Riches,ProfessorofDivinityandBiblicalCriticismattheUniversityofGlasgow,inan
OxfordUniversityPressintroductiontotheBible,saysthat"thebiblicaltextsthemselvesaretheresultofa
creativedialoguebetweenancienttraditionsanddifferentcommunitiesthroughtheages",[14]and"the
biblicaltextswereproducedoveraperiodinwhichthelivingconditionsofthewriterspolitical,cultural,
economic,andecologicalvariedenormously".[15]TimothyH.Lim,aprofessorofHebrewBibleand
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SecondTempleJudaismattheUniversityofEdinburgh,saysthat
theOldTestamentis"acollectionofauthoritativetextsof
apparentlydivineoriginthatwentthroughahumanprocessof
writingandediting."[16]Hestatesthatitisnotamagicalbook,nor
wasitliterallywrittenbyGodandpassedtomankind.Paralleltothe
solidificationoftheHebrewcanon(c.3rdcenturyBCE),onlythe
TorahfirstandthantheTanakhbegantobetranslatedintoGreek
andexpanded,nowreferredtoastheSeptuagintortheGreekOld
Testament.[17]
InChristianBibles,theNewTestamentGospelswerederivedfrom
oraltraditionsinthesecondhalfofthefirstcenturyCE.Richessays
that:
Scholarshaveattemptedtoreconstructsomethingofthe
historyoftheoraltraditionsbehindtheGospels,butthe
resultshavenotbeentooencouraging.Theperiodof
transmissionisshort:lessthan40yearspassedbetween
thedeathofJesusandthewritingofMark'sGospel.
Thismeansthattherewaslittletimefororaltraditions
toassumefixedform.[18]
TheKennicottBible,byBenjamin
Kennicott,withillustration,Jonah
beingswallowedbythefish,1476
TheBiblewaslatertranslatedintoLatinandotherlanguages.JohnRichesstatesthat:
ThetranslationoftheBibleintoLatinmarksthebeginningofapartingofthewaysbetween
WesternLatinspeakingChristianityandEasternChristianity,whichspokeGreek,Syriac,
Coptic,Ethiopic,andotherlanguages.TheBiblesoftheEasternChurchesvaryconsiderably:
theEthiopicOrthodoxcanonincludes81booksandcontainsmanyapocalyptictexts,suchas
werefoundatQumranandsubsequentlyexcludedfromtheJewishcanon.Asageneralrule,
onecansaythattheOrthodoxChurchesgenerallyfollowtheSeptuagintinincludingmore
booksintheirOldTestamentsthanareintheJewishcanon.[18]
HebrewBible
TheMasoreticTextistheauthoritativeHebrewtextoftheHebrewBible,orTanakh.Itdefinesthebooksof
theJewishcanon,andalsothepreciselettertextofthesebiblicalbooks,withtheirvocalizationand
accentuation.
TheoldestextantmanuscriptsoftheMasoreticTextdatefromapproximatelythe9thcenturyCE,[19]and
theAleppoCodex(oncetheoldestcompletecopyoftheMasoreticText,butnowmissingitsTorahsection)
datesfromthe10thcentury.
ThenameTanakh(Hebrew:")reflectsthethreefolddivisionoftheHebrewScriptures,Torah
("Teaching"),Nevi'im("Prophets")andKetuvim("Writings").
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Torah
TheTorah()isalsoknownasthe"FiveBooksofMoses"orthe
Pentateuch,meaning"fivescrollcases".[20]
TheHebrewnamesofthebooksarederivedfromthefirstwordsinthe
respectivetexts.TheTorahconsistsofthefollowingfivebooks:
Genesis,Bereshith()
Exodus,Shemot()
Leviticus,Vayikra()
Numbers,Bamidbar()
Deuteronomy,Devarim()
ThefirstelevenchaptersofGenesisprovideaccountsofthecreation(or
ordering)oftheworldandthehistoryofGod'searlyrelationshipwith
TheNashPapyrus(2nd
humanity.TheremainingthirtyninechaptersofGenesisprovideanaccount
centuryBCE)containsa
ofGod'scovenantwiththeBiblicalpatriarchsAbraham,IsaacandJacob
portionofapreMasoretic
(alsocalledIsrael)andJacob'schildren,the"ChildrenofIsrael",especially
Text,specificallytheTen
Joseph.IttellsofhowGodcommandedAbrahamtoleavehisfamilyand
Commandmentsandthe
homeinthecityofUr,eventuallytosettleinthelandofCanaan,andhow
ShemaYisraelprayer.
theChildrenofIsraellatermovedtoEgypt.Theremainingfourbooksofthe
TorahtellthestoryofMoses,wholivedhundredsofyearsafterthe
patriarchs.HeleadstheChildrenofIsraelfromslaveryinAncientEgypttotherenewaloftheircovenant
withGodatMountSinaiandtheirwanderingsinthedesertuntilanewgenerationwasreadytoenterthe
landofCanaan.TheTorahendswiththedeathofMoses.[21]
TheTorahcontainsthecommandmentsofGod,revealedatMountSinai(althoughthereissomedebate
amongtraditionalscholarsastowhetherthesewereallwrittendownatonetime,oroveraperiodoftime
duringthe40yearsofthewanderingsinthedesert,whileseveralmodernJewishmovementsrejecttheidea
ofaliteralrevelation,andcriticalscholarsbelievethatmanyoftheselawsdevelopedlaterinJewish
history).[22][23][24][25]ThesecommandmentsprovidethebasisforJewishreligiouslaw.Traditionstatesthat
thereare613commandments(taryagmitzvot).
Nevi'im
Nevi'im(Hebrew:N'm
,"Prophets")isthesecondmaindivisionoftheTanakh,betweentheTorah
andKetuvim.Itcontainstwosubgroups,theFormerProphets(Nevi'imRishonim,the
narrativebooksofJoshua,Judges,SamuelandKings)andtheLatterProphets(Nevi'imAharonim
,thebooksofIsaiah,JeremiahandEzekielandtheTwelveMinorProphets).
TheNevi'imtellthestoryoftheriseoftheHebrewmonarchyanditsdivisionintotwokingdoms,ancient
IsraelandJudah,focusingonconflictsbetweentheIsraelitesandothernations,andconflictsamong
Israelites,specifically,strugglesbetweenbelieversin"theLORDGod"[26]andbelieversinforeign
gods,[27][28]andthecriticismofunethicalandunjustbehaviorofIsraeliteelitesandrulers[29][30][31]in
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whichprophetsplayedacrucialandleadingrole.ItendswiththeconquestoftheKingdomofIsraelbythe
AssyriansfollowedbytheconquestoftheKingdomofJudahbytheBabyloniansandthedestructionofthe
TempleinJerusalem.
FormerProphets
TheFormerProphetsarethebooksJoshua,Judges,SamuelandKings.Theycontainnarrativesthatbegin
immediatelyafterthedeathofMoseswiththedivineappointmentofJoshuaashissuccessor,whothen
leadsthepeopleofIsraelintothePromisedLand,andendwiththereleasefromimprisonmentofthelast
kingofJudah.TreatingSamuelandKingsassinglebooks,theycover:
Joshua'sconquestofthelandofCanaan(intheBookofJoshua),
thestruggleofthepeopletopossesstheland(intheBookofJudges),
thepeople'srequesttoGodtogivethemakingsothattheycanoccupythelandinthefaceoftheir
enemies(intheBooksofSamuel)
thepossessionofthelandunderthedivinelyappointedkingsoftheHouseofDavid,endingin
conquestandforeignexile(BooksofKings)
LatterProphets
TheLatterProphetsaredividedintotwogroups,the"major"prophets,Isaiah,JeremiahandEzekiel,and
theTwelveMinorProphets,collectedintoasinglebook.Thecollectionisbrokenuptoformtwelve
individualbooksintheChristianOldTestament,oneforeachoftheprophets:
Hosea,Hoshea()
Joel,Yoel()
Amos,Amos()
Obadiah,Ovadyah()
Jonah,Yonah()
Micah,Mikhah()
Nahum,Nahum()
Habakkuk,Havakuk()
Zephaniah,Tsefanya()
Haggai,Khagay()
Zechariah,Zekharyah()
Malachi,Malakhi()
Ketuvim
KetuvimorKm(inBiblicalHebrew:
"writings")isthethirdandfinalsectionoftheTanakh.The
KetuvimarebelievedtohavebeenwrittenundertheRuachHaKodesh(theHolySpirit)butwithonelevel
lessauthoritythanthatofprophecy.[32]
Thepoeticbooks
InMasoreticmanuscripts(andsomeprintededitions),Psalms,ProverbsandJobarepresentedinaspecial
twocolumnformemphasizingtheparallelstichsintheverses,whichareafunctionoftheirpoetry.
Collectively,thesethreebooksareknownasSifreiEmet(anacronymofthetitlesinHebrew,,,
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yieldsEmet",whichisalsotheHebrewfor"truth").
ThesethreebooksarealsotheonlyonesinTanakhwithaspecialsystemofcantillationnotesthatare
designedtoemphasizeparallelstichswithinverses.However,thebeginningandendofthebookofJobare
inthenormalprosesystem.
Thefivescrolls(HameshMegillot)
ThefiverelativelyshortbooksofSongofSongs,BookofRuth,theBookofLamentations,Ecclesiastes
andBookofEstherarecollectivelyknownastheHameshMegillot(FiveMegillot).Thesearethelatest
bookscollectedanddesignatedas"authoritative"intheJewishcanoneventhoughtheywerenotcomplete
untilthe2ndcenturyCE.[33]
Otherbooks
Besidesthethreepoeticbooksandthefivescrolls,theremainingbooksinKetuvimareDaniel,Ezra
NehemiahandChronicles.AlthoughthereisnoformalgroupingforthesebooksintheJewishtradition,
theyneverthelessshareanumberofdistinguishingcharacteristics:
Theirnarrativesallopenlydescriberelativelylateevents(i.e.,theBabyloniancaptivityandthe
subsequentrestorationofZion).
