Lit VT

1.
EMERGING MARKET SCENARIO

MSEB was set up in 1960 to generate, transmit and distribute power to all consumers
in Maharashtra excluding Mumbai. MSEB was the largest SEB in the country. The generation
capacity of MSEB has grown from 760 MW in 1960-61 to 9771 MW in 2001-02. The
customer base has grown from 1,07,833 in 1960-61 to 1,40,09,089 in 2001-02.
The GOI with a view to bring uniformity in the electrical legislation in the country &
to enforce reform process has enacted the Electricity Act 2003. On January 24, 2005,
Government of Maharashtra issued a Government Resolution stating that four companies
shall be carved out of Maharashtra State Electricity Board. The four companies shall be the
Holding Company, Generation Company, Transmission Company and a Distribution
Company.
In 2005, when Mahagenco came into existence, total on line energy generation of all
power plants in MSPGCL was about 48000 MU as against the requirement of Maharashtra
state at 65000 MUs. Let us understand sources of this additional energy. Of five energy
regions in India (namely Northern Region, Southern Region, Eastern Region, Western Region
and Norther-eastern Region), Maharashtra GRID falls in Western region. In this region there
are other state GRIDs like Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Gujrat, Andhrapradesh and
Chhattisgarh. Maharashtra GRID receive energy from private power producers (PPP) in State
like Dabhol Powers, Reliance and TATAs, from central sector contribution from NTPC power
plants, from
captive generation, non-conventional generation as well as from private
traders in energy market. In spite of all these sources Maharashtra had to face acute load
shedding. Of 65000 MUs, it could be able to bill only 41000 MUs and about huge 24000 MUs
were on account of losses, commercial as well as technical. This almost amounted to whole
of the generation for year of major power plants in Vidarbha. Almost same situation is faced
by all states in India. To overcome this situation, GOI has come up with new Power Policy
and thereby new Electricity Act 2003 came into existence.
Considering new business environment and policy embedded in new Electricity Act 2003
to encourage & promote competition in energy sector, there shall be complete turn
around changes in strategy to establish the infrastructure for standard quality facilities,
logistic as well as support services, modern amenities for advanced operation &
maintenance techniques, infrastructure for proper communication, data capturing &
analysis, benchmarking of individual participation in targets, gap analysis & strategic
decision structure to bridge the identified gap, With basic facilities available to explore the
available skill & resources, every wing of organisation shall have to make agree to compete
for internal competition for excellence and progressive advancement with identified
parameters in hand to compare the performance.
Let us first understand the nature of present electricity market and the changes which
are likely to come in future.
State Generation Capacity (at the time of trifurcation in 2005)

1
MSPGCL
Tarapur(Mah. Share)
Central Sector Share
Maharashtra Total (Incl.
C.S. Share)
Thermal
6425
1524
7949
Hydro
2434
2434
Gas
852
Atomic
428
1280
160
237
397
Total
9711
160
2189
12060
The total installed capacity of Maharashtra at the time of trifurcation in 2005 was
12060 MW including Maharashtra share from TAPS and Central Sector. The maximum
demand of MSEB during peak hours was in between 11300 to 12400 MW.
Though the total availability of power was 12060 MW, all the power capacity was not
always available due to forced and planned outages of the generating sets, quality and
quantity of coal for thermal stations, restriction of gas to gas stations, operational
constraints of hydro sets at Koyna due to limited TMC restrictions (67.5 TMC / Year) and
also non-availability of Central Sector (C.S.) Share to its fullest capacity.
Thus on an average about 7900 to 9300 MW capacity was available to MSEB
including Central Sector share to meet the peak demand of 11300 to 12400 MW. Thus there
was a shortfall of 2500 to 3000 MW which was met by planned and emergency load
shedding by opening EHV lines. Base demand is met from thermal and gas generation and
hydro power sets were restricted for use only during morning and evening peak hours.
Change in Electricity Market after inception of MERC
The Maharashtra Electricity Regulatory Commission was established in Maharashtra
in 1999. Now all electricity Generators as well as electricity distributors have to submit
annual revenue requirements based on sound forecasting principles under the tariff
regulations framed by MERC. MERC conducts public hearings to record objections on the
tariff proposals submitted to it and declares tariff order after adjudicating all submissions &
objections. To ensure low cost purchases, MERC maintains Merit Order Stack of all electricity
suppliers in the state on the basis of fixed & variable costs as well as other guiding
principles already framed in the tariff regulations.
Concept of availability based tariff (ABT)
As per ABT, the Capacity allocations from generating station to each constituent is
owned by that constituent. The constituent has to pay full fixed charges for the allocated
power. The constituent can trade the capacity allocated & can schedule the energy from
each generator as per requirement and Merit Order and can save cost of power purchase.
CERC will fix target availability of C.S. Generator at which fixed charges can be
recovered in full. Generator will generates as per the requirement of constituents subject to
technical limitations. The C.S. Generator gets incentive for better performance & receives
variable charge as per scheduled generation.
Components of ABT:
1) Capacity charges (Fixed Cost) based on declared availability
Each generating station has its capacity charge.
2) Energy charges for the energy scheduled
- Variable Cost. Each generating station has its variable charge..
3) Unscheduled Interchange (UI) charge - 0-570 ps/kwh
Linked to frequency
Total payment for the day = A + B C
This tariff is common to all generators as well as constituents.
Unscheduled Interchange (UI) = (Actual energy interchange in a 15-min. time

block Scheduled interchange for the time block) X UI Rate
UI Rate (Rupees per MWh) = Rate linked with Avg. Frequency of the time block.
The UI Rates in Paise/Unit ( UI= ACT. SCH. )
Avg. Freq. of Time UI Rate (Paise/Unit)
Remark
Block (Hz)
50.5 & above
0.00
From 49.80 to 50.50 Hz, linear reduction
of 6 Paise/Unit per 0.02 Hz rise in
50.48
6.00
frequency. Above 50.50 Hz, the C/S
50.40
30.00
power overdrawn is free of cost.
50.20
90.00
50.00
150.00
49.82
204.00
49.80
210.00
From 49.80 to 49.00 Hz, linear rise of 9
Paise per 0.02 Hz fall in frequency.
49.78
219.00
Below 49 Hz, its 570 Paise/unit.
49.60
300.00
49.40
390.00
(The rates are recently revised to
49.20
480.00
750 paise/unit & then to 1050
49.02
561.00
paise/unit)
49.00 & below
570.00
Unscheduled Interchange is caused when a generator generates more / less than the
schedule and beneficiary overdraws / under draws power.
Changing Market Scenario in Maharashtra
Capacity Addition plan of MSPGCL.

MSPGCL has capacity addition plan of 6950 MW in next five years.
This capacity addition required funding of around Rs. 35000 Crores.
Capital Expenditure on the Renovation and Modernization schemes for
various TPS and HSP for next five years is about 2188 Crores rupees.
Project Name
Capacity
Cost
Debt
Equity
Parali U-2
250 MW
1091
873
218
Paras U-2
250 MW
1224
979
245
Khaperkhada
500 MW
2170
1736
434
Bhusawal
1000 MW
4124
3299
825
Chandrapur
1000 MW
5500
4400
1100
Koradi
1980 MW
11880
9504
2376
Uran
1220 MW
3852
3082
770
Parali (R )
250 MW
1650
1320
330
Paras (R )
250 MW
1650
1320
330
Bhusawal (R )
250 MW
1650
1320
330
Total
6950 MW
34791
27833
6958
MARKET STRUCTURE FOR INTRODUCTION OF ABT MECHANISM AT STATE

LEVEL WITHIN MAHARASHTRA
Maharashtra State Power Pool Participants: The Maharashtra State Power Pool shall
comprise tiered structure for market operations comprising various entities such as Market
Participants, State Pool Participants, Market Service Providers and Market Operator as
elaborated in the following paragraphs.
Market Participants The Market Participant shall mean the generating companies, power
trading companies, distribution licensees and the open access users and consumers
operating within electricity market within Maharashtra. (i.e. Generators, DISCOMs, traders,
OA Users)
State Pool Participants - This shall refer to the Market Participants of Maharashtra
Electricity Market who meet the conditions for membership of Pool, subject to fulfillment of
qualification criteria or covenants for Pool participation as set out under this Order.
Currently, it is envisaged that the distribution licensees and the Transmission open access
users (subject to fulfilment of certain qualification criteria or covenants for Pool
participation) operating within electricity market of Maharashtra in accordance with the
terms and conditions outlined under this Order shall be the State Pool Participants.
Market Service Providers Transmission Licensees such as MSETCL, TPC-T and REL-T in
their role as intra-State transmission system service providers, MSLDC-OD (Operations
Division of Maharashtra State Load Despatch Centre) in its role as State Load Despatch
Centre responsible for scheduling and despatch across State,
MSLDC-CD (Commercial
Division of Maharashtra State Load Despatch Centre) to undertake statewide energy
accounting of energy flows and reconciliation of various energy transactions amongst
various State Pool Participants.
Market Operator Maharashtra State Power Committee (MSPC).
During the initial phases of market operation, the Transmission Open Access Users (TOAUs)
will only be considered to be eligible for membership of the State Pool subject to the
acceptance of the following conditions by the TOAUs:
The TOAUs shall share the imbalance costs and the UI costs.
The TOAUs availing supply from captive sources have to demonstrate that they have
contracted for the necessary capacity (MW) and energy with the generators.
The TOAUs shall inform the MSLDC-OD regarding their contracts so as to
enable the MSLDC-OD draw the appropriate despatch schedule.
Contractual Framework for proposed Market Operation
Figure below illustrates the schematic of the contractual framework among the
various constituents of the proposed Balancing and Settlement Mechanism amongst
aharashtra State Pool Participants. The various regulatory and contractual
agreements that would govern the operations of the Maharashtra Electricity Market
are:
1. Maharashtra Balancing and Settlement Code: This will govern the
operations and behaviour of the Market Participants and State Pool
Participants.
2. Power Purchase Agreements: Following the un-bundling of MSEB and in
the proposed industry structuring, the contractual arrangement through PPAs
will have to be put in place amongst generating companies and distribution
licensees.
5
The various regulatory and contractual agreements that would govern the
operations of the Maharashtra Electricity Market are:
1. Maharashtra Balancing and Settlement Code (Market Rules): This will
govern the operations and behaviour of the Market Participants and State Pool
Participants. The rules, after due approval by the Commission, shall be
implemented, administered and enforced by the Maharashtra State Power
Committee (MSPC).
2. Power Purchase Agreements: Following the un-bundling of MSEB and in the
proposed industry structuring, the contractual arrangement through PPAs will have
to be put in place amongst generating companies and distribution licensees. The
commercial arrangement amongst the DISCOMs and Generators shall be settled
bilaterally as per the PPA terms.
3. Bulk Power Transmission Agreement: The Transmission Licensees

comprising MSETCL, TPC-T and REL-T are required to provide transmission service
to various transmission system users (TSUs) for use of intra-State Transmission
system in accordance with provisions of MERC (Transmission Open Access)
Regulations 2005 and Commissions Order dated 27th June 2006 in the matter of
development of transmission pricing framework for the transmission system within
Maharashtra. In this regard, the State Pool Participants will have to necessarily
enter into a Bulk Power Transmission Agreement (BPTA) and Connection Agreement
(CA) with the concerned transmission licensee. The BPTA and CA will describe the
terms and conditions to be made binding upon the TSUs of the intra-State
transmission system.
4. SLDC Services Agreement: As per the provisions under EA 2003, the MSETCL,
being a Government Company continues to operate State Load Despatch Centre
(MSLDC), till further notification by the GoM. Since the MSLDC will be providing
scheduling and despatch services to the Market Participants in accordance with the
provisions under State Grid Code. However, in future, as and when SLDC is notified
to be operated by separate entity and/or MERC notifies separate scheduling and
system operation charges (SLDC charges) to be recovered by SLDC from Market
Participants, a separate SLDC Services Agreement may be necessary to be
executed amongst MSLDC and State Pool Participants.
5. State Grid Code: The Code of Technical Interface or the State Grid Code shall
be binding upon all constituents of the Maharashtra Electricity Market the Market
Participants and the Market Service Providers.
6. Commissions Tariff Order: The Market Participants and the State pool
participants shall be responsible for payment of transmission charges and losses in
accordance with the Transmission Pricing Framework Order and Transmission Tariff
Order as directed by Commission. However, for the purpose of energy balance
under proposed market operations and determination of imbalance pool
computations thereof, the energy losses shall be determined on the trading period
to trading period basis based on actual injections into system and actual drawal
from the system corresponding to each trading period.
Managing the Changes
1. Defining Mission, Objectives, Goals
The Two basic questions faced by Managers are (1) What business are we in?
and (2) Why are we in business?. Answer to the first question requires a
consideration of the mission definition, or the scope of business activities the
company pursues. The second question involves establishing objectives to be
accomplished. Both questions help/define the nature of the business and provide a
framework for analysis, choice, implementation and evaluation process.
The basic purpose of mission statement is to answer the following three
questions.
1. What function does organisation perform?
2. For whom does the organisation perform this function?
3. How does organisation go about performing the function?
Thus, the mission statement addresses the organisations fundamental reason

for existence and specifies functional role that organisation is going to adopt in its
market place.
Goals of a company are effectively its missions expressed more specifically, if
not always in quantitative terms. These economic goals guide the strategic direction
of almost every viable business organisation. Indeed, goals, economic or otherwise,
may be considered as landmarks and milestones, the firm must pass in its progress
along the chosen route. Usually Goals have the following seven dimensions: (1)
Profitability (2) Productivity (in terms of decreasing cost) (3) Competitive position/
dominance in market place (4) Employee development (5) Employee relation (6)
Public responsibility. The Goals should have qualities such as Acceptability,
Flexibility, Motivating, Suitability, Understandability, and Achievability.
Even after missions and goals are specific, translating strategic thought into
strategic action, shifting from formulation to implementation gives rise to three
interrelated concerns.
1. Identification of measurable, mutually determined short-term objectives.
2. Development of specific functional plans.
3. Communication of concise policies to guide discussions.
The objectives can be strategic objectives like bigger market share, higher
industry rank, higher product quality, lower cost compared to competitors, stronger
reputation of management quality, superior customer services, recognisation as
leader in technology etc. These can be financial objectives like faster revenue
growth, increased financial resources, wider profit margin, higher returns on
invested capital, stronger bonds & credit rating, bigger cash flows, recognition as
blue chip company, stable earning during recessionary period etc.
2. Environment Scanning, SWOT Analysis & Scenario Planning
It is crucial job of top management to create the conditions for effective analysis
and diagnosis of the environment. This means that the management must
determine what factors in the environment are most crucial. Environmental analysis
is the process by which management monitors the settings to determine
opportunities for and threats to the company. Analysis involves breaking of a whole
into its parts to find its nature, function, and relationship.
Environmental diagnosis is followed by decisions made. Awareness of
environment is not a special project to be undertaken only when warning of change
become defending; it is a continuing requirement for informed choice of purpose.
Planned exploitation of changing opportunity ordinarily follows a predictable course
that provides increasing awareness of areas to which a companys capabilities may
be profitably extended. The first step in deciding the choice among several
opportunities is to determine whether the organisation has the capacity to
prosecute it successfully. It necessitates complete analysis of companys actual and
potential strength & weaknesses.
In formulating strategy to deal with changes, one has to make choice of such
course, which has most of the use of strength while minimizing the effect of
weaknesses. If first generation planning is used, the diagnosis is based on the most
probable future. If second generation planning is used, several scenarios of the
future are drafted, with best case, most probable and worst case assumptions.
Then several diagnoses are made.
3. Forecasting, Gap Analysis & Change Management