TheTalmudictraditionascribeslateauthorshiptoallofthem.
Twoofthem(DanielandEzra)aretheonlybooksintheTanakhwithsignificantportionsinAramaic.
Orderofthebooks
ThefollowinglistpresentsthebooksofKetuvimintheordertheyappearinmostprintededitions.Italso
dividesthemintothreesubgroupsbasedonthedistinctivenessofSifreiEmetandHameshMegillot.
TheThreePoeticBooks(SifreiEmet)
Tehillim(Psalms)
Mishlei(BookofProverbs)
Iyybh(BookofJob)
TheFiveMegillot(HameshMegillot)
ShrHashshrm(SongofSongs)or(SongofSolomon)
(Passover)
Rth(BookofRuth)(Shbhth)
Eikhah(Lamentations)(NinthofAv)[AlsocalledKinnotinHebrew.]
Qheleth(Ecclesiastes)(Sukkth)
Estr(BookofEsther)
(Prm)
Otherbooks
Dnl(BookofDaniel)
Ezr(BookofEzraBookofNehemiah)
DivreihaYamim(Chronicles)
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TheJewishtextualtraditionneverfinalizedtheorderofthebooksin
Ketuvim.TheBabylonianTalmud(BavaBatra14b15a)givestheir
orderasRuth,Psalms,Job,Proverbs,Ecclesiastes,Songof
Solomon,LamentationsofJeremiah,Daniel,ScrollofEsther,Ezra,
Chronicles.[34]
InTiberianMasoreticcodices,includingtheAleppoCodexandthe
LeningradCodex,andofteninoldSpanishmanuscriptsaswell,the
orderisChronicles,Psalms,Job,Proverbs,Ruth,SongofSolomon,
Ecclesiastes,LamentationsofJeremiah,Esther,Daniel,Ezra.[35]
Canonization
TheKetuvimisthelastofthethreeportionsoftheTanakhtohave
beenacceptedasbiblicalcanon.WhiletheTorahmayhavebeen
consideredcanonbyIsraelasearlyasthe5thcenturyBCEandthe
FormerandLatterProphetswerecanonizedbythe2ndcentury
BCE,theKetuvimwasnotafixedcanonuntilthe2ndcenturyofthe
CommonEra.[36]
Evidencesuggests,however,thatthepeopleofIsraelwereadding
whatwouldbecometheKetuvimtotheirholyliteratureshortlyafter
thecanonizationoftheprophets.Asearlyas132BCEreferences
suggestthattheKetuvimwasstartingtotakeshape,althoughit
lackedaformaltitle.[37]ReferencesinthefourGospelsaswellas
otherbooksoftheNewTestamentindicatethatmanyofthesetexts
werebothcommonlyknownandcountedashavingsomedegreeof
religiousauthorityearlyinthe1stcenturyCE.
ColouredtitlepagefromtheBishops'
Biblequartoeditionof1569,the
BritishMuseum.QueenElizabethsits
inthecentreonherthrone.The
wordsonthefourcolumnsread
justice,mercy,fortitudeand
prudence,attributingthesetraitsto
thequeen.Textatthebottomreads
"GodSavetheQueene".
ManyscholarsbelievethatthelimitsoftheKetuvimascanonizedscriptureweredeterminedbytheCouncil
ofJamniac.90CE.AgainstApion,thewritingofJosephusin95CE,treatedthetextoftheHebrewBible
asaclosedcanontowhich"...noonehasventuredeithertoadd,ortoremove,ortoalterasyllable..."[38]
ForalongtimefollowingthisdatethedivineinspirationofEsther,theSongofSongs,andEcclesiasteswas
oftenunderscrutiny.[39]
Originallanguages
TheTanakhwasmainlywritteninbiblicalHebrew,withsomeportions(Ezra4:86:18and7:1226,
Jeremiah10:11,Daniel2:47:28)inbiblicalAramaic,asisterlanguagewhichbecamethelinguafrancaof
theSemiticworld.[40]
Septuagint
TheSeptuagint,orLXX,isatranslationoftheHebrewscripturesandsomerelatedtextsintoKoineGreek,
beguninthelate3rdcenturyBCEandcompletedby132BCE,[41][42][43]initiallyinAlexandria,butintime
elsewhereaswell.[44]Itisnotaltogetherclearwhichwastranslatedwhen,orwheresomemayevenhave
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beentranslatedtwice,intodifferentversions,andthenrevised.[45]
Astheworkoftranslationprogressed,thecanonoftheGreekBibleexpanded.TheTorahalways
maintaineditspreeminenceasthebasisofthecanonbutthecollectionofpropheticwritings,basedonthe
Nevi'im,hadvarioushagiographicalworksincorporatedintoit.Inaddition,somenewerbookswere
includedintheSeptuagint,amongthesearetheMaccabeesandtheWisdomofSirach.However,thebook
ofSirach,isnowknowntohaveexistedinaHebrewversion,sinceancientHebrewmanuscriptsofitwere
rediscoveredinmoderntimes.TheSeptuagintversionofsomeBiblicalbooks,likeDanielandEsther,are
longerthanthoseintheJewishcanon.[46]Someofthesedeuterocanonicalbooks(e.g.theWisdomof
Solomon,andthesecondbookofMaccabees)werenottranslated,butcomposeddirectlyinGreek.
SinceLateAntiquity,onceattributedtoahypotheticallate1stcenturyCouncilofJamnia,mainstream
RabbinicJudaismrejectedtheSeptuagintasvalidJewishscripturaltexts.Severalreasonshavebeengiven
forthis.First,somemistranslationswereclaimed.Second,theHebrewsourcetextsusedfortheSeptuagint
differedfromtheMasoretictraditionofHebrewtexts,whichwaschosenascanonicalbytheJewish
rabbis.[47]Third,therabbiswantedtodistinguishtheirtraditionfromthenewlyemergingtraditionof
Christianity.[43][48]Finally,therabbisclaimedadivineauthorityfortheHebrewlanguage,incontrastto
AramaicorGreekeventhoughtheselanguageswerethelinguafrancaofJewsduringthisperiod(and
AramaicwouldeventuallybegivenaholylanguagestatuscomparabletoHebrew).[49]
TheSeptuagintisthebasisfortheOldLatin,Slavonic,Syriac,OldArmenian,OldGeorgianandCoptic
versionsoftheChristianOldTestament.[50]TheRomanCatholicandEasternOrthodoxChurchesusemost
ofthebooksoftheSeptuagint,whileProtestantchurchesusuallydonot.AftertheProtestantReformation,
manyProtestantBiblesbegantofollowtheJewishcanonandexcludetheadditionaltexts,whichcameto
becalledBiblicalapocrypha.TheApocryphaareincludedunderaseparateheadingintheKingJames
VersionoftheBible,thebasisfortheRevisedStandardVersion.[51]
IncorporationsfromTheodotion
InmostancientcopiesoftheBiblewhichcontaintheSeptuagintversionoftheOldTestament,theBookof
DanielisnottheoriginalSeptuagintversion,butinsteadisacopyofTheodotion'stranslationfromthe
Hebrew,whichmorecloselyresemblestheMasoreticText.TheSeptuagintversionwasdiscardedinfavour
ofTheodotion'sversioninthe2ndto3rdcenturiesCE.InGreekspeakingareas,thishappenedneartheend
ofthe2ndcentury,andinLatinspeakingareas(atleastinNorthAfrica),itoccurredinthemiddleofthe
3rdcentury.Historydoesnotrecordthereasonforthis,andSt.Jeromereports,intheprefacetotheVulgate
versionofDaniel,"Thisthing'just'happened."[52]OneoftwoOldGreektextsoftheBookofDanielhas
beenrecentlyrediscoveredandworkisongoinginreconstructingtheoriginalformofthebook.[53]
ThecanonicalEzraNehemiahisknownintheSeptuagintas"EsdrasB",and1Esdrasis"EsdrasA".1
EsdrasisaverysimilartexttothebooksofEzraNehemiah,andthetwoarewidelythoughtbyscholarsto
bederivedfromthesameoriginaltext.Ithasbeenproposed,andisthoughthighlylikelybyscholars,that
"EsdrasB"thecanonicalEzraNehemiahisTheodotion'sversionofthismaterial,and"EsdrasA"isthe
versionwhichwaspreviouslyintheSeptuagintonitsown.[52]
Finalform
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SometextsarefoundintheSeptuagintbutarenotpresentintheHebrew.TheseadditionalbooksareTobit,
Judith,WisdomofSolomon,WisdomofJesussonofSirach,Baruch,theLetterofJeremiah(whichlater
becamechapter6ofBaruchintheVulgate),additionstoDaniel(ThePrayerofAzarias,theSongofthe
ThreeChildren,SusannaandBelandtheDragon),additionstoEsther,1Maccabees,2Maccabees,3
Maccabees,4Maccabees,1Esdras,Odes,includingthePrayerofManasseh,thePsalmsofSolomon,and
Psalm151.
SomebooksthataresetapartintheMasoreticTextaregroupedtogether.Forexample,theBooksof
SamuelandtheBooksofKingsareintheLXXonebookinfourpartscalled("OfReigns").In
LXX,theBooksofChroniclessupplementReignsanditiscalledParalipomenon(
thingsleftout).TheSeptuagintorganizestheminorprophetsastwelvepartsofoneBookofTwelve.[53]
TheOrthodox
OldTestament [44][54][55]
Law
History
N
[56]
[58]
Wisdom
Greekbased
name
Conventional
Englishname
Gnesis
xodos
Leuitikn
Arithmo
Deuteronmion
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
IsousNau
Krita
Roth
IReigns
IIReigns
IIIReigns
IVReigns
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
ISamuel
IISamuel
IKings
IIKings
IChronicles
IIChronicles
1Esdras
EzraNehemiah
TobitorTobias
Judith
Estherwithadditions
1Maccabees
2Maccabees
3Maccabees
IParalipomenon[57]
IIParalipomenon
IEsdras
IIEsdras
Tobit
Ioudith
Esther
IMakkabaioi
IIMakkabaioi
IIIMakkabaioi
Psalms
Psalm151
PrayerofManasseh
Ib
Proverbs
Ekklesiastes
SongofSongs
WisdomofSolomon
WisdomofJesusthesonof
Seirach
Psalms
Psalm151
PrayerofManasseh
Job
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
SongofSolomonor
Canticles
Wisdom
SirachorEcclesiasticus
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o
Prophets
[60]
'
Appendix
'
Seirach
PsalmsofSolomon
PsalmsofSolomon[59]
TheTwelve
I.Ose
II.Ams
III.Michaias
IV.Iol
V.Obdias
VI.Ionas
VII.Naoum
VIII.Ambakum
IX.Sophonias
X.Angaios
XI.Zacharias
XII.Messenger
Hesaias
Hieremias
Baruch
Lamentations
EpistleofJeremiah
Iezekil
Danil
MinorProphets
Hosea
Amos
Micah
Joel
Obadiah
Jonah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zachariah
Malachi
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Baruch
Lamentations
LetterofJeremiah
Ezekiel
Danielwithadditions
IVMakkabees
4Maccabees[61]
ChristianBibles
AChristianBibleisasetofbooksthataChristiandenomination
regardsasdivinelyinspiredandthusconstitutingscripture.
AlthoughtheEarlyChurchprimarilyusedtheSeptuagintorthe
TargumsamongAramaicspeakers,theapostlesdidnotleavea
definedsetofnewscripturesinsteadthecanonoftheNew
Testamentdevelopedovertime.GroupswithinChristianityinclude
differingbooksaspartoftheirsacredwritings,mostprominent
amongwhicharethebiblicalapocryphaordeuterocanonicalbooks.
SignificantversionsoftheEnglishChristianBibleincludethe
TheBibletranslatedintoGermanby
DouayRheimsBible,theAuthorizedKingJamesVersion,the
MartinLuther
EnglishRevisedVersion,theAmericanStandardVersion,the
RevisedStandardVersion,theNewAmericanStandardVersion,the
NewKingJamesVersion,theNewInternationalVersion,andtheEnglishStandardVersion.
OldTestament
ThebookswhichmakeuptheChristianOldTestamentdifferbetweentheCatholic(seeCatholicBible),
Orthodox,andProtestant(seeProtestantBible)churches,withtheProtestantmovementacceptingonly
thosebookscontainedintheHebrewBible,whileCatholicsandOrthodoxhavewidercanons.Afew
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groupsconsiderparticulartranslationstobedivinelyinspired,
notablytheGreekSeptuagintandtheAramaicPeshitta.
Apocryphalordeuterocanonicalbooks
InEasternChristianity,translationsbasedontheSeptuagintstill
prevail.TheSeptuagintwasgenerallyabandonedinfavourofthe
10thcenturyMasoreticTextasthebasisfortranslationsoftheOld
TestamentintoWesternlanguages.SomemodernWestern
translationssincethe14thcenturymakeuseoftheSeptuagintto
clarifypassagesintheMasoreticText,wheretheSeptuagintmay
preserveavariantreadingoftheHebrewtext.Theyalsosometimes
adoptvariantsthatappearinothertexts,e.g.,thosediscovered
amongtheDeadSeaScrolls.[62][63]
AnumberofbookswhicharepartofthePeshittaorGreek
ApagefromtheGutenbergBible
SeptuagintbutarenotfoundintheHebrew(Rabbinic)Bible(i.e.,
amongtheprotocanonicalbooks)areoftenreferredto
asdeuterocanonicalbooksbyRomanCatholics
referringtoalatersecondary(i.e.,deutero)canon,that
canonasfixeddefinitivelybytheCouncilofTrent
15451563.[64][65]Itincludes46booksfortheOld
Testament(45ifJeremiahandLamentationsare
TheIsaiahscroll,whichisapartoftheDeadSea
countedasone)and27fortheNew.[66]
Scrolls,containsalmostthewholeBookofIsaiah.
Itdatesfromthe2ndcenturyBCE.
MostProtestantstermthesebooksasapocrypha.
ModernProtestanttraditionsdonotacceptthe
deuterocanonicalbooksascanonical,although
ProtestantBiblesincludedtheminApocryphasectionsuntilthe1820s.However,RomanCatholicand
EasternOrthodoxChurchesincludethesebooksaspartoftheirOldTestament.
TheRomanCatholicChurchrecognizes:[67]
Tobit
Judith
1Maccabees
2Maccabees
Wisdom
Sirach(orEcclesiasticus)
Baruch
TheLetterofJeremiah(BaruchChapter6)
GreekAdditionstoEsther(BookofEsther,chapters10:412:6)
ThePrayerofAzariahandSongoftheThreeHolyChildrenverses168(BookofDaniel,chapter3,
verses2490)
Susanna(BookofDaniel,chapter13)
BelandtheDragon(BookofDaniel,chapter14)
Inadditiontothose,theGreekandRussianOrthodoxChurchesrecognizethefollowing:
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3Maccabees
1Esdras
PrayerofManasseh
Psalm151
RussianandGeorgianOrthodoxChurchesinclude:
2Esdrasi.e.,LatinEsdrasintheRussianandGeorgianBibles
Thereisalso4MaccabeeswhichisonlyacceptedascanonicalintheGeorgianChurch,butwasincludedby
St.JeromeinanappendixtotheVulgate,andisanappendixtotheGreekOrthodoxBible,anditis
thereforesometimesincludedincollectionsoftheApocrypha.
TheSyriacOrthodoxtraditionincludes:
Psalms151155
TheApocalypseofBaruch
TheLetterofBaruch
TheEthiopianBiblicalcanonincludes:
Jubilees
Enoch
13Meqabyan
andsomeotherbooks.
TheAnglicanChurchusessomeoftheApocryphalbooksliturgically.Therefore,editionsoftheBible
intendedforuseintheAnglicanChurchincludetheDeuterocanonicalbooksacceptedbytheCatholic
Church,plus1Esdras,2EsdrasandthePrayerofManasseh,whichwereintheVulgateappendix.
Pseudepigraphaltexts
ThetermPseudepigraphacommonlydescribesnumerousworksofJewishreligiousliteraturewrittenfrom
about300BCEto300CE.Notalloftheseworksareactuallypseudepigraphical.Italsoreferstobooksof
theNewTestamentcanonwhoseauthorshipismisrepresented.The"OldTestament"Pseudepigraphal
worksincludethefollowing:[68]
3Maccabees
4Maccabees
AssumptionofMoses
EthiopicBookofEnoch(1Enoch)
SlavonicBookofEnoch(2Enoch)
HebrewBookofEnoch(3Enoch)(alsoknownas"TheRevelationofMetatron"or"TheBookof
RabbiIshmaeltheHighPriest")
BookofJubilees
SyriacApocalypseofBaruch(2Baruch)
LetterofAristeas(LettertoPhilocratesregardingthetranslatingoftheHebrewScripturesinto
Greek)
LifeofAdamandEve
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MartyrdomandAscensionofIsaiah
PsalmsofSolomon
SibyllineOracles
GreekApocalypseofBaruch(3Baruch)
TestamentsoftheTwelvePatriarchs
BookofEnoch
NotablepseudepigraphalworksincludetheBooksofEnoch(suchas1Enoch,2Enoch,survivingonlyin
OldSlavonic,and3Enoch,survivinginHebrew,c.5thto6thcenturyCE).TheseareancientJewish
religiousworks,traditionallyascribedtotheprophetEnoch,thegreatgrandfatherofthepatriarchNoah.
TheyarenotpartofthebiblicalcanonusedbyJews,apartfromBetaIsrael.MostChristiandenominations
andtraditionsmayaccepttheBooksofEnochashavingsomehistoricalortheologicalinterestor
significance.IthasbeenobservedthatpartoftheBookofEnochisquotedintheEpistleofJude(partofthe
NewTestament)butChristiandenominationsgenerallyregardtheBooksofEnochasnoncanonicalornon
inspired.[69]However,theEnochbooksaretreatedascanonicalbytheEthiopianOrthodoxTewahedo
ChurchandEritreanOrthodoxTewahedoChurch.
Theoldersections(mainlyintheBookoftheWatchers)areestimatedtodatefromabout300BC,andthe
latestpart(BookofParables)probablywascomposedattheendofthe1stcenturyBCE.[70]
DenominationalviewsofPseudepigrapha
TherearoseinsomeProtestantbiblicalscholarshipanextendeduseofthetermpseudepigraphaforworks
thatappearedasthoughtheyoughttobepartofthebiblicalcanon,becauseoftheauthorshipascribedto
them,butwhichstoodoutsideboththebiblicalcanonsrecognizedbyProtestantsandCatholics.These
workswerealsooutsidetheparticularsetofbooksthatRomanCatholicscalleddeuterocanonicalandto
whichProtestantshadgenerallyappliedthetermApocryphal.Accordingly,thetermpseudepigraphical,as
nowusedoftenamongbothProtestantsandRomanCatholics(allegedlyfortheclarityitbringstothe
discussion),maymakeitdifficulttodiscussquestionsofpseudepigraphicalauthorshipofcanonicalbooks
dispassionatelywithalayaudience.Toconfusethematterevenmore,EasternOrthodoxChristiansaccept
booksascanonicalthatRomanCatholicsandmostProtestantdenominationsconsiderpseudepigraphicalor
atbestofmuchlessauthority.ThereexistalsochurchesthatrejectsomeofthebooksthatRomanCatholics,
OrthodoxandProtestantsaccept.ThesameistrueofsomeJewishsects.Manyworksthatare"apocryphal"
areotherwiseconsideredgenuine.