Forecasting can be divided into two main types,
1. Where the future is largely an extension of the past
2. Where there is one or more discontinuities in the environment and in
consequence, the future is not an extension of the past.
First type forms an important element of corporate planning & long range
planning. The second type is an important element in strategic planning. Strategic
planning covers internal analysis for assessing Strength, weaknesses, opportunities
& threats (through SWOT analysis), external analysis by study of changes in
economical environment, Technological environment, Industry environment,
Competitive environment and Social environment. Next course is decide on
Momentum strategy (for exploring maximum from existing set up), Turn around
strategy (as a survival process), Expansion plans (To meet the gap between
objective & momentum plans), Diversification strategies and finally analysis of
Synergy effect of overall plans.
Forecasting methods comprises of Statistical Projections (Trend Analysis, Simple
growth method, Moving averages, Exponential smoothing, Mathematical model like
simple regression, Multiple regression etc), Economic Models like Input-Output
methods, Marketing and Market Research methods (Estimate analysis, Comparative
studies, Leading indicator, Market Research etc), Technological forecasting (Delphi
Technique, Scenario projections, Impact Analysis), Sensitivity analysis and
Simulations.
Another way to look at this is to ask, what might encourage a decision maker to
begin to think about the need to make a decision or strategy? A gap analysis is a
useful way to explain this. Thus before a decision is made:
1.
2.
3.
4.
A gap must exist between desired outcomes and the expected outcomes,
A gap must be perceived to be significant, thus deserving attention,
The decision maker must be motivated to reduce the gap,
The decision maker must believe that something can be done about the gap.
The future generally remains enveloped in the fog of uncertainty, which deepens
depending on how far into the future one desires to look. Change is, however a
certainty. As time passes, any attempt to understand the future is rather
unrealistic, as human beings can neither completely predict nor entirely control
future. What, is however, definite is that, the future is in respect of anything is the
result of number of interacting factors, each of which is subject to uncertainties. It
will be useful to call the sum total of these interacting factors as environment and
understand he future as it depends on the environment. Future cannot be forecast
with certainty but adequate & reliable analysis can be made to deal with risk, to
accommodate with changes and to take advantage thereof whenever possible.
4. Competitors Analysis, Market Share, Segmentation of market
Power scenario in the Maharashtra as well as in Country is likely to change very
fast. New Electricity Act 2003 will induct competitive environment slowly in first
phase & on fast track thereafter. In shortage economy & near monopoly markets,
company does not expend any special effort to please customer. In buyers market
on the other hand, customers can choose from a large array of goods & services.
Here seller must deliver acceptable product quality or rapidly loose customers to
competitors. Company wanting to win, let alone survive, need a new philosophy.
Only customer oriented companies will win, those that can deliver superior value to
their target customers. These companies will adopt in building customers, not just
building the products. They will be skillful in market engineering, not just product
engineering. Presence of MERC as Regulator will help existing companies without
even marketing strategy till some time. At present, MERC insists on advance power
purchase & selling agreements as a complete marketing plan before granting tariff
order. It relies on Merit Order stack of all power producers to derive the minimum
cost option for power purchase. As such the market share is derived by MERCs
intervention. But soon the competition shall take its own course and dictate the
market control because MERCs policy shall also be subject to changes in due
course to benefit the electricity consumers as per changes in the players in the
market and the changes in the nature of market from monopoly to buyers market.
This will lead to segmentation of market due to competition to give better services
at better value and with better product options to customers. Focus will be on
product differentiation, pricing & placement and market segmentation.
Successful companies take great pains in scouting competitors understanding
their strategies, watching their actions, deriving the consistent logics and attitude
to risk behind them, their strength & weaknesses, and trying to anticipate what
moves they will make next. Indeed successful understanding of the rivals and
anticipating their moves perhaps contribute to competitive success as significantly
as the inner and inherent strategic strength of the company. The value chain
analysis to compare the own costs of support & primary activities to that of
competitors and market leaders becomes the primary task in competitors analysis.
5. Marketing Strategy, Pricing Strategy, Product Placement
In the present set up of MAHAGENCO, there is no role of marketing function as
all the energy produced is transferred to MSPDC at fixed generation cost. The terms
of agreement between MSPGC and MSPDC are yet to be decided on commercial
lines. There is no competition as the market conditions are monopolistic. In second
phase of Reforms, there shall be further division of MSPDC and the element of
market competition shall start to influence the pricing decisions. Even MERC has not
yet come up with the pricing policies under the competitive environment. The
product differentiation at present is mainly dominated by GOM subsidy policy and
cross subsidy norms adopted till date. This picture shall undergo changes slowly
with the induction of more players in the Maharashtra energy market on Generation
as well as distribution side. This will compel the companies to formulate wellarticulated Marketing strategy in future.
At present, all Generation Companies have to submit its tariff proposal to MERC.
MERC announces tariff order after following the process of public hearing and
examination of proposal on the sound pricing principal & public welfare policy. The
tariff order is binding on the company till announcement of next tariff order. All
generating stations for different companies are placed on Merit order stack on the
basis of fixed cost, variable cost and other well-defined criteria as may be finalized
by MERC. This pricing policy is likely to undergo tremendous changes to promote
fare competition amongst the different Generating Companies & supplying bulk
power to same market.
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6. Marketing
Analysis.
Management,
Advertisement,
Image
building,
Market
Marketing is the management function which organizes and directs all business
activities involved in assessing and converting customer purchasing power into
effective demand for a specific product or service, and in moving the product or
service to the final consumer or user so as to achieve the profit target or other
objectives set by a company.
This will comprise the following tasks
1. Having a good range of products in constant demand,
2. Innovating and developing new products in constant demand,
3. Reviewing product pricing and initiating changes from time to time,
4. Developing & implementing advertising and sales promotion plans,
5. Providing pre-sale and post sale services to customers;
6. Ensuring physical distribution in most efficient manner and with high level
of cost efficiency
7. Continuous research and study of market condition to identify
opportunities.
Marketing consists of series of Ps. First four Ps are product, price, promotion
and placement. These four Ps put together form the marketing mix. There are a
few other Ps also. One is pattern & profile of the market, which in turn is not only
determined by a host of external factors but is partly influenced by the first four Ps.
Then there is another vital P viz. People both external and internal. All these Ps
eventually lead to the ultimate P, i.e. Profit. Profit is the end result of efficient
management and effective handling of all other Ps.
At present one cannot imagine that the varieties of product of electricity will
attract the host of customers and shall be main strategic tool in marketing mix. The
product differentiation will take key place in the future marketing strategy of
Generation Company. The liberty in pricing with fair limits for competitive edge shall
trigger the price war & scope for innovative ideas of product promotion &
placement. The tools like Advertisement, Image Building Measures and market
analysis, which is beyond imagination to be part of Generation Companys agenda,
shall appear on the topmost priority with the change in the scenario in near future.
***000***
Compiled by M.G. Ganoje, Exe. Engr. KTC, Koradi
Approved by CGM (Trg.), KTC, Koradi
KTC/VT./Version1-01, Rev00, 06.05.2009
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2. Thermal Power Plants of MAHAGENCO

Our company Mahagenco caters to the electrical energy needs of people residing within
Geographical Area of Maharashtra State. Following is the data of major Generating Stations
of Mahgenco.
Major Power Stations of MAHAGENCO
(Thermal)
Thermal TOTAL
Major Power Stations of MAHAGENCO
( Hydro & Gas)
Total
Koradi TPS
: 1080 MW
Nasik TPS
: 910 MW
Bhusawal TPS
: 478 MW
Parli TPS
: 940 MW
Paras TPS
: 308 MW
Khaparkheda TPS
: 840 MW
Chandrapur CSTPS : 2340 MW
: 6896 MW
Koyna Hydroelectric : 1960 MW
Uran GTPS
: 912 MW
: 2872 MW
Generation System of MAHAGENCO

Major share of the installed capacity in MAHAGENCO generation system is Thermal
Power Generation. Fuel used in the thermal power stations is Coal. In the year 2007- 2008,
these power plants consumed approx. 3.48 crore Tons of coal.
How Thermal Power Plant generates electricity:
COAL
BOILER
Energy is available in nature in many forms. Fuel is the major usable form in which
energy is available naturally. Energy can neither be produced nor it can be destroyed. But,
its from can be changed. Hence in thermal power plant, energy contained in Coal is
converted to Electrical Energy, which is the simplest form for use. In thermal plant, the
energy conversion takes place as shown in diagram 1 and 2 below. Fig 1 shows the
schematic flow diagram of Thermal Power Plant
TO GRID
Steam at 140 Kg/cm2 pressure and 540C Temp
GENERATOR
TRANSFORMER
HPT
FUEL OIL
IPT
Generator
From Cooling Towers

Cold Water IN
FEED
STORAGE
TANK
H. P. Heaters,
LPT
REHEAT
ER
AIR
BFP
CONDENSER
Hot Water OUT

To Cooling Towers
L.P.
Heaters,
C.E.P.
12
Fig. 1(Typical Power Generation Cycle)

All power plants convert some form of easily and naturally available energy in to
electrical energy. In thermal power plant, Water is the working fluid. The source of energy is
Chemical Energy of fuel. Sequence of energy conversion is:
Chemical
Energy is
converted to
Heat Energy by
combustion
Of fuel in
Boiler.
Heat energy
converts water
to high
pressure, high
temperature
steam. (in
Boiler)
Pump delivers
condensed
water from
Condenser
back to
Boiler.
In Turbine,
steam expands
as it is passed
through number
of nozzles. Heat
energy is thus
converted to
kinetic energy.
Steam is
admitted
to
Turbine
through
pipes.
Steam exhausted
from turbine
condenses in
Condenser,
rejecting
unavailable heat
energy.
Steam is then passed

over blades, arranged on
shaft of Turbine. Shaft
rotates & Kinetic energy
is thus converted to
mechanical work
Generator is coupled to
Turbine, where mechanical
energy is converted to
electrical energy.
Fig. 2(Energy conversion taking place in the thermal power plant)