RoleofOldTestamentinChristiantheology
TheOldTestamenthasalwaysbeencentraltothelifeoftheChristianchurch.BiblescholarN.T.Wright
says"Jesushimselfwasprofoundlyshapedbythescriptures."[71]HeaddsthattheearliestChristiansalso
searchedthosesameHebrewscripturesintheirefforttounderstandtheearthlylifeofJesus.Theyregarded
theIsraelites'"holywritings"asinstructivefortheChristian,andaspointingtotheMessiah,andashaving
reachedaclimacticfulfillmentinJesushimself,generatingthe"newcovenant"prophesiedbyJeremiah.[72]
NewTestament
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TheNewTestamentisacollectionof27books[73]of4differentgenresofChristianliterature(Gospels,one
accountoftheActsoftheApostles,EpistlesandanApocalypse).Jesusisitscentralfigure.TheNew
TestamentpresupposestheinspirationoftheOldTestament.[74](2Timothy3:16)NearlyallChristians
recognizetheNewTestamentascanonicalscripture.Thesebookscanbegroupedinto:
TheGospels
SynopticGospels
GospelAccordingtoMatthew
GospelAccordingtoMark
GospelAccordingtoLuke
GospelAccordingtoJohn
Pastoralepistles
FirstEpistletoTimothy
SecondEpistletoTimothy
EpistletoTitus
EpistletoPhilemon
EpistletotheHebrews
Narrativeliterature,accountandhistoryoftheApostolicage Generalepistles,alsocalledcatholicepistles
ActsoftheApostles
PaulineEpistles
EpistletotheRomans
FirstEpistletotheCorinthians
SecondEpistletotheCorinthians
EpistletotheGalatians
EpistletotheEphesians
EpistletothePhilippians
EpistletotheColossians
FirstEpistletotheThessalonians
SecondEpistletotheThessalonians
EpistleofJames
FirstEpistleofPeter
SecondEpistleofPeter
FirstEpistleofJohn
SecondEpistleofJohn
ThirdEpistleofJohn
EpistleofJude
Apocalypticliterature,alsocalledProphetical
Revelation,ortheApocalypse
TheNewTestamentbooksareordereddifferentlyintheCatholic/Orthodox/Protestanttradition,the
Slavonictradition,theSyriactraditionandtheEthiopiantradition.
Originallanguage
ThemainstreamconsensusisthattheNewTestamentwaswritteninaformofKoineGreek,[75][76]which
wasthecommonlanguageoftheEasternMediterranean[77][78][79][80]fromtheConquestsofAlexanderthe
Great(335323BCE)untiltheevolutionofByzantineGreek(c.600).
Historiceditions
Theoriginalautographs,thatis,theoriginalGreekwritingsandmanuscriptswrittenbytheoriginalauthors
oftheNewTestament,havenotsurvived.[81]Buthistoricallycopiesexistofthoseoriginalautographs,
transmittedandpreservedinanumberofmanuscripttraditions.Whenancientscribescopiedearlierbooks,
theysometimeswrotenotesonthemarginsofthepage(marginalglosses)tocorrecttheirtextespecially
ifascribeaccidentallyomittedawordorlineandtocommentaboutthetext.Whenlaterscribeswere
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copyingthecopy,theyweresometimesuncertainifanotewas
intendedtobeincludedaspartofthetext.Overtime,different
regionsevolveddifferentversions,eachwithitsownassemblageof
omissionsandadditions.[82]
ThethreemaintextualtraditionsoftheGreekNewTestamentare
sometimescalledtheAlexandriantexttype(generallyminimalist),
theByzantinetexttype(generallymaximalist),andtheWestern
texttype(occasionallywild).Togethertheycomprisemostofthe
ancientmanuscripts.
DevelopmentoftheChristiancanons
TheCodexGigasfromthe13th
century,heldattheSwedishRoyal
LibraryinStockholm
TheOldTestamentcanonenteredintoChristianuseintheGreekSeptuaginttranslationsandoriginalbooks,
andtheirdifferinglistsoftexts.InadditiontotheSeptuagint,Christianitysubsequentlyaddedvarious
writingsthatwouldbecometheNewTestament.Somewhatdifferentlistsofacceptedworkscontinuedto
developinantiquity.Inthe4thcenturyaseriesofsynodsproducedalistoftextsequaltothe39,46(51),54,
or57bookcanonoftheOldTestamentandtothe27bookcanonoftheNewTestamentthatwouldbe
subsequentlyusedtotoday,mostnotablytheSynodofHippoin393CE.Alsoc.400,Jeromeproduceda
definitiveLatineditionoftheBible(seeVulgate),thecanonofwhich,attheinsistenceofthePope,wasin
accordwiththeearlierSynods.Withthebenefitofhindsightitcanbesaidthatthisprocesseffectivelyset
theNewTestamentcanon,althoughthereareexamplesofothercanonicallistsinuseafterthistime.
TheProtestantOldTestamentoftodayhasa39bookcanonthenumberofbooks(thoughnotthecontent)
variesfromtheJewishTanakhonlybecauseofadifferentmethodofdivisionwhiletheRomanCatholic
Churchrecognizes46books(51bookswithsomebookscombinedinto46books)asthecanonicalOld
Testament.TheEasternOrthodoxChurchesrecognise3Maccabees,1Esdras,PrayerofManassehand
Psalm151inadditiontotheCatholiccanon.Someinclude2Esdras.TheAnglicanChurchalsorecognises
alongercanon.Theterm"HebrewScriptures"isoftenusedasbeingsynonymouswiththeProtestantOld
Testament,sincethesurvivingscripturesinHebrewincludeonlythosebooks,whileCatholicsand
OrthodoxincludeadditionaltextsthathavenotsurvivedinHebrew.BothCatholicsandProtestants(aswell
asGreekOrthodox)havethesame27bookNewTestamentCanon.[83]
TheNewTestamentwritersassumedtheinspirationoftheOldTestament,probablyearlieststatedin
2Timothy3:16,"AllscriptureisgivenbyinspirationofGod".[10]
EthiopianOrthodoxcanon
TheCanonoftheEthiopianOrthodoxTewahedoChurchiswiderthanthecanonsusedbymostother
Christianchurches.Thereare81booksintheEthiopianOrthodoxBible.[84]TheEthiopianOldTestament
CanonincludesthebooksfoundintheSeptuagintacceptedbyotherOrthodoxChristians,inadditionto
EnochandJubileeswhichareancientJewishbooksthatonlysurvivedinGe'ezbutarequotedintheNew
Testament,alsoGreekEzraFirstandtheApocalypseofEzra,3booksofMeqabyan,andPsalm151atthe
endofthePsalter.ThethreebooksofMeqabyanarenottobeconfusedwiththebooksofMaccabees.The
orderoftheotherbooksissomewhatdifferentfromothergroups',aswell.TheOldTestamentfollowsthe
SeptuagintorderfortheMinorProphetsratherthantheJewishorder.
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Divineinspiration
TheSecondEpistletoTimothysaysthat"allscriptureisgivenbyinspirationofGod,andisprofitablefor
doctrine,forreproof,forcorrection,forinstructioninrighteousness".(2Timothy3:16)[85]SomeChristians
believethattheBibleistheinspiredwordofGod,thatGod,throughtheHolySpirit,intervenedand
influencedthewords,message,andcollationoftheBible.[86]FormanyChristianstheBibleisalso
infallible,andisincapableoferrorinmattersoffaithandpractice,butnotnecessarilyinhistoricor
scientificmatters.Arelated,butdistinguishablebeliefisthattheBibleistheinerrantwordofGod,without
errorinanyaspect,spokenbyGodandwrittendowninitsperfectformbyhumans.Withinthesebroad
beliefstherearemanyschoolsofhermeneutics."BiblescholarsclaimthatdiscussionsabouttheBiblemust
beputintoitscontextwithinchurchhistoryandthenintothecontextofcontemporaryculture."[72]
FundamentalistChristiansareassociatedwiththedoctrineofbiblicalliteralism,wheretheBibleisnotonly
inerrant,butthemeaningofthetextiscleartotheaveragereader.[87]
BeliefinsacredtextsisattestedtoinJewishantiquity,[88][89]andthisbeliefcanalsobeseenintheearliest
ofChristianwritings.VarioustextsoftheBiblementiondivineagencyinrelationtoitswritings.[90]Intheir
bookAGeneralIntroductiontotheBible,NormanGeislerandWilliamNixwrote:"Theprocessof
inspirationisamysteryoftheprovidenceofGod,buttheresultofthisprocessisaverbal,plenary,inerrant,
andauthoritativerecord."[91]Mostevangelicalbiblicalscholars[92][93][94]associateinspirationwithonlythe
originaltextforexamplesomeAmericanProtestantsadheretothe1978ChicagoStatementonBiblical
InerrancywhichassertedthatinspirationappliedonlytotheautographictextofScripture.[95]Among
adherentsofBiblicalliteralism,aminority,suchastheKingJamesOnlyMovement,extendtheclaimof
inerrancyonlytoaparticulartranslation.[96]
Versionsandtranslations
TheoriginaltextsoftheTanakhweremainlyinHebrew,withsome
portionsinAramaic.InadditiontotheauthoritativeMasoreticText,
JewsstillrefertotheSeptuagint,thetranslationoftheHebrewBible
intoGreek,andtheTargumOnkelos,anAramaicversionofthe
Bible.ThereareseveraldifferentancientversionsoftheTanakhin
Hebrew,mostlydifferingbyspelling,andthetraditionalJewish
versionisbasedontheversionknownasAleppoCodex.Evenin
thisversiontherearewordswhicharetraditionallyreaddifferently
fromwritten,becausetheoraltraditionisconsideredmore
fundamentalthanthewrittenone,andpresumablymistakeshad
beenmadeincopyingthetextoverthegenerations.
ABiblehandwritteninLatin,on
displayinMalmesburyAbbey,
Wiltshire,England.ThisBiblewas
transcribedinBelgiumin1407for
readingaloudinamonastery.
TheprimarybiblicaltextforearlyChristianswastheSeptuagint.In
addition,theytranslatedtheHebrewBibleintoseveralother
languages.TranslationsweremadeintoSyriac,Coptic,Ethiopic,
andLatin,amongotherlanguages.TheLatintranslationswerehistoricallythemostimportantforthe
ChurchintheWest,whiletheGreekspeakingEastcontinuedtousetheSeptuaginttranslationsoftheOld
TestamentandhadnoneedtotranslatetheNewTestament.
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TheearliestLatintranslationwastheOldLatintext,orVetusLatina,
which,frominternalevidence,seemstohavebeenmadebyseveral
authorsoveraperiodoftime.ItwasbasedontheSeptuagint,and
thusincludedbooksnotintheHebrewBible.
PopeDamasusIassembledthefirstlistofbooksoftheBibleatthe
CouncilofRomein382CE.HecommissionedSaintJerometo
produceareliableandconsistenttextbytranslatingtheoriginal
GreekandHebrewtextsintoLatin.Thistranslationbecameknown
astheLatinVulgateBibleandin1546attheCouncilofTrentwas
declaredbytheRomanCatholicChurchtobetheonlyauthenticand
officialBibleintheLatinChurch.
SincetheProtestantReformation,Bibletranslationsformany
languageshavebeenmade.TheBiblecontinuestobetranslatedto
newlanguages,largelybyChristianorganisationssuchasWycliffe
BibleTranslators,NewTribesMissionandBiblesocieties.
Bibletranslations,worldwide(asofNovember2014)[97]
Number
Statistic
7,000
Approximatenumberoflanguagesspokenintheworld
today
2,195
Numberoftranslationsintonewlanguagescurrentlyin
progress
1,329
NumberoflanguageswithatranslationoftheNew
Testament
531
NumberoflanguageswithatranslationoftheBible
(ProtestantCanon)
TitlepagefromthefirstWelsh
translationoftheBible,1588.
WilliamMorgan(15451604)
Views
JohnRiches,professorofDivinityandBiblicalCriticismattheUniversityofGlasgow,providesthe
followingviewofthediversehistoricalinfluencesoftheBible:
Ithasinspiredsomeofthegreatmonumentsofhumanthought,literature,andartithas
equallyfuelledsomeoftheworstexcessesofhumansavagery,selfinterest,andnarrow
mindedness.Ithasinspiredmenandwomentoactsofgreatserviceandcourage,tofightfor
liberationandhumandevelopmentandithasprovidedtheideologicalfuelforsocietieswhich
haveenslavedtheirfellowhumanbeingsandreducedthemtoabjectpoverty....Ithas,perhaps
aboveall,providedasourceofreligiousandmoralnormswhichhaveenabledcommunitiesto
holdtogether,tocarefor,andtoprotectoneanotheryetpreciselythisstrongsenseof
belonginghasinturnfuelledethnic,racial,andinternationaltensionandconflict.[98]
Otherreligions
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InIslam,theBibleisheldtoreflecttrueunfoldingrevelationfromGodbutrevelationwhichhadbeen
corruptedordistorted(inArabic:tahrif)whichnecessitatedthegivingoftheQur'antotheIslamicprophet,
Muhammad,tocorrectthisdeviation.
MembersofotherreligionsmayalsoseekinspirationfromtheBible.Forexample,Rastafarisviewthe
Bibleasessentialtotheirreligion[99]andUnitarianUniversalistsviewitas"oneofmanyimportant
religioustexts".[100]
Biblicalstudies
BiblicalcriticismreferstotheinvestigationoftheBibleasatext,andaddressesquestionssuchas
authorship,datesofcomposition,andauthorialintention.ItisnotthesameascriticismoftheBible,which
isanassertionagainsttheBiblebeingasourceofinformationorethicalguidance,orobservationsthatthe
Biblemayhavetranslationerrors.[101]
Highercriticism
Inthe17thcenturyThomasHobbescollectedthecurrentevidencetoconcludeoutrightthatMosescould
nothavewrittenthebulkoftheTorah.ShortlyafterwardsthephilosopherBaruchSpinozapublisheda
unifiedcriticalanalysis,arguingthattheproblematicpassageswerenotisolatedcasesthatcouldbe
explainedawayonebyone,butpervasivethroughoutthefivebooks,concludingthatitwas"clearerthan
thesunatnoonthatthePentateuchwasnotwrittenbyMoses..."[102][103]Despitedeterminedopposition
fromChristians,bothCatholicandProtestant,theviewsofHobbesandSpinozagainedincreasing
acceptanceamongstscholars.
Archaeologicalandhistoricalresearch
BiblicalarchaeologyisthearchaeologythatrelatestoandshedslightupontheHebrewScripturesandthe
ChristianGreekScriptures(or"NewTestament").Itisusedtohelpdeterminethelifestyleandpracticesof
peoplelivinginbiblicaltimes.Thereareawiderangeofinterpretationsinthefieldofbiblicalarchaeology.
OnebroaddivisionincludesbiblicalmaximalismwhichgenerallytakestheviewthatmostoftheOld
TestamentorHebrewBibleisbasedonhistoryalthoughitispresentedthroughthereligiousviewpointof
itstime.ItisconsideredtheoppositeofbiblicalminimalismwhichconsiderstheBibleapurelypostexilic
(5thcenturyBCEandlater)composition.Evenamongthosescholarswhoadheretobiblicalminimalism,
theBibleisahistoricaldocumentcontainingfirsthandinformationontheHellenisticandRomaneras,and
thereisuniversalscholarlyconsensusthattheeventsofthe6thcenturyBCEBabyloniancaptivityhavea
basisinhistory.
ThehistoricityofthebiblicalaccountofthehistoryofancientIsraelandJudahofthe10thto7thcenturies
BCEisdisputedinscholarship.Thebiblicalaccountofthe8thto7thcenturiesBCEiswidely,butnot
universally,acceptedashistorical,whiletheverdictontheearliestperiodoftheUnitedMonarchy(10th
centuryBCE)andthehistoricityofDavidisunclear.Archaeologicalevidenceprovidinginformationonthis
period,suchastheTelDanStele,canpotentiallybedecisive.ThebiblicalaccountofeventsoftheExodus
fromEgyptintheTorah,andthemigrationtothePromisedLandandtheperiodofJudgesarenot
consideredhistoricalinscholarship.[104][105]
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Criticism
Inmoderntimes,theviewthattheBibleshouldbeacceptedashistoricallyaccurateandasareliableguide
tomoralityhasbeenquestionedbymanymainstreamacademicsinthefieldofbiblicalcriticism.Most
ChristiangroupsclaimthattheBibleisinspiredbyGod,andsomeopposeinterpretationsoftheBiblethat
arenottraditionalor"plainreading".SomegroupswithinthemostconservativeProtestantcirclesbelieve
thattheAuthorizedKingJamesVersionistheonlyaccurateEnglishtranslationoftheBible,andacceptit
asinfallible.Theyaregenerallyreferredtoas"KingJamesOnly".ManywithinChristianfundamentalism
aswellasmuchofOrthodoxJudaismstronglysupporttheideathattheBibleisahistoricallyaccurate
recordofactualeventsandaprimarysourceofmoralguidance.
Inadditiontoconcernsaboutmorality,inerrancy,orhistoricity,thereremainsomequestionsofwhich
booksshouldbeincludedintheBible(seecanonofscripture).JewsdiscounttheNewTestament,most
ChristiansdenythelegitimacyoftheNewTestamentapocrypha,andaviewsometimesreferredtoas
JesusismdoesnotaffirmthescripturalauthorityofanybiblicaltextotherthantheteachingsofJesusinthe
Gospels.
BiblesGallery
Bibles
OldBiblefromaGreekmonastery
ImperialBible,orVienna
CoronationGospelsfromWien
(Austria),c1500.
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TheKennicottBible,1476
ABaroqueBible
ThebibleusedbyAbrahamLincoln AminiatureBible
forhisoathofofficeduringhisfirst
inaugurationin1861
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19thcenturyVictorianBible
ShelvesoftheBizzellBible
CollectionatBizzellMemorial
Library
Illustrations
MostoldBibleswereilluminated,theyweremanuscriptsinwhichthetextissupplementedbytheaddition
ofdecoration,suchasdecoratedinitials,borders(marginalia)andminiatureillustrations.Uptothetwelfth
century,mostmanuscriptswereproducedinmonasteriesinordertoaddtothelibraryorafterreceivinga
commissionfromawealthypatron.Largermonasteriesoftencontainedseparateareasforthemonkswho
specializedintheproductionofmanuscriptscalledascriptorium,whereseparatelittleroomswere
assignedtobookcopyingtheyweresituatedinsuchawaythateachscribehadtohimselfawindowopen
tothecloisterwalk.[106]Bythefourteenthcentury,thecloistersofmonkswritinginthescriptoriumstarted
toemploylaybrothersfromtheurbanscriptoria,especiallyinParis,RomeandtheNetherlands.[107]
DemandformanuscriptsgrewtoanextentthattheMonasticlibrarieswereunabletomeetwiththedemand,
andbeganemployingsecularscribesandilluminators.[108]Theseindividualsoftenlivedclosetothe
monasteryand,incertaininstances,dressedasmonkswhenevertheyenteredthemonastery,butwere
allowedtoleaveattheendoftheday.[109]
Themanuscriptwassenttotherubricator,whoadded(inredorothercolors)thetitles,headlines,the
initialsofchaptersandsections,thenotesandsoonandthenifthebookwastobeillustrateditwas
senttotheilluminator.[106]Inthecaseofmanuscriptsthatweresoldcommercially,thewritingwould
undoubtedlyhavebeendiscussedinitiallybetweenthepatronandthescribe(orthescribesagent,)butby
thetimethatthewrittengatheringweresentofftotheilluminatortherewasnolongeranyscopefor
innovation.[110]
Bibleillustrations
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Biblefrom1150,fromScriptorium
deChartres,Christwithangels
BlancheofCastileandLouisIXof
FranceBible,13thcentury
Biblemoralise:Christthearchitect MaciejowskiBible,Leaf37,the3rd
oftheUniverse.
image,Abner(inthecenterin
green)sendsMichalbacktoDavid.
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Jephthah'sdaughterlaments
MaciejowskiBible(France,ca.