Fig 1 shows the schematic flow diagram of Thermal Power Plant.
In Boiler, Coal is stored in Bunkers. Size of coal in bunkers is 25 mm. The coal
received from coal mines has a size varying from 4 to 8 inches. In Coal Handling plant, it is
first reduced to 25-mm size and then fed to the bunkers through a series of conveyer belts.
From bunkers, coal is fed to the Coal Mill where it is pulverized. Coal particle average size,
after pulverization, is 75 microns.(1 micron is 1000 th part of a millimeter) In 210 MW units,
there are 6 coal mills and in 500 MW units, 8 coal mills are installed. For full load operation
of the unit, 4 to 5 coal mills are running. Other coal mills are stand by.
When boiler is to be started up from cold conditions, coal can not be fired, as there is
no ignition energy available. Hence first L.D.O. is fired for lighting up the boiler. After Boiler
pressure is built up to certain specified values, Heavy Furnace oil is fired. After achieving the
specified parameters with oil firing, coal is admitted.
Pulverized coal from the mills is continuously lifted with the help of air, called primary
air. Primary air fans are installed for this purpose. Coal-air mixture is fed to Boilers through
coal burners, arranged at various elevations. For complete and efficient combustion of coal,
primary air is not sufficient, and hence secondary air, obtained from Secondary Air fans, is
also admitted to the furnace in controlled quantity. Before admission in coal mills and boiler,
primary air and secondary air are first heated to a temperature of 325 C.
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Heating of air is carried out in Air pre heaters, with the help of hot flue gas leaving
the boiler. When coal is burnt, it also produces ash. Small ash particles, which can flow with
the flue gas, is called fly ash. Flue gas , after leaving the Air pre heaters, is sent to
Electrostatic precipitators, where fly ash is separated from flue gas and collected in number
of Ash Hopper, arranged on Electrostatic precipitators. Ash hopper size is such that it can
store all the fly ach generated in 8 Hours continuous operation of Boiler. The flue gases from
the boiler are sucked by Induced draft fans, which are arranged after ESP. From there, flue
gases are sent to Chimney, which disposes off the flue gas to atmosphere. Ash hoppers are
emptied after every 8 hours. For disposing off the ash, it is mixed with water and no. of
pumps then lift and transport the ash- water mixture, called slurry, to pre determined place
called ash bund.
Turbine is used to convert heat energy to mechanical work. Turbine consists of
rotors, on which a series of moving blades are arranged, and casing on which fixed blades
are arranged. Steam admitted to turbine, is guided by fixed blades to strikes on blades on
Rotor, in the form of jet, causing rotor to rotate thus converting heat energy to mechanical
energy.
Heat energy released from the combustion of coal in the boiler is given to water
circulated in it. Water is thus converted to steam, pressure of which is 140 Kg/ cm and
temperature is 537 C.. This steam, called live steam or main steam, is sent to High
Pressure Turbine, where it is made to strike on a series of rotor blades. When it reaches at
the exhaust, its temperature and pressure drops to 330 C and 30 Kg/ cm.
Exhaust steam from HPT is sent to Reheater, arranged in the boiler, where its
temperature is again raised to 537 C, and pressure remains 30 Kg/ cm. This steam is
called Reheat steam, which is sent to another turbine called Intermediate pressure turbine.
From I.P.T, steam then is sent to low-pressure turbine. At the exhaust of LPT, steam
temperature and pressure is very low, and further work can not be extracted from it. Hence
it is condensed in the condenser, maintained at a vaccume of 750 mm Hg. The condensed
water is called condensate. Conedensate Extraction Pumps, and Feed Water Pumps are used
for pumping the condessate from Condenser to Boiler through L. P. Heaters and H. P.
Heaters. In these heaters, small quantity of steam, extracted from intermediate stages of
Turbine, heat the water. When water comes out of heaters, its temperature is 250 C which
is fed in to boiler. This is called regenerative feed heating cycle. The efficiency of power
plant increases due to regenerative feed heating.
Cooling water circulated in Condenser, at temperature of 30C absorbs the heat
energy released in condensation due to which its temperature increases to 40 C. In cooling
towers, this hot water is again cooled to a temperature of 30 C for reuse in condenser.
. Generator consists of Copper conductors wound on Stator and a Rotor on which
Electro magnets are arranged. Rotors of all the three turbine and Generator are coupled
with common shaft. Rotation of shaft causes rotation of Generator rotor, causing the
rotation of Electro magnets. This sets up electrical voltage on stator conductors of the
generator at 15 kV. Transformer steps up this voltage to 400 kV or 220 kV or 132 kV
depending on the Grid voltage where it is connected. The electrical energy thus generated is
sent to Power Grid, from where it reaches to the consumer through Transmission and
distribution system.
Transmission System:
The transmission of electricity generated at Power Stations is an important activity.
The consumers are scattered all over the state. Power plants are situated at the places that
are economically and technically viable. Thermal Power plants very huge quantity of coal
and are most economical if set up near to coalmines. Hydro plants are situated where huge
water sources are available with suitable topography. Big plants with very high electrical out
14
put are most viable. Electricity is transmitted from one place to other through Aluminum or
Copper conductors. Flow of electric current through a conductor gives rise to various losses,
which are dependant upon size, length and current flowing through it. More the current,
more are the losses per meter length of conductor. For the same amount of power
transmission, if the Voltage is higher, current is lower. Hence High voltage lines are used for
the purpose. Electricity produced at Power Stations is made available through out the state
by establishing Power Grid, which is a electrical network which interconnects all the Power
Stations and all the load centers through Very High Voltage transmission lines. MSEB grid
primarily consists of 400 kV transmission lines. HVDC is another type of transmission, which
offers still lower losses than High Voltage AC Transmission. Hence 500 kV, Direct Current
transmission system is in use between Chandrapur and Padghe, which is in addition to 3
lines of 400kV already in service between Chandrapur and Kalwa. For stable operation of
Grid, loads on all lines and voltages at receiving ends of these lines must be monitored and
controlled within specified limits. Also, Grid frequency has to be maintained at 50 Hz 1.5
Hz. Engineers working at two load dispatch centers set up at Kalwa and Ambazari, near
Nagpur, carry out this job. It is also planned to establish National Grid in India and
accordingly, regional grids are already in operation. Western regional Grid is established
which interconnects all the generating stations and load centers of Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Western regional L.D. center monitors and controls this
grid.
Distribution System.
The high voltage electrical power from Transmission lines is not suitable for
distribution to Consumers. Most of the electrical machines in Industry, agriculture,
commercial establishments and residential appliances work at very small voltage levels.
Hence, distribution sub stations are established. At these substations, Voltages are stepped
down to the required levels for delivering the electrical energy to consumers. The
distribution system is controlled by the engineers of O&M wing. The system consist of small
capacity distribution transformers, 11kV or below distribution lines and sub stations. The
staff working at O&M does the important activity of interacting with consumers on daily
basis.
The above table shows the extent to which Energy Sector has developed the
Generation, transmission and distribution system in Maharashtra over the years.
Customer orientation
With the introduction of Electricity Regulatory Commissions and Electricity act 2003,
there is a total change in the scenario in the country. From monopolistic organization, state
electricity boards are now entering in to a competitive atmosphere. Supplies of electricity at
optimum cost and customer satisfaction are the two most important parameters on which
MAHAGENCO shall have to function. To monitor our functioning in this regard following
performance indicators are very important.
Plant Load factor:
This factor informs, to what extent the available generating capacity is utilized in a
thermal power station over a period of time under consideration. It is a ratio of Possible
Generation to actual generation over a defined period. A 210 MW unit generates 5.04 MU
where as 500 MW unit is capable of generating 12 MU if it is operated at its full capacity for
24 Hours. The following formula is used for calculating the possible units. Hence it is a
measure of productivity.
15
Possible generation in Million Units = Capacity in MW 24 hours.

Where 1 million unit = 1000000 kWh.
Possible generation over the year = (Possible generation over a day 365 days)
Actual generation is the metered generation at Generator Terminals over a day or a year as
the case may be.
Factors that give higher PLF: Some important factors are
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Adequately trained and motivated personnel,

Proper maintenance management,
Analysis of the causes of forced outages to avoid its recurrence,
Designed coal quality,
Demand from grid,
Proper operational practices,
Completion of mandatory maintenance works in shortest possible time and
Gross unit Heat Rate: Total heat energy input required to generate 1kWH of electricity at
Generator Terminals is called Gross Unit heat rate. By properly maintaining Steam
temperature, pressure, Flue gas temperature leaving air heaters, use of optimum air for
combustion, maintaining correct vaccume in condenser, etc are some of the parameters.
Lower the heat rate, more profitable is the generation, as less coal is required to be burned
for generation.
Auxiliary Consumption: All the machines, fans, pumps used in power plant process
consume electricity. It is called Auxiliary Consumption. Lesser is the auxiliary consumption,
more is the energy sent to grid. So for the same amount of fuel fired in the boiler, more
energy is available for sell.
Specific oil Consumption: Fuel oil used for power generation over a year, measured in
grams per unit generated. Lesser the specific oil consumption lower is the cost of
generation. Frequent startups and shutdowns of the unit increase fuel oil consumption.
16
3. GENERAL WORKING AND DESCRIPTION OF

COAL HANDLING PLANT
In thermal power station, Coal is a principal fuel and hence a careful thought is given
to the design and layout of the coal handling plant. As the consumption of coal is very large,
the design and layout of a coal handling plant should be simple but robust with a view to
reduce the maintenance and running cost to the lowest possible figure consistent to
reliability.
Mode of Coal Transportation:
Coal is brought to the power station by three modes of transportation:
1. Roadways: Coal is carried in trucks and a truck can carry about 8-10 tons of coal. But due
to low capacity, low unloading rate and time consuming, this mode is not in much use for
large thermal power stations.
2. Railways: coal is brought by railway wagons. One rake consists of 58 wagons. Each wagon
contains 64 MT of coal. Locos bring the wagons from the marshalling yard and place them
on wagon tippler. These wagons are then unloaded with the help of wagon tippler. If these
wagons are not unloaded in stipulated time period (Free time, 6 hrs.), demurrage charges
are levied by railway department.
There are two types of wagon tipplers.
a) Side Wagon Tippler: Wagon is unloaded into a hopper which at the side of the railway
track. The max. angle of tilt is generally set between 140 to 150. The rate of unloading is
13 wagons per hour. The time required for one cycle of operation of this wagon tippler is as
below.
1. Weighing Wagon + coal before tippling ( Gross Wt.)
- 15 sec.
2. Tippling of Wagon to hopper
- 90 sec.
3. Pause
- 5 sec.
4. Tippling of Wagon back to home position
- 90 see.
5. Weighing Wagon after tippling (Tare Wt.)
- 15 sec.
The weighing machines are integral with tippler mechanism and are fitted with a ticket
printing recorder and totaliser.
b) Ring type (Rotary) Wagon Tippler: In rotary tipplers the wagon is fixed between the two
large rings which are fastened to form a cage like structure. The cage is rotated and
discharged coal falls into the hopper right below the rail track. Angle of tippling is 140 - 160
. The rate of unloading is 25 wagons per hour. The time required for one cycle of operation
of this wagon tippler is 60 sec. only.
For easy and speedy movement of wagons, mechanized bettle chargers are provided before
and after wagon tippler i.e. inhaul and outhaul bettle chargers.
These wagon tipplers are provided with photocell protection to avoid the entry of other
wagons when tippling cycle is in progress.
Track hopper system: This system is provided at Chandrapur thermal power station.
BOBR (bottom opening wagons) wagons are unloaded in track hoppers. The holding capacity
of track hoppers is 4500 MT.
MGR Railway system: This system is provided where coal mines are located near the
power station. Railway wagons are used to transport the coal from coal mines to power
station and unloaded wagons are returned to coal mines for refeeding. So this forms a ring
type system. Wagons alongwith railway tracks being the MSEB property, this becomes the
most economical way of coal transportation having a very low maintenance time and cost as
compared to the ropeway system.
17
3. Ropeways : This mode of coal transportation is used where coal mines are located near the
power stations. Coal is brought by hanging buckets/trolleys travelling on track ropes, which
are pulled by a haulage rope with a driving mechanism. The payload of each bucket varies
from 1 to 3 tons. Automatic loading and unloading mechanisms are provided at loading and
unloading stations. Rate of unloading varies from 75 to 275 MT/Hr depending on the type of
ropeways used. This type of coal transportation is very economical compared to road or rail
transportation and gives assured supply of coal, being the MSEB property. The only
disadvantage of this system is long time for maintenance works.
There are mainly two types of ropeway systems used in power stations.
1. Mono Cable Ropeway : This ropeway operates on one single endless haulage rope. This
continuously moving rope serves the double purpose of supporting as well as hauling the
ropeway bucket along the line. Between the stations the rope is supported on sheaves
mounted on articulated beam equalizing the load on the sheaves. While travelling along the
line the ropeway car running firmly attached to the main rope, their travel being entirely
automatic requiring no attention of operator. The capacity of each bucket is 1.0 T/hr. and
the line capacity is 75 T/hr.
BUCKETS
HAULAGE CUM TRACK ROPE
EMPTY BUCKETS
2. Bi-cable Ropeway: This is further divided in two types:

a) Tram Car type ropeway : In this system, two nos. of track ropes are provided at the
top and bottom side. One of the two track ropes (topside) carries full cars, the second track
rope on the bottom side of the line carries empty cars. Each tram car body is fitted with
steel axle at each end to receive two wheeled tramcar track assembly with a central
bushing. Four tracks are fitted with each car so that each is carried on 6 wheels. Since the
tram cars turn completely upside down and down side up at the discharge and loading
terminal respectively, no catches, latches or other mechanism is required to discharge or
receive loads. Capacity of each bucket is 2.5 T/hr and line capacity is 200 T/hr.
TRAM CARS
TRACK ROPES
HAULAGE ROPE
EMPTY CARS
b) Bi-cable bucket type ropeway : The essential characteristic is the use of two
tensioned fixed track ropes on which the carriages are run. Each carriage with its buckets
suspended by means of hangers is locked to the endless continuously moving haulage rope.
One of the two track ropes (topside) carries full buckets, the second track rope on the
bottom side of the line carries empty buckets. The track ropes are supported on along the
line at a convenient height above the ground by means of intermediate trestles, each
18
trestles is provided with oscillating saddles with grooves for carrying ropes and sheaves for
hauling ropes. Capacity of each bucket is 1.8-2.5 T/hr and line capacity is 200-275 T/hr.
TRACK ROPE (48/33mm)
HAULAGE ROPE (25 mm)

In Koradi thermal power station, 2 nos. of ropeways are provided
1. Silewara group of ropeways
Mono-cable Bucket
L-4.0 KM
Bi-CABLE TRAM CAR
L- 1.5 Km
BI-CABLE TRAM CAR

L- 3.0 Km
LINE
NAME
(No. of cars
in line /
of
Haula
Track
Track
Ropeway
ge
Rope
Rope
Line
Rope
dia.
Dia
Dia.
(Loadin
(Empty
g)
43 mm
32 mm
parking)
PA
Patansava
33
(92/16)
ngi-Pipla
mm
AB (32)
Pipla-Valni
25
BI-CABLE
TRAM CAR
L-3.0 KM
mm
BD
Valni-
25
(67)
Khaperkhe
mm
43 mm
32 mm
48 mm
33 mm
BI-CABLE
BUCKET
TYPE.
L 1.75 KM
da
CD
Silewara-
25
(63/6)
khaperkhe
mm
da
DE
Khaperkhe
25
(129)
da-Koradi
mm
43 mm
32 mm
2.K-K ROPEWAYS
KAMPTEE
Bi-Cable Bucket Type
Length-7.0 KM
Bucket Cap-1.8 MT
Line Cap-275 T/H
No. of Buckets-150
HR-28 mm/TR-54/34
mm
BINA
Bi-Cable Bucket Type