1250)
ColoredversionoftheWhoreof
BabylonillustrationfromMartin
Luther's1534translationofthe
Bible.
AnArmenianBible,illuminatedby
Malnazar,Armenian)illuminator.
FleeingSodomandGomorrah,
FosterBible
Seealso
Biblicalsoftware
CodeofHammurabi
Listofmajorbiblicalfigures
Religioustext
Scriptorium
TheodicyandtheBible
Endnotes
1.Miller&Huber,Stephen&Robert(2003).TheBible:themakingandimpactontheBibleahistory.England:
23/30
4/26/2016
LionHudson.p.21.ISBN0745951767.
2.Riches,John(2000).TheBible:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.pp.78.
ISBN9780192853431.
3."Bestsellingbookofnonfiction".GuinnessWorldRecords.Retrieved9December2015.
4.Ryken,Leland."HowWeGottheBestSellingBookofAllTime".TheWallStreetJournal.Retrieved
9December2015.
5."Thebattleofthebooks".TheEconomist.22December2007.
6.Ash,Russell(2001).Top10ofEverything2002.DorlingKindersley.ISBN0789480433.
7.Harper,Douglas."bible".OnlineEtymologyDictionary.
8."TheCatholicEncyclopedia".Newadvent.org.1907.Retrieved20100423.
9.Biblion,HenryGeorgeLiddell,RobertScott,AGreekEnglishLexicon,atPerseus
(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgibin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2319917).
10.Stagg,Frank.NewTestamentTheology.Nashville:Broadman,1962.ISBN0805416137.
11."FromHebrewBibletoChristianBible"byMarkHamilton
(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/scriptures.html)onPBS'ssiteFromJesusto
Christ:TheFirstChristians(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/).
12.Dictionary.cometymologyoftheword"Bible"(http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=Bible).
13.Bruce,Frederick(1988).TheCanonofScripture.DownersGrove,Illinois,U.S.:IVPAcademic.p.214.
ISBN083081258X.
14.Riches,John(2000).TheBible:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.p.83.ISBN9780
192853431.
192853431.
16.Lim,TimothyH.(2005).TheDeadSeaScrolls:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
p.41.
192853431.
18.Riches,John(2000).TheBible:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.pp.23,37.
ISBN9780192853431.
19.A7thcenturyfragmentcontainingtheSongoftheSea(Exodus13:1916:1)isoneofthefewsurvivingtexts
fromthe"silentera"ofHebrewbiblicaltextsbetweentheDeadSeaScrollsandtheAleppoCodex.See"Rare
scrollfragmenttobeunveiled,"JerusalemPost,May21,2007(http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?
cid=1178708654713&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull).
20.[1](https://books.google.com/books?
id=CakJchHfN1QC&pg=PA647&lpg=PA647&dq=Pentateuch+from+Greek+meaning+%22five+scroll
cases&source=bl&ots=iUzv6_UPBw&sig=itoLPZH_dUSbPWww1gnM1PJfk3Q&hl=en&sa=X&ei=BmZoUNa6I
ZS08ATC1oGIBw&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Pentateuch%20from%20Greek%20meaning%20%22f
ive%20scrollcases&f=false)TheRestoredNewTestament:ANewTranslationwithCommentary,Includingthe
GnosticGospelsThomas,Mary,andJudasbyWillisBarnstoneW.W.Norton&Companypage647
id=AzZlANCOIRgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:%22Seymour+Rossel%22&source=bl&ots=H0fv2a4pW
G&sig=NQIme41ZhHHQP6XRxIoeYletNE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ZddoUKjaLY
o8QT2zYCgDg&ved=0CDYQuwUwATgK#v=onepage&q&f=false)TheTorah:PortionbyPortionBySeymour
RosselTorahAuraProductions,2007,p.355
22.MordecaiKaplan1934JudaismasaCivilizationMacMillanPress
23.ElliotN.Dorff1979ConservativeJudaism:OurAncestorstoOurDescendants
(https://books.google.com/books?id=diqTpDUbW0C&lpg=PA98&pg=PA98#v=onepage&q&f=false).United
Synagogue.p.9899(114115in1978edition)Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20150514190514/https://books.google.com/books?id=diqTpD
UbW0C&lpg=PA98&pg=PA98#v=onepage&q&f=false)May14,2015,attheWaybackMachine.
24/30
4/26/2016
24.MiltonSteinberg1947BasicJudaism(https://books.google.com/books?
id=iBu5Tpc4DtcC&lpg=PA27&pg=PA27&dq=isbn%3A0156106981#v=onepage&q&f=false)HarcourtBrace,p.
2728ISBN0156106981Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20150515132545/https://books.google.com/books?
id=iBu5Tpc4DtcC&lpg=PA27&pg=PA27&dq=isbn%3A0156106981#v=onepage&q&f=false)May15,2015,at
theWaybackMachine.
25.GilbertRosenthal1973FourpathstoOneGodBlochPublishingpp.116128,180192,238242
26.1Kings.18:241Kings.18:37399
27.GeorgeSavran"IandIIKings"inTheLiteraryGuidetotheBibleeditedbyRobertAlterandFrankKermode.
"Eachkingisjudgedeithergoodorbadinblackandwhiteterms,accordingtowhetherornothe"didright"or
"didevil"inthesightoftheLord.Thisevaluationisnotreflectiveofthewellbeingofthenation,oftheking's
successorfailureinwar,orofthemoralclimateofthetimes,butratherthestateofculticworshipduringhis
reign.Thosekingswhoshunidolatryandenactreligiousreformsaresingledoutforpraise,andthosewho
encouragepaganpracticesaredenounced."146
28.YehezkelKaufmann"IsraelInCanaan"inGreatAgesandIdeasoftheJewishPeopleeditedbyLeoSchwartz,
TheModernLibrary."ThefightagainstBaalwasinitiatedbytheprophets"54
29.YehezkelKaufmann"TheAgeofProphecy"inGreatAgesandIdeasoftheJewishPeopleeditedbyLeo
Schwartz,TheModernLibrary."Theimmediateoccasionoftheriseofthenewprophecywasthepoliticaland
socialruincausedbythewarswithIsrael'snortherlyneighbor,Aram,whichcontinuedformorethanacentury.
TheyragedintenselyduringthereignofAhab,anddidnotenduntilthetimeofJeroboamII(784744).While
thenationasawholewasimpoverished,afewapparentlyoftheroyalofficialdomgrewwealthyasaresultof
thenationalcalamity.Manyofthepeoplewerecompelledtoselltheirhousesandlands,withtheresultthata
sharpsocialcleavagearose:ontheonehandamassofpropertylessindigents,ontheotherasmallcircleofthe
rich.Aseriesofdisastersstruckthenationdrought,famine,plagues,deathandcaptivity(Amos4:611),but
thegreatestdisasterofallwasthesocialdisintegrationduetothecleavagebetweenthepoormassesandthe
wealthy,dissoluteupperclass.ThedecayaffectedbothJudahandIsrael...Highmindedmenwereappalledat
thisdevelopment.WasthisthepeoplewhomYHWHhadbroughtoutofEgypt,towhomHehadgiventheland
andalawofjusticeandright?itseemedasifthelandwasabouttobeinheritedbytherich,whowouldsquander
itssubstanceindrunkenrevelry.itwasthisdissolutionthatbroughtthepropheticdenunciationstowhiteheat."
5758
30.AbrahamJoshuaHeschel1955TheProphetsHarperandRow:"Whatmannerofmanistheprophet?Astudentof
philosophywhorunsfromthediscoursesofthegreatmetaphysicianstotheorationsoftheprophetsmayfeelas
ifheweregoingfromtherealmofthesublimetoanareaoftrivialities.Insteadofdealingwiththetimeless
issuesofbeingandbecoming,ofmatterandform,ofdefinitionsanddemonstrations,heisthrownintoorations
aboutwidowsandorphans,aboutthecorruptionofjudgesandaffairsofthemarketplace.Insteadofshowingus
awaythroughtheelegantmansionsofthemind,theprophetstakeustotheslums.Theworldisaproudplace,
fullofbeauty,buttheprophetsarescandalized,andraveasifthewholeworldwereaslum.Theymakemuchado
aboutpaltrythings,lavishingexcessivelanguageupontriflingsubjects.WhatifsomewhereinancientPalestine
poorpeoplehavenotbeentreatedproperlybytherich?....Indeed,thesortsofcrimesandeventheamountof
delinquencythatfilltheprophetsofIsraelwithdismaydonotgobeyondthatwhichweregardasnormal,as
typicalingredientsofsocialdynamics.Tousasingleactofinjusticecheatinginbusiness,exploitationofthe
poorisslighttotheprophets,adisaster.Tousaninjusticeisinjurioustothewelfareofthepeopletothe
prophetsitisadeathblowtoexistencetousanepisodetothem,acatastrophe,athreattotheworld."34
31.JoelRosenberg"IandIISamuel"inTheLiteraryGuidetotheBibleeditedbyRobertAlterandFrankKermode.
"Samuelisthusaworkofnationalselfcriticism.ItrecognizesthatIsraelwouldnothavesurvived,either
politicallyorculturally,withoutthesteadyingpresenceofadynasticroyalhouse.Butitmakesboththathouse
anditssubjectsanswerabletofirmstandardsofpropheticjusticenotthoseofcultprophetsorprofessional
ecstatics,butofmorallyuprightpropheticleadersinthetraditionofMoses,Joshua,Deborah,Gideon,andothers
..."141
32.Neusner,Jacob,TheTalmudLaw,Theology,Narrative:ASourcebook.UniversityPressofAmerica,2005
33.Coogan,MichaelD.ABriefIntroductiontotheOldTestament:theHebrewBibleinitsContext.Oxford
UniversityPress.2009p.5
25/30
4/26/2016
34.[3](https://books.google.com/books?id=9NUejG2IGPMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false)The
BabylonianTalmud,Vol.7of9:TractBabaBathra(LastGate)translatedbyMichaelL.Rodkinson,first
published1918published2008byForgottenBooks,p.53
35.[4](http://www.beitemet.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=10:ketuvim&catid=39:aboutthe
bible&Itemid=57&fontstyle=fsmaller)Ketuvim30

July2008
36.Coogan,Michael.ABriefIntroductiontotheOldTestament:TheHebrewBibleinItsContext.Oxford
UniversityPress,2009,p.5
37.Henshaw,T.TheWritings:TheThirdDivisionoftheOldTestamentCanon.GeorgeAllen&UnwinLtd.,1963,
pp.1617
38.Lightfoot,NeilR.HowWeGottheBible,3rdedition,rev.andexpanded.BakerBookHouseCompany.2003,pp.
154155.
39.Henshaw,T.TheWritings:TheThirdDivisionoftheOldTestamentCanon.GeorgeAllen&UnwinLtd.,1963,
p.17
40.SirGodfreyDriver."IntroductiontotheOldTestamentoftheNewEnglishBible."Web:30November2009
41.Lifeafterdeath:ahistoryoftheafterlifeinthereligionsoftheWest(2004)(https://books.google.com/books?
id=owd9zig7i1oC&pg=PA369),AnchorBibleReferenceLibrary,AlanF.Segal,p.363
42.GillesDorival,MargueriteHarl,andOlivierMunnich,LaBiblegrecquedesSeptante:Dujudasmehellnistique
auchristianismeancien(Paris:Cerfs,1988),p.111
43."[...]diegriechischeBibelbersetzung,dieeineminnerjdischenBedrfnisentsprang[...][vonden]Rabbinen
zuerstgerhmt(..)Spterjedoch,alsmancheungenauebertragungdeshebrischenTextesinderSeptuaginta
undbersetzungsfehlerdieGrundlagefrhellenistischeIrrlehrenabgaben,lehtemandieSeptuagintaab."
VerbandderDeutschenJuden(Hrsg.),neuhrsg.vonWalterHomolka,WalterJacob,ToviaBenChorin:Die
LehrendesJudentumsnachdenQuellenMnchen,Knesebeck,1999,Bd.3,S.43ff
44.KarenH.JobesandMoisesSilva(2001).InvitationtotheSeptuagint.PaternosterPress.ISBN1842270613.
45.JoelKalvesmaki,TheSeptuagint(http://www.kalvesmaki.com/LXX/)
46.RickGrantJones,VariousReligiousTopics,"BooksoftheSeptuagint(http://www.webcitation.org/query?
url=http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Pines/7224/Rick/Septuagint/sp_books.html&date=200910
25+07:45:33),"(Accessed2006.9.5).
47."Thetranslation,whichshowsattimesapeculiarignoranceofHebrewusage,wasevidentlymadefromacodex
whichdifferedwidelyinplacesfromthetextcrystallizedbytheMasorah.""BibleTranslationsThe
Septuagint".JewishEncyclopedia.com.Retrieved10February2012.
48."Twothings,however,renderedtheSeptuagintunwelcomeinthelongruntotheJews.Itsdivergencefromthe
acceptedtext(afterwardcalledtheMasoretic)wastooevidentanditthereforecouldnotserveasabasisfor
theologicaldiscussionorforhomileticinterpretation.Thisdistrustwasaccentuatedbythefactthatithadbeen
adoptedasSacredScripturebythenewfaith[Christianity][...]Incourseoftimeitcametobethecanonical
GreekBible[...]ItbecamepartoftheBibleoftheChristianChurch.""BibleTranslationsTheSeptuagint".
JewishEncyclopedia.com.Retrieved10February2012.
49.MishnahSotah(7:24and8:1),amongmanyothers,discussesthesacrednessofHebrew,asopposedtoAramaic
orGreek.ThisiscomparabletotheauthorityclaimedfortheoriginalArabicKoranaccordingtoIslamicteaching.
Asaresultofthisteaching,translationsoftheTorahintoKoineGreekbyearlyJewishRabbishavesurvivedas
rarefragmentsonly.
50.ErnstWrthwein,TheTextoftheOldTestament,trans.ErrolF.Rhodes,GrandRapids,Mich.:Wm.Eerdmans,
1995.
51."NETS:ElectronicEdition".Ccat.sas.upenn.edu.20110211.Retrieved20120813.
52.Thisarticleincorporatestextfromthe1903EncyclopaediaBiblicaarticle"TEXTANDVERSIONS",a
publicationnowinthepublicdomain.
53.JenniferM.Dines,TheSeptuagint,MichaelA.Knibb,Ed.,London:T&TClark,2004.
54.TimothyMcLay,TheUseoftheSeptuagintinNewTestamentResearchISBN0802860915.Thecurrent
standardintroductionontheNT&LXX.
55.ThecanonoftheoriginalOldGreekLXXisdisputed.ThistablereflectsthecanonoftheOldTestamentasused
currentlyinOrthodoxy.
56.(Basilein)isthegenitivepluralof(Basileia).
57.Thatis,Thingssetasidefrom.
26/30
4/26/2016
58.alsocalledorinsomesources.
59.NotinOrthodoxCanon,butoriginallyincludedintheLXX.http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/
60.Obdiouisgenitivefrom"ThevisionofObdias,"whichopensthebook.
61.Originallyplacedafter3MaccabeesandbeforePsalms,butplacedinanappendixoftheOrthodoxCanon
62.TheMasoreticTextandtheDeadSeaScrolls(http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblicaltopics/bible
versionsandtranslations/themasoretictextandthedeadseascrolls/)biblicalarchaeology.org.Retrieved26
December2012.
63."DeadSeaScrolls"(PDF).Retrieved20130606.
64.CouncilofTrent:DecretumdeCanonicisScripturis"DecreeConcerningtheCanonicalScriptures"
(http://www.bibleresearcher.com/trent1.html),fromtheCouncil'sfourthsession,of4April1546:Canonsand
DecreesoftheCouncilofTrent,TheFourthSession,CelebratedontheeighthdayofthemonthofApril,inthe
year1546,EnglishtranslationbyJamesWaterworth(London1848).
65.TheCouncilofTrentconfirmedtheidenticallist/canonofsacredscripturesalreadyancientlyapprovedbythe
SynodofHippo(Synodof393),CouncilsofCarthage(TheCouncilofCarthage,28August397),andCouncilof
Florence(originallyCouncilofBasel),Session11,4February1442
(http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Councils/ecum17.htm)[BullofunionwiththeCopts]seventhparagraph
down.
66."Paragraph120".CatechismoftheCatholicChurch,SecondEdition.LibreriaEditriceVaticana.2012.Retrieved
6August2014.
67.CanonofTrent:ListoftheCanonicalScriptures.
Butifanyonereceivenot,assacredandcanonical,thesaidbooksentirewithalltheirparts,asthey
havebeenusedtobereadintheCatholicChurch,andastheyarecontainedintheoldLatinvulgate
editionandknowinglyanddeliberatelycontemnthetraditionsaforesaidlethimbeanathema.
DecretumdeCanonicisScripturis,CouncilofTrent,8April1546
68.Harris,StephenL.,UnderstandingtheBible.PaloAlto:Mayfield.1985.
69.TheBookofEnoch(http://reluctantmessenger.com/enoch.htm)TheReluctantMessenger.Retrieved14June
2014.
70.FahlbuschE.,BromileyG.W.TheEncyclopediaofChristianity:PShpage411,ISBN0802824161(2004)
71.Wright,N.T.TheLastWord:,page3(https://books.google.com/books?
id=id2_m0j804YC&lpg=PP1&dq=isbn%3A0060872616&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q=profoundly%20shaped&f=false
)HarperCollins,2005.ISBN0060872616/9780060872618
72.Wright,N.T.TheLastWord:ScriptureandtheAuthorityofGodGettingBeyondtheBibleWars.
HarperCollins,2005.ISBN0060872616/9780060872618
id=m2Lz7iwklhAC&pg=PA439&lpg=PA439&dq=The+New+Testament+is+a+collection+of+27+books&source=
bl&ots=Vip6fgXsM0&sig=OqAJAg42gVbZtqk3dJPznkT8imI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dmNWUK_cGo
m8gSr34GQCg&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=The%20New%20Testament%20is%20a%20collection%20
of%2027%20books&f=false)WhattheBibleisAllAboutVisualEditionbyHenriettaC.MearsGospelLight
Publications,Feb5,2007page438439
id=O5BHAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA343&lpg=PA343&dq=The+New+Testament+presupposes+the+inspiration+of+the
+Old+Testament&source=bl&ots=97gNck
NWl&sig=rzLPlPu0s8vFu2uNyFxd0BYppng&hl=en&sa=X&ei=oWRWUISzCISg8gSo0IH4Bw&ved=0CDYQ6
AEwAg#v=onepage&q=The%20New%20Testament%20presupposes%20the%20inspiration%20of%20the%20Old
%20Testament&f=false)InspirationandInerrancy:AHistoryandaDefense,HenryPreservedSmithR.
Clarke,1893,p.343
75.KurtAland,BarbaraAlandThetextoftheNewTestament:anintroductiontothecritical1995p52"TheNew
TestamentwaswritteninKoineGreek,theGreekofdailyconversation.ThefactthatfromthefirstalltheNew
TestamentwritingswerewritteninGreekisconclusivelydemonstratedbytheircitationsfromtheOldTestament
..."
27/30
4/26/2016
76.ArchibaldMacbrideHunterIntroducingtheNewTestament1972p9"Howcamethetwentysevenbooksofthe
NewTestamenttobegatheredtogetherandmadeauthoritativeChristianscripture?1.AlltheNewTestament
bookswereoriginallywritteninGreek.Onthefaceofitthismaysurpriseus."
77.WenhamTheelementsofNewTestamentGreekpxxvJeremyDuff,JohnWilliamWenham2005"Thisisthe
languageoftheNewTestament.BythetimeofJesustheRomanshadbecomethedominantmilitaryandpolitical
force,buttheGreeklanguageremainedthe'commonlanguage'oftheeasternMediterraneanandbeyond,and
Greek..."