Length-6.6 KM
Bucket Cap-1.8 MT
Line Cap-200 T/H
No. of Buckets-120
HR-28 mm/TR-54/34
mm
KORADI
19
General Working of a Coal Handling Plant:

As mentioned above, coal is brought to power station by either of three means of
coal transportation. This coal is first conveyed to primary crusher with the help of different
combination of conveyor belts and its rate of feeding is controlled by Electromagnetic
vibrating feeders. Conveyor belt before the crusher is provided with hanging magnets to
separate ferrous materials. Stones are picked up manually. In primary crusher, coal is first
crushed to 100 mm size. This coal is again conveyed to secondary/final crusher on belt
system. Here vibrating screens are used to feed crushers, which bypasses coal of size more
than 25 mm.
In final crushers, coal is further crushed to required 25 mm size. This sized coal is
then send to bunkering belt and with the help of coal trippers. This sized coal is finally fed to
coal bunkers. This cycle is called coal bunkering.
In case bunkers are full, then available coal is stored in stock yard with the help of
stacking belts /automatic stacker cum reclaimer. This cycle is called stacking.
In emergency when coal is not available in plant by railways/ropeways, then this
stacked coal is diverted to the coal bunkers by reclaimimg conv. belts. This cycle is called
reclaiming. The coal stored in bunkers is further send to coal mill for pulverization and
combustion in boiler furnace
WAGON
WAGON TIPLER
CRUSHER HOUSE
HOPPER
RECLAIMMG
BELT
MAG. SEP
COAL FEEDER
SURG
E
HOPPE
R
VIB. SCREENS
C
O
A
L
CONV. BELT
COAL CRUSHERS
Y
A
R
STACKING
BELT
COAL TRIPPER
BUNKERING BELT
COAL BUNKERS
20
Equipments used in Coal Handling Plant:

1. Conveyor Belt:
These are made up of cotton or synthetic fibers and rubber piles placed in alternate
positions normally vary from 4 to 6 ply. These are generally 900 to 1600 mm in width. In
selecting a belt, following factors are considered:
1. Durability 2. Strength 3. Toughness 4. Elasticity
5. Lightness 6. Pliability
Belt Tensioning:
1. Screw type: The horizontal and small conv. belts are fitted with a screw operated gear to
adjust the belt tension and take up the slack belt. This gear is of robust construction and
designed to protect from dust. It is fixed at an accessible place for adjustment and cleaning.
2. Automatic gravity take ups: Theses are provided in conv. belt system to maintain slack
side tension, to permit length variation due to belt stretch / shrinkage, removal of starting
jerks and extra length for vulcanizing. Belt tension is automatically and continuously
maintained by gravity take-ups.
It consists of 2 bend pulleys and a tensioning pulley to which balancing weights are
provided. This tensioning pulley is mounted on a travelling carriage, which is pulled by steel
ropes to which a counter weight is attached on sheaves. The length of take-up gear should
not be more than 1.5 % of the belt centre length.
CONV.
HEAD
PULLEY
BEND
PULLEY
BALANCING
PULLEY
GUIDE
BAR
BALANCING
WEIGHTS
21
Rubber Scrappers: Rubber scrappers are provided at the head end of each conveyor
to clean off damp coal dust and to prevent it from carrying on to the return rollers. These
scrappers are always remain in contact with the belt with the help of spring arrangement so
that the belt is preserved and pulleys are kept clean which ensures straight running of the
belt.
HEAD PULLEY
CONV. BELT
RUBBER SCRAPER
SPRIN
SUPPORT
2. Idlers:
Conveyor belt is rotating on head and tail pulleys placed at very large distance apart. Belt
can sag between these two pulleys because of its weight. In order to avoid this sagging,
idlers are fixed at certain distance between these pulleys. Idlers consist of three rollers
attached to the brackets at an angle of 20-35 0 so that conv. belt can take shape like a arc of
a circle, thus preventing objectionable sharp bends to the belt and carries maximum coal
load without any spillage. It is shown in the figure as below.
Return idler
22
In power station, following types of idlers are generally used.

1. Carrying Troughing Idlers: These idlers are provided for carrying and transporting the
required coal load from point of feeding to the unloading point. It consists of 3 rollers, which
are fitted with bearings/Life sealed bearings. Profile makes an arc of a circle to avoid sharp
bends to increase belt life.(As shown in above figure)
2. Return Idlers: These are provided to give support to the belt from return side. As empty
belt run over these idlers, it consist of one plain roller for smaller belt width (upto 1400 mm
approx.) and for higher belt width, it may consists of 2 rollers.
3. Carrying Self-Aligning Idlers: These idlers are provided on carrying side of the conv.
system. It consists of 3 roller system mounted on a fulcrum which is free to oscillate in a
pivot on a fixed frame. Whenever belt goes out of run, these idlers oscillate on either side,
bringing the belt in center of axis of the conv. system. This avoids damaging of the belt.
GUIDE
FULCRUM
4. Return Self Aligning Idlers: These idlers also bring the return side belt to its center
position if goes out of run.
5. Impact Idlers: These are provided at feeding points to increase the life of the belt and
reduce spillage due to sagging below the side scals. The rollers of these idlers are fitted with
rubber liners as shown in the following figure.
VERTICAL
IDLER
RUBBER
23
3. Pulleys:
Conveyor pulleys are heavy cast iron construction having machine crowned faces, the
driving pulley being faced with ferodo or other similar friction material. The diameters of
pulleys are large enough to reduce belt stresses. The width of the pulley is more by 150 mm
. The dia. of head, tail, snub and bend pulleys depend on the thickness of the belt and a
useful rule is as follow:
Head Pulley -------------------- 5 * Belt Ply

Tail Pulley ---------------------- 4 * Belt Ply
Snub Pulley -------------------- 3 * Belt Ply
Tripper Pulley------------------- 5 * Belt Ply
Snub Pulley: These pulleys are used to relieve the adjacent return idler and increase the
arc of contact of the main pulley for effective gripping of the belt.
CONV. BELT
4. Coal Feeders:
There are two types of feeders used in coal handling plant.
a) Electro-magnetic feeders: These are of the vibrating or jiggling type and are placed
immediately below the coal receiving hopper. The feeders are designed to take coal from the
hoppers and deliver it to their corresponding conveyors without spilling.
Vibrating feeders give the trays vibrations caused by the use of AC and DC together. Half
wave rectified current is passed through the stator coils, forming the magnetic circuit to
create a sequence of uninterrupted magnetic pulls on the armature which is connected to
the vibrating bars through the centre clamp.
During the first half of the cycle, the armature is flexed towards stator coil. And during other
half wave rectified cycle, armature is pulled back with the help of the springs. This to and
fro motion in the gap between armature and the stator coil causes vibrations in feeder.
b) Vibrating Screens: These are of double deck type. The upper deck is trash screen, which
allows large size coal to the crusher. The lower deck is a sizing screen, which allows the coal
to bypass the crusher. The screens are mechanically vibrated by an eccentric drive.
5. Coal Crushers:
There are two types of crushers
a) Primary Crushers: The primary crushers are either hammer type or single
roll crushers. They are designed to crush the coal from 450 mm to 100 mm size. Coal lumps
bigger than 450 mm size causes serious trouble in the crushers very often.
b) Secondary Crushers: The secondary crushers, which are either hammer type or ring
type crusher. These crushers further crushes coal to the size of 25 mm size.
24
6. Trippers:
Belt conveyors passing over the top of overhead coal bunkers are fitted with travelling
trippers having chutes on one or both sides of the conveyor. These trippers are power
propelled and travels on rails. It has been provided with clamping device to prevent it from
running away.
TRIPPER
TROLLEY
COAL
DIVERSION
CONV. BELT
RAILS
BUNKER
BUNKERS
Magnetic Separators:
These are provided to get rid of foreign material (i.e. tramp iron) which finds its way into
the coal. The points requiring attention for magnetic separation to be efficient are depth of
coal on belt and speed of the belt.
There are two types of magnetic separators used:
a) Suspended Magnets: These magnetic separators are fixed on conveyor delivering coal
to the crushers and are operated manually by travelling winches.
b) Rotating Magnets: These are also fixed on driving top end of the conveyor belt before
crushers. Small size belt is rotated across the running conv. belt with a separate driving
mechanism. Material attracted to the portion under magnet is automatically thrown in the
discharge chute.
ROTATING BELT
BELT
FERROUS
MATERIA
L
TRAM
P
IRON
CHUT
25
c) Magnetic Pulleys: The head pulleys of the conveyors prior to crushers are arranged as
magnetic pulleys. On long belts, tramp iron gradually takes up a lower position near the belt
and so come under the influence of the pulley to a greater extent. These magnetic pulleys
automatically discharge the extracted tramp iron through tramp iron chutes.
Non magnetic materials like stones, shells etc. are removed manually from the running
belt.
Protections provided in coal handling Plant:
1. Pull chord switch: This protection does not work automatically but is to be operated
manually by the operator when he senses some severe disaster. This pull chord can be
operated from any position along the length of the conveyor belt.
2. Belt sway switch: These are mounted on the conveyors and protect the belt
excessive running out and getting edge worn / damaged.
from
3. Zero speed switch: When the speed of the conveyor drops below predetermined speed,
it operates and trips the system to save it from congestion at the transfer points. It is
usually fixed nearer to the tail pulley.
Interlocks provided in Coal Handling Plant:
If one of the belts trips for any reason, all earlier belts will trip on auto along with the
associated vibrating feeders provided at input points.
Operating Sequence of Coal Handling Plant:

There are three types of operating sequences:
1. Direct to the bunker: Coal received from different modes of coal transportation, is
transferred to the crusher with conv. system where coal is crushed to 25 mm size. It is then
transferred to the bunkers through tripper trolley as per the boiler unit requirement. Feeding
rate is controlled by Electro-magnetic feeders at feeding points. This cycle is called
BUNKERING.
2. Direct to stack: In case bunkers are full and coal by railways / ropeways is available, then
coal is first brought to the crusher house, then it is either crushed or bypassed and then
diverted to the coal stock yard with the help of stacking conv. belts. This stacked coal can be
used when coal supply is not available by any means of coal transportation. This cycle is
called STACKING.
3. Stacking to Bunkering: In case bunkers are empty and wagon / ropeway coal is not
available, then coal is first brought from stack-yard. It is then send to the crusher and
thereafter to the bunkers with the help of reclaiming conv. belts. This cycle is called
RECLAIMIMG.
Automatic stacker cum reclaimers are used for stacking and reclaiming purpose, if available.
26
General Problems faced in Coal Handling Plant:

1. Design Problems: Cal. Value and Ash %
Coal received in power station is having cal. Value much less and ash percentage more than
the rated values recommended by manufacturer. Hence the systems in coal handling plant
get overloaded resulting in low bunkering.
2. Rainy Season Problems: Chute choke ups, Coal yard -Slurry Formation
Transfer chutes gets choked up due to wet or muddy coal. Slurry formed in coal yard may
cause problems with electro-magnetic feeders at input points, frequent choke-ups at
transfer chutes etc.
3. Other Misc. Problems:
. Snapping of belts /ropes:
Conv. belts and ropeway ropes get damaged or broken because of jerks and
overloading problems due to various reasons. Repairing and replacement of these
belts and ropes require more time for maint.
. Derailment of coal wagons:
De-railment of wagons result in obstacle in unloading of balance wagons in line. This
results in lower bunkering and may attract demurrage charges from railway
department.
. Oversized coal/Muddy Coal.:
Oversized / muddy coal may cause damage to the belt system, frequent
choke-ups of transfer chutes and damages to the crusher rings.
---------- 00 -----------
27
28
4. BOILER CONSTRUCTION
HISTORY OF BOILERS:
Boiler means any cleared versel exceeding 22.75 LH in capacity used for steam.
Generation under pressure.
The first Boiler developed in 1725 & working pressure was 6 to 10 kg/cal.
TYPES OF BOILERS: There are two types of Boilers:1) Fire tube boilers (Carnish & Lauchashine blrs.) developed in the year 1844
2) Water tube boilers developed in 1873 years.
We are having in Thermal Bower stations water tube Blrs.
These are sub divided according to water circulation
1) Natural circulation: Drum to down comers to due ring main header to water wall
tubes & back to drum difference in density of water when col & hot.
2) Forced circulation: Additional pumps are installed in down comers.
According to pressure the Boilers are called.
1) Drum type sub critical boiler: When boiler pressure is 130 kg/cm2 to 180 kg/cm2
2) Critical pressure Boilers : When boiler pressure is 221.2 kg/cm2
3) Super critical drum less once through boilers: When boiler pressure is 240 kg/cm2
All modern Boilers are top slung from steel structures from the Beams a series of slings
take up the boiler loads. Suspended weight of one 210 MW boiler is 3640 tonnes approx.
eight of Boiler is about 64 meters and Boiler drum is at a height of 52 meters from
ground.
Boiler design: 1) Lowest capital cost, ease of construction, simplicity, s\afety, Good
working condition ease of maintenance.
3) Efficient operation, effective baffling for heat transfer will insulated casings, ability to
deliver pure steam with effective drum internals, build steam ball capacity.
4) Availability of auxilaries.
Period of constructions: In India the Boiler is being constructed in three years i.e. 36
months.
The main parts of Boiler are:
1) Boiler drum
2) Down comers
3) Water walls
4) Furnace
5) Platen superheater
6) Reheater
7) Final superheater
8) Primary superheater
9) Economizer
10)Burners
11)Ignitors
1) Boiler drum: size: Length : 15.7 meters, ID: 1976 mm, Thieckness 132 mm
The drum is made of special carbon steel plates of SA299 A grade A-1 by
fusion welding (submerged arc welding). Two gauge glasses are provided for level
indication. Three safety valves are provided. Drum vents, chemical dosing live.
Emergency blow down line are provided.
29
Inside the drum there is position called separating chamber through which
steam enters from riser tubes and goes through primary separators called turbo
separators which have spinning blades, moiture in separted and further goes through
secondary separator and finally through drying screens in the drum upper past
steam and lower past water will be there water level in maintained 254 mm below
the Geometrical center line of drum.
2) Down comers: Made of SA106 Gr. C material
There are 6 down comers of size 406x32 mm joined to ring main header to
provide water to water wal tubes. There are two down comers of size 323.9x24.4
mm joined to platen water walls headers where ever provided.
3) Water Walls : Made of SA 210 Gr. A1 material, 63.5x6.3 mm, 76.1mm thick.
The water wall tubes are made into panels called membrane panels. The each
membrane panel will be of 22 tubes joined by fins welding and having length of 60 to 70
foot each and width of panel will be 7 feet wide and there are 83 panel. After getting
heated water goes through these tubes by natural circulation to drum. The latest design
of furnace walls are fully cooled on all sides by bare tubes. Refractory covered on
blocked tube walls having been abandoned.
4) Furnace Size: 13.868 m width, 10.592 m depth, 5494m3 vol.
The tall rectangular radiant type furnace has now become a feature of the
modern drg. Bottom P.F. boiler. The height increased to lower gas temperature and
reduce slagging. The furnace is of two passes. The 1 st pass main furnace, enclosed by
four walls of membrane panels 7 wide & 60 to 70 conp. The firing with oil or coal taken
place in main furnace. Dt in hight heat zone. The heat transfer taken place mazimum in
furnace only. Where the heat is generated to 1200 to 1400 0C due to conversion of
chemical energy. Date is called water cooled furnace as the membrane panels are made
of tubes through which water is circulating (water wall tubes).
Over the water wall tubes from out side skin welding is done with M.S. Sheet and
glass wool logging of about 100 to 150 mm thick will be placed under G.I. sheets to
reduce the radiation losses from furnace. The out side temp will be about 45 to 50 0C for
effective insulation.
The height of membrane panel 60 to 70 in to avoid joints in firing zone. I.e.
A,B,C,D elevasions.
The extended furnace is called second pass where primary superheater and
economizer, A.H. is installed.
5) Superheaters: The Superheater material to be suitable for the transient high metal
temp. during th estart up condition relatively high heat input & low steam in flow : In
super heaters the steam in superheated.
1) Primary superheater or low temp. superheater (LTSH): From drum steam comes to
LTSH this is in two stages called lower bunch & upper bunnerls. There are 134
assemblies in each bunch at 102 mm pitles.
The material used are SA209T, SA210 Gr. A, SA 213 T11
The size of tubes are 44.5x4.5 mm & temperature range is 450 0C to 4800C soot
blowing steam is taken from LTSH outlet before attemperature on .
2) Platen superheater : It is situated in furnace vertically joints headers are in pent
house. There are 29 assemblies at piteh of 457 mm. The pitch is more in
comparision to others to avoid checking or fouling on its I directly in furnace top from
LTSH the steam comes to platen superheater after attemperasion the material used
also steel as SA 213 T11, SA 213 T22. SA 213 to 347 H and it stands pto 580 0C. the
size of tubes are 51x7.1 mm +51x8.6mm.
3) Final superheater: Its headers are in pent house header no 13 & 14. it is situated
vertically behind reheater. It is having 119 assembly at a pitch of 114 mm and size of
tubes are 51x7.6 mm the materials are SA213 T22 alloy steel and stands upto 580 0C
(alloy steel)
30
4) Reheater : The materials SA213 T11 alloy steel & stands upto 550 0C the reheater the
size of tubes is 54x3.6 mm placed behind the hotter section of superheater this is in
general given adeqvate protection by the same gas temp. control of superheater
itself. If reheater located close to furnace can receive too much heat for initial steam
flow causing an excessive rise in reheat steam temp.
The steam which is coming from HP turbine will be heater up in R.H. to its normal
temp. of 5400C and used in IP turbine.
Reheater is in two parts called front and rear. In front R/H there are 59 assemblies at
a pitch of 229 mm of at rear there are 89 assemblies at a pitch of 152 mm.
6) Economizer : It is placed between LTSH and S.H. in second pass of furnace for
utilization of heating blue gas for heating feed water other wise which will go waste.
The feeder water after HP heaters will pass through economizer & getting heated by
blue gasses of finally going to drum.
Economizer miser is in two bunches called lower bunch & upper lunch. There are 270
assemblies are there at a pitch of 102 mm, the material used are carbon steel of SA
210 Gr. A1 stands upto 4500C, size of the tubes are 44.5x4.5 mm.
Windbox: The wind box is situated at 11 m level of Boiler it is two parts one is on LHS
and other is on RHS of Boiler. There are thirteen compartments on each corner out of
which 3 for oil bunch, 6 for coal mills, 4 for auxiliary air. These compartments are
connected to burer tilt which operated +/- 300 as per requirement according to final
temp. of steam. The secondary air after airpreheater comes to wind box and in given to
furnace along with fuel for complete combusion of fuel as per requirement.
Burners : Coal is used as a primary fuel and oil is as secondary during start up of Boiler,
for flame stability at low loads, other transient operating conditions.
Burner is to atomise fuel, penertrate, miset with proper proportions for complete
comfussion. The burners are situated at 3 elevorsions called AB,CD,EF. At every
elevasion there are four burners. FO/LSHS can be fired at all three elevasions but LDO
can be taken at AB elevasion only for start up of Boiler. For every burner whether
LDO/FO there is one ignitor to ignite the burner and it will be in use as long as burner is
in use. Now ignitors are being changed form HOD/LDO to HEA (High energy arc ignitors,
purely electrical)
Soot Blowers: About 78 soot blowers are provided at different zones to remove the
accumulated soot on boiler tubes for effective heat transfer.
Types of blowers: 1) Wall Soot blowers there 56 Nos. There is furnace
3) L.R.S.B. there 20 Nos. these are at S.H. , R.H. 2nd pass.
4) A.H. these 2 Nos. for A.H. soot blowing of elements.
Large P.F. Boiler Auxiliaries :
These are some important machines equipment for safe and efficient working of
Boiler. These machines are called Boiler auxiliaries. Boiler works at very high pressure hence
safety methods are necessary. Boiler is tangentially fired balanced draugest with the help of
ID and FD Fans. The resistance is furnace is 200 to 300 mm WC hence artificial draft. Power
consumed by draft plant should be 1.5 to 3% of Boiler unit capacity.
The purpose of draft is:
1) To remove the gaseous products of combustion from furnace.
2) To supply required air to the furnace for combussion at high rates.
3) To heat transfer at high rates.
4) To meet varying load condition.
31
Generally centrifugal fans are used on modern boilers. Two performance

depends on shapes of blades.
1) Back ward curved blades.
2) Forward curved blades.
3) Straight or radial blades.
of a fans
There are two types of fans used in draft surface.

1) Induced draft fan (I.D. Fan) 2 No. per Boiler. It induces gaseous products from
furnace and forces out through chimney. Type ND2V, Q= 230 m 3/s, Pressure = 405
mm WC, KW = 1300, Speed = 740 rpm, Radial fan.
2) F.D. Fan : Forced draft fan 2 Nos. per Boiler. It forces atmospheric air to furnace as
secondary air through air preheater and windbox for combustion of fuel. Type-API
20/11, Pressure = 408 mmWC, Q= 451m3 /s motor 900 KW, 1480 rpm, axial fan.
Coal cycles comprises of six nubers bowl mills with equal numbers of coal feeders and
two numbers of P.A. fans and sealing air fans is General coal cycle power consumption is
20 KW/Ton.
Coal Feeder : Coal comes from CHP to bunkers and coal feeder feed to any coal mill is
regulated by a coal feeder by changing its speed. Coal feeder handles crushed coal of
size 15 to 25 mm
There are two types of coal feeders:
1) Gravimetric : Drag chain type
2) Volumetric : Rotary type.
1) Gravietic Feeder : can be to a large bunker outlet there by minimizing chokage
during rainy season. Type R600
2) Volumetric type is Rotary type 100, Capacity 7.4 to 43.6 T/hr., Speed 2.7 to 16 rpm.
Coal can be measured by volume of sector rotating/min.
Coal Mills: Coal from feeder comes to mill & coal is crushed in the mill to the required
fineness 75% by 200 mesh. There are classifier gate through which correct size coal only
passes other coal comes back for grinding again. Mill temp. to be maintained below comes
back for grinding again. Mill temp to be maintained below 90 0C. the required air flow is 50
T/h to lift the coal to furnace.
The type of mills : Pressure type
1) Bowl mill: XRP 763, XRP783, XRP 1003, XRP 1043, HP803
Roll size :
36
36
47
62
37
Capacity:
33.8 T/h
72T/h, 37T/h
Grinding elements are bull ring segments & Bowl
Mill RPM 40, Motor 320 KW, 990 rpm.
2) Tube mills: Type BBD bouyer Boullets direct size of ball is 50 mm will be used upto
20mm it becomes drum weight 70 tonnes and mill weight is 200 tonnes. There are
2.7 lakhs balls are there liers are standing upto 30,000 R/H. their balls & hier liners
are used.
BBD 4772, 4760, 5178 slow speed mills 15 to 18 rpm, power consumption is double
but reliability is high, no stand bye required.
3) Ball and race mills : (Babcock & Willcox)
E type E-70, E-90, 4.8E, 8.5E Speed 50 rpm, capacity 50 T/hr.
Initially 10 balls are placed and after certain erosion/wear 11 th ball ins introduce
added. The life of balls is about 8000 to 10000 R.H. according to availity of coal
required to be grinded rejects are less comparing to bowl mills.
P.A.Fans :
32
1) Primary air for Transport of coal from mill to furnace is provided by fan.
2) Toe facilitate drying of coal, part of P.A. fan air is routed through. The P.A. fan air
should maintain speed of 80 to 100 ft/sec is fuel pipe to maintain coal is air born
state to avoid chacking oc coal pipes.
Type NDF22b, Q=63.3 m3/h, press 1313 mmwc, KW 1250 rpm 1480.
P.A. Fans have narrow section impellors, and 2 to 3 times higher speeds than I.D.F.D.
high speed fans to give high heads required for fuel firing types blades are made of
high tensile alloy steels to resist abrasion.
Seal Air Fan: Seal air pressure is higher than P.A. Fan pressure. It is required for sealing
purpose of coal mills bowl input shaft, journal assembly brgs, coal feeders shaft brgs,
sprockets otherwise dust enters above area and spoil brgs & oil.
Scanner fan : For sensing the flame scanners are provided at all elevations of all corners
in furnace. For cooling these scanners air is provided form these fans. Boiler will trip if
these fans fails. Capacity 1200 m3/h, Pressure = 320 mm WG, Motor 3 HP, 2970 rpm.
Ignitor Fan : For every burner one ignitor is provided for igniting the burner for
combusion & cooling ignitor fan is provided. It is a centrifugal fan with backward curved.
Capacity 9000 m3/h, 75 mm WC, 1500 rpm.
Air Preheater : air heater is unique amoung Boiler auxiliaries with priciple purpose of
saving energy and an in come producing asset. It can have significant impact on platn
capacity and heat rate. Blr. Of increases by 8 to 12% incremental fuel saving. It provides
heated air for drying and conveying P.F. coal provides heated air to combusion of fuel &
lower emission.
There are two types of air heaters:
1) Regenrative : (L Jung stream) It is widely used in our contries/MSEB and world wide.
It is rotary type, slow speed about 1 to 3 rpm. There is AC drive, DC drive or
air motor also provided in case supply fails.
2) Re couerative : It is stationary, Turber or plate type flue gas flows through tubes and
air in out side.
Air heater are again sub divided into two types:
1) Trisector : 1) Flue gas flows through 180 of portion
2) F.D. air flows through 128 of porsion
3) P.A. Fan air flows through 52 of poison P.A. partial air is bypassed as cold air.
3) Bi sector: 1) Flue gas flow through 180 of porsion.
4) 2) F.D. air flows through 180 of portion
5) F.D. partial air ins bypassed A.H. on cold ir is bisector P.A. is drawn from F.D. after air
heater and partially from cold air duct from A.H. bypass for maintaining mill temp.
To avoid intermixing of flue gas/F.D. air/P.A. air seal are provided called radial
seals, bypass seals, axial seals, circumterencial seals.
Air heater is basically for hazards. To remove deposits time to time soot
blowing is carried out.
A.H. size 38-9 dia, height 6, heating surface : 2x340000 ft2 heat transfer rate is 4085
Btu/ft2/hr/of
Hot end elements 22 BG 0.5 mm, cold end elements 22 BG 0.8 mm,
Basket are Hot end 120 Nos, Intermediate end 120 Nos. cold end 168 nos. total there are
408 baskets called heating elements.
ESP : The electro static precipitators are installed to ensure separation of fly ash and
crushers are installed at the bottom of furnace to remove the slag ash to collect fly ash 49
hoppers are located at different places.
33
Principal : The ash particles are negatively charged and while passing through ESP positive
and negatively charged electrodes the particles are repulging from negatively charged
electrodes and collecting on collective plates which are positively charged inturn they are
falling in hoppers due to rapping intermittently.
The collection of ash is 230 Ton/shift of 8 hrs. and being disposed off in 3 hrs. the
collesion of Bottom ash is 80 Ton/ 8 hrs & being disposed in 1 hrs.
Collective electrode : There are 56/6 plates/Boiler Leust 9 m, Thickness 1.6 mm, width 400
mm
Rapping : 6 raps/hr at 1st field to 1 rap/hr at last field.
Emitting electrodes : Length of wire prefield in 7879m length of wire per boiler is 21888 m
size is 2.5 mm dia
Permissible spark rate is 5.spark /min
Rapping : 10 raps/hr.
Clinker grinder: capacity 60 T/hr. It reduces clinkers size upto 25 to 50 mm for eary
transmission through pipes to ash yard/slurry pump house. Grindern made of manganer
steel
Bottom ash hopper: It directly collects ash from furnace which coarce and clinkers. Its
storease capacity is for 12 hrs. (156 m3)
34
5. Large P.F. Boilers and its auxiliaries :