78.DanielB.WallaceGreekGrammarBeyondtheBasics:AnExegeticalSyntaxoftheNewTestament1997
79.HenrySt.JohnThackerayGrammarofNewTestamentGreeked.FriedrichWilhelmBlass,1911"Byfarthe
mostpredominantelementinthelanguageoftheNewTestamentistheGreekofcommonspeechwhichwas
disseminatedintheEastbytheMacedonianconquest,intheformwhichithadgraduallyassumedunderthe
widerdevelopment..."
80.DavidE.AuneTheBlackwellcompaniontotheNewTestament2009p61CHAPTER4NewTestamentGreek
ChristopheRico"InthisshortoverviewoftheGreeklanguageoftheNewTestamentwewillfocusonthose
topicsthatareofgreatestimportancefortheaveragereader,thatis,thosewithimportant..."
id=Ze16lRIzIzcC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=The+autographs,+the+Greek+manuscripts+written+by+the+original+a
uthors,+have+not+survived&source=bl&ots=zsb8T0Wp78&sig=sKzOavYaAcLmApZwhmiHxSxLrlw&hl=en&sa
=X&ei=jG5WUILfDIPI9gTx44CABw&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=The%20autographs%2C%20the%2
0Greek%20manuscripts%20written%20by%20the%20original%20authors%2C%20have%20not%20survived&f=f
alse)ManuscriptsandtheTextoftheNewTestament:AnIntroductionforEnglishReadersbyKeithElliott,Ian
MoirContinuumInternationalPublishingGroup,Nov20,2000,p.9
id=cxN1wn_fO5YC&pg=PA152&lpg=PA152&dq=When+ancient+scribes+copied+earlier+books,+they+wrote+no
tes+on+the+margins+of+the+page+
(marginal+glosses)+to+correct+their+text%E2%80%94especially+if+a+scribe+accidentally+omitted+a+word+or+
line%E2%80%94and+to+comment+about+the+text&source=bl&ots=1
pyD8FDbY&sig=Qxx7t7IqIsAJL9VgY1sKQY1BL_A&hl=en&sa=X&ei=k21WUIX4AoXo8QTzq4Fg&ved=0CD
EQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=When%20ancient%20scribes%20copied%20earlier%20books%2C%20they%20wrot
e%20notes%20on%20the%20margins%20of%20the%20page%20(marginal%20glosses)%20to%20correct%20thei
r%20text%E2%80%94especially%20if%20a%20scribe%20accidentally%20omitted%20a%20word%20or%20line
%E2%80%94and%20to%20comment%20about%20the%20text&f=false)GodTrailofEvidence:TheQuestfor
theTruthByDwoiUniverse,Jul12,2011,p.152.ISBN9781450294294{sc}
id=gxEONS0FFlsC&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=Both+Catholics+and+Protestants+have+the+same+27
book+New+Testament+Canon&source=bl&ots=t_K6gKrJKM&sig=4VIpxeGItb4s5eAyqcVZM5YzYUU&hl=en&
sa=X&ei=RvBtUIWiK6PY2gX0j4DIAQ&ved=0CFsQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Both%20Catholics%20and%20P
rotestants%20have%20the%20same%2027book%20New%20Testament%20Canon&f=false)Encyclopediaof
Catholicism,FrankK.Flinn,InfobasePublishing,Jan1,2007,p.103
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85.Grudem,Wayne(1994).SystematicTheology.Leicester,England:InterVarsityPress.pp.4950.
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pp6888.
87."BeyondBiblicalLiteralismandInerrancy:ConservativeProtestantsandtheHermeneuticInterpretationof
Scripture",JohnBartkowski,SociologyofReligion,57,1996.
88.PhiloofAlexandria,DevitaMoysis3.23.
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90."BasisforbeliefofInspirationBiblegateway".Biblegateway.com.Retrieved20100423.
91.NormanL.Geisler,WilliamE.Nix.AGeneralIntroductiontotheBible.MoodyPublishers,1986,p.86.ISBN
0802429165
92.Forexample,seeLeroyZuck,RoyB.Zuck.BasicBibleInterpretation.ChariotVictorPub,1991,p.68.ISBN0
896938190
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93.RoyB.Zuck,DonaldCampbell.BasicBibleInterpretation.Victor,2002.ISBN0781438772
94.NormanL.Geisler.Inerrancy.Zondervan,1980,p.294.ISBN0310392810
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InternationalCouncilonBiblicalInerrancy.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on13April2008.
96."Ruckman'sbeliefinadvancedrevelationsintheKJV".Retrieved27February2014.
97.[10](http://www.wycliffe.net/resources/scriptureaccessstatistics/tabid/99/Default.aspx)(Figurescorrectasof
2014.)
0192853431.
99.BecomingRasta:OriginsofRastafariIdentityinJamaicaPage171,CharlesPrice2009
100.UnitarianUniversalismPage42,ZondervanPublishing,2009
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102.[11](https://books.google.com/books?id=xtq2ZyKf
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ses&source=bl&ots=20Bz7dfslQ&sig=rsPuYGb80r
lWjCFAtW0U8q7LaY&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7W9WUJu7DIrW9QT5vYGgBA&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage
&q=clearer%20than%20the%20sun%20at%20noon%20that%20the%20Pentateuch%20was%20not%20written%2
0by%20Moses&f=false)IntheBeginning:HijackingoftheReligionofGod,Volume1bySamiM.ElSoudani,
NabawiaJ.ElSoudaniXlibrisCorporation,January1,2009,p.65
id=gvrcHyusPbMC&pg=PA121&lpg=PA121&dq=clearer+than+the+sun+at+noon+that+the+Pentateuch+was+not
+written+by+Moses&source=bl&ots=tIddvOc2Nv&sig=lHzsQ_BeqBPGxjK2Z0g94THacK0&hl=en&sa=X&ei=o
3BWUMr3IInc9ATGx4HoBw&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=clearer%20than%20the%20sun%20at%20n
oon%20that%20the%20Pentateuch%20was%20not%20written%20by%20Moses&f=false)TenMoreAmazing
DiscoveriesByGeorgePotter,CedarFort,October1,2005,p.121
104.Finkelstein,IsraelNeilSilberman.TheBibleUnearthed.
105.Dever,William.WhoWeretheEarlyIsraelitesandWhereDidTheyComefrom?.
106.PutnamA.M.,Geo.Haven.BooksandTheirMakersDuringTheMiddleAges.Vol.1.NewYork:HillaryHouse,
1962.Print.
107.DeHamel,45
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Referencesandfurtherreading
Anderson,BernhardW.UnderstandingtheOldTestament.ISBN0
Wikiversityhaslearning
139483993.
materialsaboutBiblical
Asimov,Isaac.Asimov'sGuidetotheBible.NewYork,NY:Avenel
Studies(NT)
Books,1981.ISBN051734582X.
Berlin,Adele,MarcZviBrettlerandMichaelFishbane.TheJewish
StudyBible(https://books.google.com/books?id=aDuy3p5QvEYC).OxfordUniversityPress,2003.ISBN019
5297512.
Bible,AuthorizedVersion.TheNewCambridgeParagraphBible,withtheApocrypha,KingJamesVersion,ed.
byDavidNorton.Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversityPress,2005.N.B.:Thisisacriticallyreconstructed
textoftheAuthorized"KingJames"Biblewithitsentirecontents(includingallofitsmarginalia,forematter,
theApocrypha,etc.),asclosetotheoriginaltranslators'intentionsandwordingaspossibleatthetimeofthis
edition,withspellingmodernizedaccordingtocurrentCommonwealthusage.ISBN9780521843867
Brown,RaymondE.,JosephA.Fitzmyer,andRolandE.Murphy,eds.(1990).TheNewJeromeBiblical
Commentary.NewJersey:PrenticeHall.ISBN0136149340.
Finkelstein,IsraelSilberman,NeilAsher(2001)."TheBibleUnearthed:Archaeology'sNewVisionofAncient
29/30
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IsraelandtheOriginofItsSacredTexts".NewYork:Simon&Schuster.ISBN0743223381.
Finkelstein,IsraelSilberman,NeilAsher(August2002)."Review:"TheBibleUnearthed":ARejoinder".
BulletinoftheAmericanSchoolsofOrientalResearch327:6373.JSTOR1357859.
Herzog,Ze'ev(29October1999)."DeconstructingthewallsofJericho".Ha'aretz.Archivedfromtheoriginalon
21December2008.
Dever,WilliamG.(MarchApril2007)."LosingFaith:WhoDidandWhoDidn't,HowScholarshipAffects
Scholars"(PDF).BiblicalArchaeologyReview33(2):54.
Dever,WilliamG.WhoWeretheEarlyIsraelitesandWhereDidTheyComefrom?GrandRapids,MI:William
B.EerdmansPublishingCompany,2003.ISBN0802809758.
Ehrman,BartD.MisquotingJesus:TheStoryBehindWhoChangedtheBibleandWhyNewYork,NY:
HarperSanFrancisco,2005.ISBN0060738170.
Geisler,Norman(editor).Inerrancy.SponsoredbytheInternationalCouncilonBiblicalInerrancy.Zondervan
PublishingHouse,1980,ISBN0310392810.
Head,Tom.TheAbsoluteBeginner'sGuidetotheBible.Indianapolis,IN:QuePublishing,2005.ISBN07897
34192
Hoffman,JoelM.IntheBeginning:AShortHistoryoftheHebrewLanguage(https://books.google.com/books?
id=gpnWAAAAMAAJ).NewYorkUniversityPress,2004.ISBN0814736904
Hotchkiss,GregoryK.TheMiddleWay:ReflectionsonScriptureandTradition,inseries,ReformedEpiscopal
Pamphlets,no.3.Media,Penn.:ReformedEpiscopalPublicationSociety,1985.27p.N.B.:Placeofpublication
alsogivenasPhiladelphia,Penn.theapproachtotheissueisfromanevangelicalAnglican(ReformedEpiscopal
Church)orientation.WithoutISBN
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