There are some important machines equipment for safe and efficient
working of Boiler. These machines are called Boiler auxiliaries. Boiler works
at very high pressure hence safety methods are necessary. Boiler is
tangentially fired balanced draught with the help of ID and FD Fans. The
resistance in furnace is 200 to 300 mm WC hence artificial draft is necessary.
Power consumed by draft plant should be 1.5 to 3% of Boiler unit capacity.
The purpose of draft is:
5) To remove the gaseous products of combustion from furnace.
6) To supply required air to the furnace for combustion at high rates.
7) To transfer heat at high rates.
8) To meet varying load condition.
Generally centrifugal fans are used on modern boilers. The performances
of fans depend on shapes of blades and they are classified as following.
4) Back ward curved blades.
5) Forward curved blades.
6) Straight or radial blades.
There are two types of fans used in draft surface.
3) Induced draft fan (I.D. Fan) 2 No. per Boiler. It induces gaseous
products from furnace and forces out through chimney. Type NDZV, Q=
230 m3/s, Pressure = 405 mm WC, KW = 1300, Speed = 740 rpm,
Radial fan.
4) F.D. Fan : Forced draft fan 2 Nos. per Boiler. It forces atmospheric air
to furnace as secondary air through air preheater and windbox for
combustion of fuel. Type-API 20/11, Pressure = 408 mmWC, Q=
451m3 /s motor 900 KW, 1480 rpm, axial fan.
Coal cycles comprises of six numbers bowl mills with equal numbers of
coal feeders and two numbers of P.A. fans and sealing air fans. In general
coal cycle power consumption is 20 KW/Ton.
Coal Feeder: Coal comes from CHP to bunkers in about 25 mm size.
Coal feeder feeds coal to the respective coal mill and is regulated by
varying the speed of the coal feeder.
There are two types of coal feeders:
3) Gravametric : Drag chain type
4) Volumetric: Rotary type.
Gravametric Feeder: In this feeder weighing of the coal feeding is
carried out. The feeder can be connected to a large bunker outlet and
there by minimizing choke during rainy season. This feeder is driven by a
L. T. motor and with PIV gearbox.
Type R600
35
Volumetric type: This feeder is also driven by a L. T. motor and with

PIV gearbox. It is Rotary type, its capacity is 7.4 to 43.6 T/hr., Speed 2.7
to 16 rpm. Coal can be measured by volume in this feeder.
Coal Mills: Coal from feeder comes to mill & coal is crushed in the mill to
the required fineness i.e.75% by 200 mesh. There are classifier gates
through which correct size of pulverised coal only passes and other coal
return back to the mill for grinding again. Mill temperature is to be
maintained below 900C. The required airflow of 50 T/h is made available
from P. A. fan via air-preheater and its temperature is about 350 0 C to make
the coal hot and lift it to the furnace.
The type of mills : Pressure type
4) Bowl mill: XRP 763, XRP783, XRP 1003, XRP 1043, HP803
Roll size : 36 36
47 62
37
Capacity: 33.8 T/h
72T/h, 37T/h
Grinding elements are bull ring segments & Bowl
Mill RPM 40, Motor 320 KW, 990 rpm.
5) Tube mills: Type BBD bouyer Boullets direct size of ball is 50 mm will
be used upto 20mm it becomes drum weight 70 tonnes and mill
weight is 200 tonnes. There are 2.7 lakhs balls are there liers are
standing upto 30,000 R/H. their balls & hier liners are used.
BBD 4772, 4760, 5178 slow speed mills 15 to 18 rpm, power
consumption is double but reliability is high, no stand bye required.
6) Ball and race mills : (Babcock & Willcox)
E type E-70, E-90, 4.8E, 8.5E Speed 50 rpm, capacity 50 T/hr.
Initially 10 balls are placed and after certain erosion/wear 11 th ball ins
introduce added. The life of balls is about 8000 to 10000 R.H.
according to availity of coal required to be grinded rejects are less
comparing to bowl mills.
P.A.Fans :
3) Primary air for Transport of coal from mill to furnace is provided by
fan.
4) Toe facilitate drying of coal, part of P.A. fan air is routed through. The
P.A. fan air should maintain speed of 80 to 100 ft/sec is fuel pipe to
maintain coal is air born state to avoid chacking oc coal pipes.
Type NDF22b, Q=63.3 m3/h, press 1313 mmwc, KW 1250 rpm 1480.
P.A. Fans have narrow section impellors, and 2 to 3 times higher
speeds than I.D.F.D. high speed fans to give high heads required for
fuel firing types blades are made of high tensile alloy steels to resist
abrasion.
Seal Air Fan: Seal air pressure is higher than P.A. Fan pressure. It is
required for sealing purpose of coal mills bowl input shaft, journal
36
assembly brgs, coal feeders shaft brgs, sprockets otherwise dust enters
above area and spoil brgs & oil.
Scanner fan : For sensing the flame scanners are provided at all
elevations of all corners in furnace. For cooling these scanners air is
provided form these fans. Boiler will trip if these fans fails. Capacity 1200
m3/h, Pressure = 320 mm WG, Motor 3 HP, 2970 rpm.
Ignitor Fan : For every burner one ignitor is provided for igniting the
burner for combusion & cooling ignitor fan is provided. It is a centrifugal
fan with backward curved. Capacity 9000 m3/h, 75 mm WC, 1500 rpm.
Air Preheater : air heater is unique amoung Boiler auxiliaries with priciple
purpose of saving energy and an in come producing asset. It can have
significant impact on platn capacity and heat rate. Blr. Of increases by 8
to 12% incremental fuel saving. It provides heated air for drying and
conveying P.F. coal provides heated air to combusion of fuel & lower
emission.
There are two types of air heaters:
6) Regenrative : (L Jung stream) It is widely used in our contries/MSEB
and world wide.
It is rotary type, slow speed about 1 to 3 rpm. There is AC drive,
DC drive or air motor also provided in case supply fails.
7) Re couerative : It is stationary, Turber or plate type flue gas flows
through tubes and air in out side.
Air heater are again sub divided into two types:
4) Trisector : 1) Flue gas flows through 180 of portion
5) F.D. air flows through 128 of porsion
6) P.A. Fan air flows through 52 of poison P.A. partial air is bypassed as
cold air.
8) Bi sector: 1) Flue gas flow through 180 of porsion.
9) 2) F.D. air flows through 180 of portion
10)
F.D. partial air ins bypassed A.H. on cold ir is bisector P.A. is
drawn from F.D. after air heater and partially from cold air duct from
A.H. bypass for maintaining mill temp.
To avoid intermixing of flue gas/F.D. air/P.A. air seal are provided

called radial seals, bypass seals, axial seals, circumterencial
seals.
Air heater is basically for hazards. To remove deposits time to
time soot blowing is carried out.
A.H. size 38-9 dia, height 6, heating surface : 2x340000 ft2 heat transfer
rate is 4085 Btu/ft2/hr/of
Hot end elements 22 BG 0.5 mm, cold end elements 22 BG 0.8 mm,
37
Basket are Hot end 120 Nos, Intermediate end 120 Nos. cold end 168 nos.
total there are 408 baskets called heating elements.
ESP : The electro static precipitators are installed to ensure separation of fly
ash and crushers are installed at the bottom of furnace to remove the slag
ash to collect fly ash 49 hoppers are located at different places.
Principal : The ash particles are negatively charged and while passing
through ESP positive and negatively charged electrodes the particles are
repulging from negatively charged electrodes and collecting on collective
plates which are positively charged inturn they are falling in hoppers due to
rapping intermittently.
The collection of ash is 230 Ton/shift of 8 hrs. and being disposed off in 3
hrs. the collesion of Bottom ash is 80 Ton/ 8 hrs & being disposed in 1 hrs.
Collective electrode : There are 56/6 plates/Boiler Leust 9 m, Thickness 1.6
mm, width 400 mm
Rapping : 6 raps/hr at 1st field to 1 rap/hr at last field.
Emitting electrodes : Length of wire prefield in 7879m length of wire per
boiler is 21888 m size is 2.5 mm dia
Permissible spark rate is 5.spark /min
Rapping : 10 raps/hr.
Clinker grinder: capacity 60 T/hr. It reduces clinkers size upto 25 to 50 mm
for eary transmission through pipes to ash yard/slurry pump house. Grindern
made of manganer steel
Bottom ash hopper: It directly collects ash from furnace which coarce and
clinkers. Its storease capacity is for 12 hrs. (156 m3)
6. CONCEPT OF ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION

1. Generation of Alternating Voltage and Currents:
38
Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic

field as shown in figure 1(a) or by rotating a magnetic field within a
stationary coil as shown in fig 1(b).
The value of the voltage generated depends, in each case, upon the
number of turns in the coil, strength of the field and the speed at which the
coil or magnetic field rotates. Alternating voltage may be generated in either
of the two ways shown above but rotating-field method is the one that is
mostly used in practice.
2. Equations of the Alternating Voltages and Currents
Consider a rectangular coil having N turns and rotating in a uniform
magnetic field with an angular velocity of w radian/second as shown in Fig.
(2). Let time be measured for the X-axis. Maximum flux m is linked with the
coil when its plane coincides with the X-axis. In time 1 seconds this coil
rotates through angle = t. In this defected position, the component of the
flux which is perpendicular to the plane of the coil is = m cos t. Hence,
flux linkages of the coil at any time are N = Nm cos t.
According to Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, the e.m.f.
induced in the coil is given by the rate of change of flux-linkages of the coil.
Hence, the value of the induced e.m.f. at this instant (i.e. when = t) or
the instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f. is
e = - d (N) volt
dt
= -N. d (m cos t) volt
dt
=-N m (-sin t) volt
=N m sin t volt
= N m sin volt
.. (i)
When the coil has turned through 900 i.e. when = 900 then sin = 1, hence
e has maximum value, say Em. Therefore, form Eq. (i) we get.
39
Em = N m = NB m A = 2NB mA volt
.. (ii)
Where Bm = maximum flux density in Wb/m2; A = area of the coil in m2

= frequency of rotation of the coil in rev/ second
Substituting this value of Em in Eq. (i), we get e= E m sin = Em sin t
.. (iii)
Similarly, the equation of the induced alternating current is i = I m sin t..
(iv)
provided the coil circuit has been closed through a resistive load.
Since = 2, where is the frequency of rotation of the coil, the
above equations of the voltage and current can be written as
e = Em sin 2t = Em sin 2 t and i = Im sin 2t = Im sin 2t
T
T
Where
T = time-period of the alternating voltage or current = 1/
It is seen that the induced e.m.f. varies as sine function of the time
angle t and when e.m.f. is plotted against time, a curve similar to the one
shown if fig (3) is obtained. This curve is known as sine curve and the e.m.f.
which varies in this manner is known as sinusoidal e.m.f. Such a sine curve
can be conveniently drawn as shown in fig(4). A vector equal in length to E m
is drawn. It rotates in the counter-clockwise direction with a velocity of
radian/second, making one revolution while the generated e.m.f. makes two
loops or one cycle. The projection of this vector on Y-axis gives the
instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f. i.e. Em sin t.
To construct the curve, lay off along X-axis equal distances oa, ab, bc,
cd etc. corresponding to suitable angular displacements of the rotating
vector. Now, erect
ordinates at the points a, b, c and d etc. and then project the free ends of
the vector Em at the corresponding positions a, b, c etc. to meet these
ordinates. Next, draw a curve passing through these intersecting points. The
curve so obtained is the graphic representation of equation (iii) above.
40
3. Alternate Method for the Equations of Alternating Voltages and

Currents
In fig(5) is shown a rectangular coil AC having N turns and rotating in
a magnetic field of flux density B Wb/m 2. Let the length of each of its sides A
and C be l metres and their peripheral velocity v metre/second. Let angle be
measured form the horizontal position i.e. form the X-axis. When in
horizontal position, the two sides A and C move parallel to the lines of the
magnetic flux. Hence, no flux is cut and so no e.m.f. is generated in the coil.
When the coil has turned through angle , its velocity can be resolved
into two mutually perpendicular components (i) v cos component parallel
to the direction of the magnetic flux and (ii) v sin component-perpendicular
to the direction of the magnetic flux. The e.m.f. is generated due entirely to
the perpendicular component i.e. v sin .
Hence, the e.m.f. generated in one side of the coil which contains N
conductors as seen form Art. 7-7 is given by
e = N X Bl v sin .
Total e.m.f. generated in both sides of the coil is e = 2 BNl v sin volt
..(i)
Now, e has maximum value of E m (say) when = 900. Hence, from Eq.
(i) above we get,
Em = 2 BNlv volt
Therefore Eq. (i) can be rewritten as e = Em sin .
..as
before
If b = width of the coil in metres; f = frequency of rotation of coil in
Hz, then v = b
Em = 2 BNl X bvolt
..as before.
4.Simple Waveforms
The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous values
of voltage or current as the ordinate against time as abscises is called its
waveform or wave-shape.
An alternating voltages or current may not always take the form of a
symmetrical or smooth wave such as that shown in fig(3). Thus, fig(6), also
represents alternating waves. But while it is scarcely possible for the
41
manufactures to produce sine-wave generations or alternators, yet sine

wave is the ideal form sought by the designers and is the accepted standard.
The waves deviating from the standard sine wave are termed as distorted
waves.
In general, however, an alternating current or voltage is one the circuit

direction of which reverse at regularly recurring intervals.
5. Complex Waveforms
Complex waves are those which depart form the ideal sinusoidal form
of fig(4). All alternating complex waves which are periodic and have equal
positive and negative half cycles can be shown to be made up of a number
of pure sine wave shaving different frequencies but all these frequencies are
integral multiples of that of the lowest alternating wave called the
fundamental (or first harmonic). These waves of higher frequencies are
called harmonics. If the fundamental frequency is 50 Hz, then the frequency
of the second harmonic is 100 Hz and of the third is 150 Hz and so on. The
complex wave may be composed of the fundamental wave (or first
harmonic) and any number of other harmonics.
In fig(7). Is shown a complex wave which is made up of a fundamental
sine wave of frequency of 50 Hz and third harmonic of frequency of 150 Hz.
It is seen that
i)the two halves of the complex wave are identical in shape. In other
words, there is no distortion. This is always the case when only odd
harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th etc.) are present.
42
ii) frequency of the complex wave is 50 Hz i.e. the same as that of the fundamental sine wave.In fig(8). Is shown a complex wave which is
combination of fundamental sine wave of frequency 50 Hz and 2nd harmonic of frequency 100 Hz and 3rd harmonic of frequency 150 Hz.
It is seen that although the frequency of the complex wave even now remains 50 Hz, yet
i)
the two halves of the complex wave are not identical. It is always so when even harmonics (2 nd, 4th, 6th etc.) are present.
ii) there is distortion and greater departure of the wave shape from the purely sinusoidal shape.
Sometimes, a combination of an alternating and direct current flow

simultaneously through a circuit. In fig(9) is shown a complex wave
(containing fundamental and third harmonic) combined with a direct current
of value ID. It is seen that the resultant wave remains undistorted in shape
but is raised above the axis by an amount ID. It is worth noting that with
reference to the original axis, the two halves of the combined wave are not
equal in area.
6. Cycle
43
One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quantity is known as
cycle. Hence, each diagram of fig(6) represents one complete cycle.
A cycle may also be sometimes specified in terms of angular measure. In that case,
one complete cycle is said to spread over 3600 or 2 radians.
7. Time Period
The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called its time
period T. For example, a 50 Hz alternating current has a time period of 1/50 second.
8. Frequency
The number of cycles/ second is called the frequency of the alternating quantity. Its
unit is hertz (Hz).
In the simple 2 pole alternator of fig(1b)., one cycle of alternating current is
generated in one revolution of the rotating field. However, if there were 4 poles, then two
cycles would have been produced in each revolution. In fact, the frequency of the
alternating voltage produced is a function of the speed and the number of poles of the
generator. The relation connecting the above three quantities is given as
= PN/ 120 where N = revolutions in r.p.m. and P = number of poles
For example, an alternator having 20 poles and running at 300 r.p.m. will generate
alternating voltage and current whose frequency is 20 X 300/120 = 50 hertz (Hz).
It may be noted that the frequency is given by the reciprocal of the time period of
the alternating quantity.
= 1/T
or
T = 1/
9. Amplitude
The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity is
known as its amplitude.
10. Different Forms of E.M.F. Equation.
The standard form of an alternating voltage, as already given is
e = Em sin = Em sin t = Em sin 2t = Em sin 2t
T
By closely looking at the above equations, we find that
i)
The maximum value or peak value or amplitude of an alternating voltage is
given by the coefficient of the sine of the time angle.
ii)
The frequency is give by the coefficient of time divided by 2
For example, if the equation of an alternating voltage is given by e = 50 sin 314 t
then its maximum value is 50 V and its frequency is = 314/2 = 50 Hz.
Similarly, if the equation is of the form e= Im V(R2 + 42L2) sin 2t, then its
maximum value is Em = Im V(R2 + 42L2) and the frequency is 2/ 2 or / Hz.
11. Phase
By phase of an alternating current is meant the fraction of the time period of that
alternating current which has elapsed since the current last passed through the zero
44
position of reference. For example, the phase of current at point A is T/4 second where T is
time period or expressed in terms of angle, it is /2 radians (Fig. 10). Similarly, the phase
of the rotating coil at the instant shown in fig (11). Is t which is, therefore, called its
phase angle.
In electrical engineering we are, however, more concerned with relative phases or
phase differences between different alternating quantities rather than with their absolute
phases. Consider two single turn coils of different sizes arranged Fig(11a) radially in the
same plane and rotating with the same angular velocity in a common magnetic field of
uniform intensity. The e.m.f. induced in both coils will be of the same frequency and
of sinusoidal shape, although the values of instantaneous e.m.fs. induced would be

different. However, the two alternating e.m.fs. would reach their maximum and zero values
at the same time as shown in fig. Such alternating voltage (or currents) are said to be in
phase with each other. The two voltage will have the equations.
e1=Em1 sin t and e2=Em2 sin t
12. PHASE DIFFERENCE:
Now, consider three similar single turn coils displaced from each other by angles
and and rotating in a uniform magnetic field with the same angular velocity.Figure(12 a)
In this case, the values of inducted e.m.fs in the three coils are the same but there is
on important difference. The e.m.fs. in these coils do not reach their maximum or zero
values simultaneously but one after another. The three sinusoidal waves are shown in fig(12
b). It is seen that curves B and C are displaced from curve A by angles and ( + )
45
respectively. Hence, it means that phase difference between A and B is and between B
and C is but between A and C is (+). The statement, however, does not give
indication as to which e.m.f. reaches its maximum value first. This deficiency is supplied by
using the terms lag or lead.
A leading alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum (or zero) value
earlier as compared to the other quantity.
Similarly, a lagging alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum or zero
value later than the other quantity. For example, in fig.(12 b), B lags behind A by and C
lag being A by (+) because they reach their maximum values later.
eA
The three equations for the instantaneous induced e.m.fs. are

= Em sin t . Reference quantity
eB
= Em sin (t-)
eC
= Em sin [t-(+)]
in fig quantity B leads A by angle . Hence,

their equations are
eA
= Em sin t . Reference quantity
eB
= Em sin (t-)
A plus (+) sign when used in connection with phase difference denotes
lead whereas a minus (-) sin denotes lag.
13. Root-Mean-Square (R.M.S.) Value
The r.m.s value of an alternating current is given by that steady (d.c.) current which
when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as produced
by the alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
It is also known as the effective or virtual value of the alternating current, the former
term being used more extensively. For computing the r.m.s value of symmetrical sinusoidal
alternating currents, either mid-ordinate method or analytical method may be used,
although for symmetrical but non-sinusoidal waves, the mid-ordinate method would be
found more convenient.
46
A simple experimental arrangement for measuring the equivalent de value of a

sinusoidal current is shown in fig(14). The two circuits have identical resistances but one is
connected to battery and the other to a sinusoidal generator. Wattmeters are used to
measure heat power in each circuit. The voltage applied to each circuit is so adjusted that
heat power produced in each circuit is the same. In that case, the direct current will equal
Im/V2 which is called rms value of the sinusoidal current.
14. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

The synchronous machine is the most important element of a power system. It
converts mechanical power into electrical form and feeds it into the power network or, in the
case of a motor, it draws electrical power from the network and converts it into the
mechanical form. The machine excitation that is controllable determines the flow of VARs
into or out of the machine. A simplified circuit model of a synchronous machine with suitable
modifications wherever necessary (under transient conditions) shall be presented here.
Figure (15) Shows the schematic cross-sectional diagram of a three phase
synchronous generator (alternator) having a two pole structure. The stator has a balanced
three-phase winding-aa, bb and cc. The winding shown is a concentrated one, while the
winding in an actual machine is distributed across the stator periphery. The rotor shown is a
cylindrical one (round rotor or non-salient pole rotor) with rotor winding excited by the DC
47
source. The rotor winding is so arranged on rotor periphery that the field excitation
produces nearly sinusoidally distributed flux/pole () in the air gap. As the rotor rotates,
three-phase emfs are produced in stator winding. Since the machine is a balanced one and
balanced loading will be considered, it can be modeled on per phase basis for the reference
phase a.
In a machine with more than two poles, the above defined structure repeats
electrically for every pair of poles. The frequency of induced emf.
is given by
= NP Hz
120
where
N = rotor speed (synchronous speed) in rpm
P = number of poles
On no load the voltage Ef induced in the reference phase a lags 900 behind f which
produces it and is proportional to f if the magnetic circuit is assumed to be unsaturated.
This phasor relationship is indicated in fig(16). Obviously the terminal voltage Vt = Ef.
As balanced steady load is drawn from the three-phase stator winding, the stator
currents produce synchronously rotating flux a/pole. (in the direction of rotation of the
rotor). This flux, called armature reaction flux, is therefore stationary with respect to field
flux f. It intuitively follows that is in phase with phase a current I a which causes it.
Since the magnetic circuit has been assumed to be unsaturated, the superposition principle
is applicable so that the resultant air gap flux is given by the phasor sum
r = f +a
(14.1)
Further assuming that the armature leakage reactance and resistance are negligible, r
induces the armature emf which equals the terminal voltage V t. phasor diagram under
loaded (balanced) conditions showing fluxes, currents and voltages as phasors is drawn in
fig(17).
48
Here
= power factor angle
= angle by which Ef leads Vt call load angle or torque angle
determines the power delivered by the generator and the magnitude of E f (i.e.
excitation) determines the VARs delivered by it.
Because of the assumed linearity of the magnetic circuit, voltage phasors E f, Ea and
Vt are proportional to flux phasors f, a and r, respectively; further, voltage phasors lag
900 behind flux phasors. It therefore easily follows from Fig(17) that phasor AB = - E a is
proportional to a (and therefore I a) and is 900 leading a (or I a). With the direction of
phasor AB indicated on the diagram
AB = jI a Xa
Where X is constant of proportionality.
In terms of the above definition of X a, we can directly write the following expression
for voltages without the need of invoking flux phasors.
Where
Vt = Ef jI a X a
Ef
(14.2)
= voltage induced by field flux f alone

= no load emf
The circuit model of equation(14.2) is drawn in Fig(18). wherein X a is interpreted as

inductive reactance which accounts for the effect of armature reaction thereby avoiding the
need of resorting to addition of fluxes [Eq. (14.i)].
49
The circuit of Fig(18) can be easily modified to include the effect of armature leakage
reactance (these are series effects) to give the complete circuit model of the synchronous
generator as in fig. The total reactance (X a + Xl ) = Xs is called the synchronous reactance of
the machine. Equation (14.2) now becomes
Vt = Ef - jIa Xa Ia Ra
(14.3)
This model of the synchronous machine can be further modified to account for the
effect of magnetic saturation where the principle of superposition does not hold.
Armature resistance Ra is invariably neglected in power system studies. Therefore, in

the place of the circuit model of Fig., the simplified circuit model of Fig. will be used
throughout this book. The corresponding phasor diagram is given in Fig . The field induced
emf Ef leads the terminal voltage by the torque (load) angle . This, in fact, is the condition
for active power to flow out of the generator. The magnitude of power delivered depends
upon sin .
In the motoring operation of a synchronous machine, the current I a reverses as
shown in Fig., so that Eq. ( ) modifies to
Ef = Vt jIa Xa
Which is represented by the phasor diagram of Fig.
. It may be noted that V t now leads Ef
by . This in fact is the condition for power to flow into motor terminals.
The flow of reactive power and terminal voltage of a synchronous machine is mainly
controlled by means of its excitation. The Voltage and reactive power flow are often
automatically regulated by voltage regulators acting on the field circuits of generators and
by automatic tap changing devices on transformers.
50
Normally, a synchronous generator operates in parallel with other generators

connected to the power system. For simplicity of operation we shall consider a
generator connected to an infinite bus as shown in fig
. As infinite bus means a large
system whose voltage and frequency remain constant independent of the power exchange
between the synchronous machine and the bus, and independent of the excitation of the
synchronous machine.
Consider now a synchronous generator feeding constant active power into an infinite
bus bar. As the machine excitation is varied, armature current I a and its angle i.e. power
factor, change in such a manner as to keep
Vt Ia cos = constant = active power output
It means that since Vt is fixed, the projection I a cos of the phasor Ia on Vt remains
constant, while the excitation is varied. Phasor diagrams corresponding to high, medium and
low excitations are presented in fig . The phasor diagram of Fig corresponds to the unity
power factor case. It is obvious from the phasor diagram that for this excitation.
Ef cos = Vt
51
This is defined as normal excitation. For the overexcited case i.e. E f cos >
Vt, Ia lags behind Vt so that the generator feeds positive reactive power into
the bus (or draws negative reactive power from the bust). For the
underexcited case, i.e. Ef cos > Vt, Ia leads Vt so that the generator feeds
negative reactive power into the bust (or draws positive reactive power from
the bus).
Figure 26 Shows the overexcited and underexcited cases of

synchronous motor (connected to infinite bus) with constant power drawn
from the infinite bus. In the overexcited bus, I a leads Vt, i.e. the motor draws
negative reactive power (or supplies positive reactive power); while in the
underexcited case Ia lags Vt, i.e. the motor draws positive reactive power (or
supplies negative reactive power).
From the above discussion we can draw the general conclusion that a
synchronous machine (generating or motoring) while operating at constant
power supplies positive reactive power into the bus bar (or draws negative
reactive power from the bus bar) when overexcited. An underexcited
machine on the other hand, feeds negative reactive power into the bus bar
(or draws positive reactive power from the bus bar).
52
Consider now the power delivered by a synchronous generator to an

infinite bus. From fig. this power is
P = Vt Ia cos
The above expression can be written in a more useful form from the
phasor geometry. From fig.
Ef
= Ia Xs
0
Sin (90 + )
sin
Or
Ia cos = Ef sin
Xs
P = Ef Vt sin
Xs
The plot of P versus , shown in fig. , is called the power angle curve.
The maximum power that can be delivered occurs at = 900 and is given by
Pmax = Ef Vt
Xs
For P>Pmax or for >900 the generator falls out of step.
15. Power Factor and Power Control

While figs. and
illustrate how a
changes with excitation for fixed power
clue regarding the quantitative values
accomplished by recognizing from Eq. (
Ef sin = Ia Xs cos
= PXs
synchronous machine power factor

exchange, these do not give us a
of Ia and . this can easily be
) that
53
Vt
= Constant (for constant exchange of power to infinite bus bar)

)
Figure
shows the phasor diagram for a generator delivering constant
Power to infinite
bus but with varying excitation. As E f sin remains constant, the tip of
phasor Ef moves along a line parallel to V t as excitation is varied. The
direction of phasor Ia is always 900 lagging jIaXs and its magnitude is obtain
from (Ia Xs)/ Xs.Fig.
shows the case of limiting excitation with = 900. For
excitation lower than this value the generator becomes unstable.
Similar phasor diagrams can be drawn for synchronous motor as well for constant
input power (or constant load if copper and iron losses are neglected and mechanical loss is
combined with load).
Another important operating condition is variable power and fixed

excitation. In this case Vt and Ef are fixed, while and active power vary in
54
accordance with Eq
a
The corresponding phasor
diagram for two values of is shown in Fig. . It is seen from this diagram
that as increases, current magnitude increases and power factor improves.
In fact changes, there is no significant change in the flow of reactive
power.
16. Salient Pole Synchronous Generator

A salient pole synchronous machine, as shown in fig, is distinguished form a round
rotor machine by constructional features of field poles, which project with a large interpolar
air gap. This type of construction is commonly employed in machines coupled to
hydroelectric turbine which are inherently slow-speed ones so that the synchronous
machine has multiple pole pairs as different from machines coupled to high-speed steam
turbines (3,000/1,500 rpm) which have a two-or four-pole structure. Salient pole machine
analysis is made through the two-reaction theory outlined below.
In a round rotor machine, armature current in phase with field induced emf E f or in
quadrature (at 900) to Ef, produces the same flux linkages per ampere as the air gap is
uniform so that the armature reaction reactance offered to in-phase or quadrature current is
the same (Xa + Xt = Xs). In a salient pole machine air gap is non-uniform along rotor
periphery. It is the least along the axis of main poles (called direct axis) and is the largest
along the axis of the interpolar region (called quadrature axis). Armature current in quarter
with Ef produces flux along the direct axis reactance) to the flow of quadrature component
Id of armature current Ia. On the other hand, armature current in phase with Ef produces
flux along the quadrature axis and the reluctance of the flux path being high (because of
55
large inter polar air gap), it produces smaller flux linkages per ampere and hence the
machine presents smaller armature reaction reactance X q (quadrature axis reactance <Xd)
to the flow of inphase component Iq of armature current Ia.
Since a salient pole machine offers different reactances to the flow of I d and Iq
components of armature current Ia, a circuit model cannot be rawn. The phasor diagram of
a salient pole generator is shown in fig. . It can be easily drawn by following the steps
given below :
Draw Vt and Ia at angle

2 Draw Ia Ra. Draw CQ = j Ia Xd (to Ia)
3. Make CP = Ia Xd and draw the line OP which gives the direction of E f
phsor.
4 Draw a from Q to the extended line OP such that OA = Ef
It can be shown by the above theory that the power output of a salient
pole generator is given by
P = Vt Ef sin + Vt2 (Xd-Xq) sin 2
(
)
Xd
2XdXq
The first term is the same as for a round rotor machine with X s = Xd and constitutes the
major part in power transfer. The second term is quite small (about 10-20%) compared to
the first term and is known as reluctance power.
56
P versus is plotted in Fig.

It is noticed that the maximum power output occurs at
< 900 (about 700). Further dP (change in power per unit change in power angle for small
d
changes in power angle), called the synchronizing power coefficient, in the operating region
(<700) is larger in a salient pole machine than in a round rotor machine.
In this chapter we shall neglect the effect of saliency and take X s = Xd in all types of
power system studies considered.
During a machine transient, the direct axis reactance changes with time acquiring
the following distinct values during the complete transient.
Xd = subtransient direct axis reactance
Xd = transient direct axis reactance.
Xd = steady state direct axis reactance
17. Operating Chart of a Synchronous Generator.

While selecting a large generator, besides rated MVA and power factor, the greatest
allow stator and rotor currents must also be considered as they influence mechanical
stresses and temperature rise. Such limiting parameters in the operation are brought out by
means of an operating chart or performance chart.
For simplicity of analysis, the saturation effects, saliency, and resistance are ignored
and an unsaturated value of synchronous reactance is considered. Consider fig .
the phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor machine. The locus of constant I aXs, Ia and hence
MVA is a circle centred at M. the locus of constant E f (excitation) is also a circle centred at
O. As MP is proportional to MVA, QP is proportional to MVAR and MQ to MW, all to the same
scale which is obtained as follows.
For zero excitation, i.e. Ef = 0
-jIaXs = Vt
or
Ia = jVt/Xs
i.e. Ia = Vt/Xs leading at 900 to OM which corresponds to VARs/phase,.
57
Consider now the chart shown in Fig.

which is drawn for a synchronous machine
having Xs = 1.43 pu. For zero excitation, the current is 1.0/1.43 = 0.7 pu, so that the length
MO corresponds to reactive power of 0.7 pu, fixing both active and reactive power scales.
With center at 0 a number of semicircles are drawn with radii equal to different pu
MVA loadings. Circles of per unit excitation are drawn from center M with 1.0 pu excitation
corresponding to the fixed terminal voltage OM. Lines may also be drawn from 0
corresponding to various power factors but for clarity only 0.85 pf lagging line is shown. The
operational limits are fixed as follows.
Taking, 1.0 per unit active power as the maximum allowable power a horizontal limitline abc is drawn through b at 1.0 pu. It is assumed that the machine is rated to give 1.0
per unit active power at power factor 0.85 lagging and this fixes point c. Limitation of the
stator current to the corresponding value requires the limit-line to become a circular arc cd
about center 0. At point d the rotor heating becomes more important and the arc de is fixed
by the maximum excitation current allowable, in this case assumed to be E f = 2.40 pu (i.e.
2.4 times Vt). The remaining limit is decided by
Fig. 35
58
loss of synchronism at leading power factors. The theoretical limit is the line perpendicular
to MO at M (i.e. = 900), but in practice a safety margin is brought in to permit a further
small increase in load before instability. In fig.
, a 0.1 pu margin is employed and is
shown by the curve afg which is drawn in the following way.
Consider a point h on the theoretical limit on the E f = 1.0 pu excitations arc, the
power Mh is reduced by 0.1 pu to Mk; the operating point must, however, still be on the
same Ef arc and k is projected to f which is the required point on the desired limiting curve.
This is repeated for other excitations giving the curve afg. The complete working area,
shown shaded, is gfabcde. A working point placed within this area at once defines the MVA,
MW, MVAR, current, power factor and excitation. The load angle can be measured as
shown in the figure.
_____________________________________
59
60
8.00 TOLERANCES
(a) Concrete dimensions.
Up to
5M.
+/- 2mm
Up to
10M
+/- 10mm
More than
10M.
+/- 20mm
(b) Allocation of spring elements.
Concrete level per element length

Concrete elevation per foundation length.
+/- 2mm
+/- 1O mm
Vertical space between surfaces of contact.
+/- 3mm
(c) Anchor holts, sleeves, holes, pipes etc. if not noted otherwise horizontal distance to reference
line 5mm. tilting of anchor bolts pipes 3 mm/m.
9.00 GENERAL CONCRETE SPECIFICATIONS:
Concrete shall be provided. not less than M-35.
At Chandrapur Thermal Power, Station M-25 concrete is provided for M.D.B.F.P.
mills, T.D.B.,F.P. and I.D. fan foundations. For T.G. foundation M -40 grade is used. The cement
content used for M-40 grade is 520 Kg/cum. and for M-35 470
To assure the required quality of concrete it is necessary to carry out the mix design, in
the laboratory. It is preferable to use slow setting .cement with low heat generation. Do not use
adhesives which cause fasisei4ng and thus a higher heat generation. Fly-ash cement may also be
used if the suitability has been proved and if the concrete compressive strength is assured.
Properly cure the concrete to prevent moisture loss. Curing methods shall be consistent with the
whether conditions.
xxxxxx
61
KTC/V&B./Version1-01, Rev00, 27.04.2009
62
63
General Problems faced in Coal Handling Plant:
1. Design Problems: Cal. Value and Ash %

Coal received in power station is having cal. Value much less and ash percentage more than the rated values
recommended by manufacturer. Hence the systems in coal handling plant get overloaded resulting in low
bunkering.
2. Rainy Season Problems: Chute choke ups, Coal yard -Slurry Formation
Transfer chutes gets choked up due to wet or muddy coal. Slurry formed in coal yard may cause problems with
electro-magnetic feeders at input points, frequent choke-ups at transfer chutes etc.
3. Other Misc. Problems:
. Snapping of belts /ropes:
Conv. belts and ropeway ropes get damaged or broken because of jerks and overloading problems due to
various reasons. Repairing and replacement of these belts and ropes require more time for maint.
. Derailment of coal wagons:
De-railment of wagons result in obstacle in unloading of balance wagons in line. This results in lower
bunkering and may attract demurrage charges from railway department.
. Oversized coal/Muddy Coal.:
Oversized / muddy coal may cause damage to the belt system, frequent
choke-ups of transfer chutes and damages to the crusher rings.
------------------------- 00 --------------------------
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1.

EMERGING MARKET SCENARIO

State Generation Capacity (at the time of trifurcation in 2005)

Unscheduled Interchange (UI) = (Actual energy interchange in a 15-min. time

Changing Market Scenario in Maharashtra

Capacity Addition plan of MSPGCL.

MARKET STRUCTURE FOR INTRODUCTION OF ABT MECHANISM AT STATE

The TOAUs shall inform the MSLDC-OD regarding their contracts so as to

enable the MSLDC-OD draw the appropriate despatch schedule.

Contractual Framework for proposed Market Operation

3. Bulk Power Transmission Agreement: The Transmission Licensees

Thus, the mission statement addresses the organisations fundamental reason

3. Forecasting, Gap Analysis & Change Management

Compiled by M.G. Ganoje, Exe. Engr. KTC, Koradi

Approved by CGM (Trg.), KTC, Koradi

KTC/VT./Version1-01, Rev00, 06.05.2009

2. Thermal Power Plants of MAHAGENCO

Generation System of MAHAGENCO

From Cooling Towers

Hot Water OUT

Fig. 1(Typical Power Generation Cycle)

Steam is then passed

Fig. 2(Energy conversion taking place in the thermal power plant)

Possible generation in Million Units = Capacity in MW 24 hours.

Adequately trained and motivated personnel,

Compiled by M.G. Ganoje, Exe. Engr. KTC, Koradi

Approved by CGM (Trg.), KTC, Koradi

KTC/VT./Version1-01, Rev00, 06.05.2009

3. GENERAL WORKING AND DESCRIPTION OF

2. Bi-cable Ropeway: This is further divided in two types:

HAULAGE ROPE (25 mm)

Bi-CABLE TRAM CAR

BI-CABLE TRAM CAR

Bi-Cable Bucket Type

General Working of a Coal Handling Plant:

Equipments used in Coal Handling Plant:

In power station, following types of idlers are generally used.

Head Pulley -------------------- 5 * Belt Ply

Operating Sequence of Coal Handling Plant:

General Problems faced in Coal Handling Plant:

Compiled by M.G. Ganoje, Exe. Engr. KTC, Koradi

Approved by CGM (Trg.), KTC, Koradi

KTC/VT./Version1-01, Rev00, 06.05.2009

Generally centrifugal fans are used on modern boilers. Two performance

There are two types of fans used in draft surface.

Compiled by M.G. Ganoje, Exe. Engr. KTC, Koradi

Approved by CGM (Trg.), KTC, Koradi

KTC/VT./Version1-01, Rev00, 06.05.2009

5. Large P.F. Boilers and its auxiliaries :

Volumetric type: This feeder is also driven by a L. T. motor and with

To avoid intermixing of flue gas/F.D. air/P.A. air seal are provided

Compiled by M.G. Ganoje, Exe. Engr. KTC, Koradi

Approved by CGM (Trg.), KTC, Koradi

KTC/VT./Version1-01, Rev00, 06.05.2009

6. CONCEPT OF ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION

Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic

Where Bm = maximum flux density in Wb/m2; A = area of the coil in m2

3. Alternate Method for the Equations of Alternating Voltages and

manufactures to produce sine-wave generations or alternators, yet sine

In general, however, an alternating current or voltage is one the circuit

Sometimes, a combination of an alternating and direct current flow

of sinusoidal shape, although the values of instantaneous e.m.fs. induced would be

12. PHASE DIFFERENCE: