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Replicating and Extending Past Personality/Job Satisfaction Meta-Analyses

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Replicating and Extending Past Personality/Job

Satisfaction Meta-Analyses
Valentina Bruk-Lee, Haitham A. Khoury, Ashley E. Nixon,
Angeline Goh, and Paul E. Spector
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A meta-analysis summarizing results of 187 studies reporting cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships between job satisfaction and personality is described. The Big Five factor of Neuroticism related most strongly and negatively to job satisfaction (.25), with the other factors ranging from .16
(Conscientiousness) to .02 (Openness to Experience). Job satisfaction was positively related to internal locus of control (LOC), positive affectivity, and Type A (achievement striving). Results showed
negative relationships with external LOC, trait anger, Machiavellianism, negative affectivity/trait anxiety, and Type A (global and impatience/irritability). Job satisfaction had a very weak, negative correlation with narcissism that was indistinguishable from zero. These relationships were similar, although the effect sizes were generally not as strong, when examined in a longitudinal context. The
distinctiveness of Extraversion and positive affectivity, as well as that of global and composite measures of job satisfaction, are discussed.
Research regarding the dispositional nature of job satisfaction can be traced back at least to the
Hawthorne Studies (Roethlisberger, 1941). The basic premise of the dispositional approach is that
individuals differ in their tendencies to be satisfied or dissatisfied with work, or that job satisfaction can be trait-like (e.g., Weitz, 1952). Evidence in support of the traitlike nature of job satisfaction comes from several streams of research. First, studies have demonstrated the temporal stability and consistency of job satisfaction across different jobs and organizations (Staw & Ross,
1985). Second, longitudinal studies have shown that dispositions in school predict subsequent job
satisfaction (e.g., Spector & OConnell, 1994; Staw, Bell, & Clausen, 1986). Third, job satisfaction has been shown to correlate with specific personality measures (Connolly & Viswesvaran,
2000; Judge, Heller, & Mount, 2002). Finally, evidence from comparisons of identical twins suggests that as much as 30% of the variance in work attitudes might be due to genetic factors (Arvey,
Bouchard, Segal, & Abraham, 1989).
Individual studies, such as those just mentioned, have helped to clarify the nature of the relationship between personality and job satisfaction; however, a more precise explanation is possible
when one aggregates the results of multiple studies. Connolly and Viswesvaran (2000) meta-analyzed the results of studies on the relationship between affective disposition and general job satisfaction. The reported mean correlations of negative affectivity (NA) and positive affectivity (PA)
with job satisfaction were .33 and .49, respectively. Therefore, the results indicate that affective
dispositions explain between 10 and 25% of the variance in job satisfaction and further support the
role of personality in job attitudes.
Correspondence should be sent to Valentina Bruk-Lee, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, PCD
4118G, Tampa, FL 33620. E-mail: valentina.bruk@juno.com
PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES
157
Judge et al. (2002) further investigated the relationship between individual differences and
overall job satisfaction using the Big Five model of personality, which includes Neuroticism,
Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness (Goldberg, 1990).
Given that NA is strongly correlated with Neuroticism (Watson & Clark, 1984) and PA with
Extraversion (Watson & Clark, 1997), they posited that using the Big Five model would be inclusive of the NA/PA taxonomy while considering additional personality traits. Judge et al. concluded that the traits of Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness were the strongest correlates and predictors of job satisfaction.
Although the aforementioned meta-analyses have shown a clear relationship between personality and job satisfaction, they were limited in several ways. First, combined these meta-analyses
cover a limited number of personality variables that might be relevant to job satisfaction. Although a large number of disparate personality variables are often subsumed within the Big Five
framework, this may obscure true differences that exist between distinct personality traits that
have been studied in conjunction with job satisfaction. For example, Emotional Stability includes
traits of anger and anxiety, yet Spielberger (1996) and Spielberger, Gorsuch, Luchene, Vagg, and
Jacobs (1983) has maintained that these traits are distinct and this perspective is supported by the
differential relationship between these constructs and occupational outcomes, such at counterproductive work behavior (Fox & Spector, 1999). Thus, it is critical that the individual contributions
of personality traits are examined to ensure that combinations of these traits do not obscure useful
variance. Similarly, Judge et al. (2002) combined studies that used measures of the Big Five dimensions with studies of individual traits that they classified into the five dimensions, such as including measures of Emotional Stability with measures of Neuroticism or NA and Extraversion
measures with measures of PA. Finally, these meta-analytic studies were restricted in that only
cross-sectional relationships between the personality variables and job satisfaction were
examined.
To address these limitations, this study used meta-analysis to investigate both individual personality traits and specific measures of the Big Five in both cross-sectional and longitudinal research contexts. Individual personality variables that were included in the meta-analysis were PA,
NA, locus of control (LOC), Type A, trait anger, narcissism, and Machiavellianism. The Big Five
analyses were limited exclusively to measures designed specifically to assess these dimensions;
individual traits were not classified into the Big Five dimensions. This allowed us to compare our
findings from pure Big Five measures with Judge et al.s (2002) analyses and to verify the utility of
combining narrowly defined traits with broader personality constructs. An additional contribution
of this article is the discussion of theoretical mechanisms whereby individual difference variables
affect job satisfaction. Although previous researchers have posited different processes to explain
the relationship between specific personality traits and job satisfaction (e.g., Moyle, 1995, discussed NA), we integrated the literature into a discussion that incorporates all of the personality
variables included in this meta-analysis.
THE BIG FIVE

Conscientiousness
This Big Five factor refers to individuals who are responsible, careful, thorough, organized, reliable, hardworking, self-disciplined, punctual, scrupulous, neat, ambitious, and persevering
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BRUK-LEE ET AL.
(Barrick & Mount, 1991; Costa & McCrae, 1992). Given the tendency for conscientious employees to be involved in their work (Organ & Lingl, 1995), it is not surprising that studies report a significant positive relationship with job satisfaction (Judge et al., 2002).
Extraversion
Individuals high in Extraversion are described as assertive, ambitious, sociable, active, talkative,
person oriented, optimistic, and fun-loving (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Furthermore, they have a
higher desire for status, recognition, and material gain (Costa & McCrae, 1988) as well as a predisposition to positive affect (Watson & Clark, 1997). Overall, studies suggest a positive relationship with job satisfaction (Judge et al., 2002).
Agreeableness
Individuals high in Agreeableness are described as tolerant, trusting, flexible, forgiving, cooperative, courteous, soft-hearted, good-natured, helpful, gullible, and straightforward (Barrick &
Mount, 1991; Costa & McCrae, 1992). Judge et al. (2002) reported a positive correlation between
Agreeableness and job satisfaction.
Neuroticism
Individuals high in Neuroticism (or low in emotional stability) are described as angry, embarrassed, anxious, hostile, depressed, self-conscious, impulsive, worried, nervous, emotional, insecure, and inadequate (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Costa & McCrae, 1992; Matthews & Deary, 1998).
Results have consistently shown a negative relationship between Neuroticism and job satisfaction
(Judge et al., 2002), which is not surprising given that it is often treated as a main characteristic of
NA (see Tokar, Fischer, & Subich, 1998). However, for the purposes of this meta-analysis, studies
using measures of NA/trait anxiety were kept separate from those using measures of Neuroticism
to address whether a differential relationship between these sets of measures and job satisfaction
do, in fact, exist.
Openness
Individuals high in Openness are described as imaginative, curious, creative, and broadminded
(Barrick & Mount, 1991; Costa & McCrae, 1992). Its role in employee attitudes has received less
attention than some of the other Big Five factors. Furthermore, Judge et al. (2002) found that it did
not relate significantly to job satisfaction.
Based on previous research, the following hypotheses were proposed:
H1a: Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and Extraversion will be positively related to job
satisfaction in cross-sectional and longitudinal contexts.
H1b: Neuroticism will be negatively related to job satisfaction in cross-sectional and longitudinal contexts.
159
AFFECTIVE DISPOSITIONS
Positive Affectivity
Individuals high in PA show high energy, enthusiasm, and pleasurable engagement (Watson, Clark,
& Tellegen, 1988). They have a generalized sense of well-being and are predisposed to experience
positive emotional states (Burke, Brief, & George, 1993). Connolly and Viswesvaran (2000), as
noted earlier, found a positive relationship between PA and job satisfaction in their meta analysis.
Negative Affectivity/Trait Anxiety

Trait anxiety refers to a tendency, which is mostly limited to the psychosocial environment, to perceive situations as threatening (Spielberger, 1979). This construct was expanded by Watson and
Clark (1984) to include additional negative emotions and was labeled NA. NA is sometimes subsumed into Neuroticism, although Neuroticism is a broader construct than NA. Individuals high
on NA tend to report higher levels of negative affect and experience dissatisfaction across time and
in a variety of situations (Watson, Pennebaker & Folger, 1986). In addition, high NA individuals
tend to dwell on their failures and shortcomings, making them more likely to be dissatisfied with
themselves and their lives (Watson & Clark, 1984). Within the context of work, this suggests that
high NA employees perceive and experience the job negatively, regardless of the actual conditions
(Watson et al., 1986). This is supported by the negative relationship found between NA and job
satisfaction by Connolly and Viswesvaran (2000).
Based on prior research, the following hypotheses were proposed:
H2a: PA will be positively associated with job satisfaction in cross-sectional and longitudinal
contexts.
H2b: NA will be negatively associated with job satisfaction in cross-sectional and longitudinal contexts.
Given our supposition regarding the lack of fit between some personality traits and the Big Five
framework (e.g., PA and Extraversion), the following hypotheses were proposed:
H3a: The relationship between Extraversion and job satisfaction will be significantly different
from the relationship between PA and job satisfaction in both cross-sectional and longitudinal contexts.
H3b: The relationship between Neuroticism and job satisfaction will be significantly different
from the relationship between NA and job satisfaction in both cross-sectional and longitudinal contexts.
ADDITIONAL PERSONALITY TRAITS
Locus of Control
LOC is one the most commonly studied personality traits and its connection to work attitudes has
been noted in both narrative and quantitative reviews (e.g., Judge & Bono, 2001; Ng, Sorensen, &
Eby, 2006; Spector, 1982). LOC refers to an individuals general belief that the outcomes and rewards in his or her life are controlled either by his/her own actions and behaviors, or by external
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forces (Rotter, 1966). Individuals who believe that they control the events in their lives are labeled
internal, whereas those that believe that outcomes are outside of their control are labeled external.
LOC is not represented in the Big Five as it reflects more cognitive beliefs about the world rather
than behaviors, which are the major focus of the Big Five. Therefore, the following hypotheses
were proposed:
H4a: LOC will be significantly correlated with job satisfaction such that external LOC will be
negatively associated with job satisfaction and internal LOC will be positively associated with job satisfaction in cross-sectional and longitudinal contexts.
H4b: Work LOC will be more strongly correlated with job satisfaction than overall LOC in
cross-sectional and longitudinal contexts.
Ng et al. (2006) reported a positive mean relationship between internal LOC and overall job
satisfaction; however, their research did not differentiate between the various types of LOC. Researchers have argued that using an LOC scale specific to the work environment would result in
stronger relationships with work attitudes (Pettersen, 1985; Spector, 1988). Consequently, some
studies have used a work LOC measure that assesses an individuals general belief about their control at work. In addition, Ng et al. (2006) included culturally diverse samples, which may impact
the effect sizes reported through both cultural variations in response pattern and language equivalence issues. Cultural variations in response patterns have been identified as problematic in job
satisfaction research (Spector et al., 2002). This meta-analysis further contributes to existing research by addressing the relationship between specific types of LOC and job satisfaction as well
as maintain cultural consistency within the samples.
Type A
The Type A personality has been commonly studied in conjunction with research on cardiovascular disease (T. W. Smith, 1992). The Type A person is traditionally described as having a sense of
time urgency and as being competitive, hostile, and impatient (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974).
Two distinct and largely independent dimensions of the Type A personality have been identified,
which are impatience/irritability (II) and achievement striving (AS; Spence, Helmreich, & Pred,
1987). II refers to an individuals proneness to experience anger and frustration when having to
wait, whereas AS refers to a predisposition to work toward goal achievement. Although AS overlaps to some extent with the Big Five dimension of Conscientiousness, it is only one component of
this broader characteristic. II does not fit any of the dimensions well, as it reflects affective states
of anger that are distinct from the trait-like affective reactions associated with the Big Five dimension of Emotional Stability.
Studies using global Type A measures have resulted in inconclusive findings regarding its relationship with job satisfaction (Rose, 1998; Nelson & Cooper, 1995; Taggart & Hoyt, 1983). However, it has been suggested that using specific dimension measures may result in differential relationships with work attitudes (Bluen, Barling, & Burns, 1990; Day & Jreige, 2002). Through
meta-analysis, it is possible to draw conclusions regarding the utility of specific Type A dimensions in the study of job satisfaction. Therefore, the following hypotheses were proposed:
H5: Type A dimensions will differentially relate to job satisfaction such that II will be negatively related to job satisfaction and AS will be positively related to job satisfaction in both
cross-sectional and longitudinal contexts.
161
Trait Anger
A tendency to experience anger across various situations best describes an individual high in trait
anger. This trait is not represented in the Big Five, which limits affective reactions primarily to
anxiety (Emotional Stability). Few studies have investigated the role of trait anger in organizational research and even fewer have published their findings with regards to job satisfaction. Nevertheless, this personality variable has been shown to relate to a variety of strains (Fox & Spector,
1999), making its relationship to job satisfaction, a psychological strain, worth further investigation. The construct of trait anger is similar in nature to the Type A II dimension; however, trait anger is more broad in that it pertains to anger reactions across situations, rather than reactions to
specifically defined stressors, such as having to wait. Given that high trait anger individuals tend
to report more perceived stressors, the following hypothesis was proposed:
H6: Trait anger will be negatively correlated with job satisfaction in cross-sectional and longitudinal contexts.
Narcissism
Individuals high in narcissism typically are sensitive to criticism and have an exceptional interest
in and admiration for oneself. Narcissistic individuals are characterized as having a false sense of
power, beauty, and success, as well as displaying a grandiose sense of importance (Emmons,
1987). Low scores on measures of narcissism indicate an absence of the characteristics associated
with this construct. This trait is not represented in the Big Five. Few studies have examined the
role that narcissism plays in job satisfaction, and those that have report mixed results (Kopelman
& Mullins, 1992; Soyer, Rovenpor, & Kopelman, 1999).
Machiavellianism
Individuals high in Machiavellianism are described as manipulative, lacking concern for morality,
and deceitful (Christie & Geis, 1970). This trait is not represented in the Big Five. The few studies
that have investigated the relationship between Machiavellianism and job satisfaction have resulted in mixed findings (Gable & Topol, 1987; Heisler & Gemmill, 1977).
Due to the limited, equivocal research examining the relationships of narcissism and Machiavellianism with job satisfaction, no hypotheses were proposed as the analyses for these variables
were exploratory in nature.
METHOD
Studies
Our search returned 956 published journal articles, dissertations, and unpublished data sources
that concerned job satisfaction and personality: 657 were journal articles, 295 were dissertations,
and 4 were unpublished data sources. We screened out studies according to the criteria listed in the
Inclusion Criteria section. The meta-analysis included 187 separate studies, yielding 308 correla-
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tions based on a total population of 50,925 participants. The number of samples per variable for
the cross-sectional analyses ranged from a minimum of 3 to a maximum of 62.
Literature Search
To identify the relevant studies for this meta-analysis, we conducted an electronic search of bibliographies using the PsycINFO database (18872005) for published studies that examined the relationship between job satisfaction and personality variables. We used the following search terms:
overall job satisfaction, job satisfaction, job attitude, employee work attitude, personality, positive affectivity, positive affect, negative affectivity, negative affect, five-factor,
big five, openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness,
neuroticism, emotional stability, locus of control, work locus of control, type A personality, trait anxiety, trait anger, belief in a just world, Machiavellianism, narcissism,
psychoticism, and individualism. In addition to the keyword search, our search included the
reference lists of the Blegen (1993), Connolly and Viswesvaran (2000), and Judge et al. (2002)
meta-analyses. Further, we searched the bibliographical lists of all studies we located, including
previous meta-analyses in this area, to identify citations that were not included in the other
searches. The results of the keyword and reference/bibliographical list searches were
cross-checked with search results from the ABI/INFORM Global database and Expanded Academic ASAP. These additional database searches, however, did not yield any articles beyond those
identified by the earlier search strategies. Given that multiple search methods were used, we came
across duplicate articles by the same author using the same or overlapping datasets. If two versions of the same study reported some variables in one but not the other, both studies were used. In
the case of overlapping data sets, only one was included in our analyses and the duplicate was
discarded.
Inclusion Criteria
Our meta-analysis examined the relationship between job satisfaction and several personality
variables. The studies that were included in the meta-analysis had to have met several criteria: (a)
The study had to have specified the use of measures of job satisfaction at the individual person
level; (b) the study had to have specified the use of measures that specifically assessed a personality variable at the individual level; (c) the study must have reported a correlation or any other statistic that could be converted into a correlation coefficient; (d) the study must have been conducted
with working populations in naturally occurring job settings, thus excluding laboratory samples;
(e) to maintain language equivalence across variables, the study must have used samples limited to
Western, English-speaking countries (e.g., the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand); (f) the data must have been self-report only and not reports from other
sources; and (g) the longitudinal data must have reported the relationship between personality
variables measured at time one and job satisfaction measured at Time 2.
Variables
Job satisfaction. In the studies collected for the meta-analysis, job satisfaction had been
measured as global and/or composite (i.e., sum of facets). Global job satisfaction scales directly
163
measure an individuals overall, or general, satisfaction with his or her job. In contrast, composite
satisfaction refers to satisfaction scores that are based on scales that measure individual satisfaction facets and then combine (sum) those facets into a composite score. For example, the Job Descriptive Index by P. C. Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969) is a facet job satisfaction scale that measures five aspects of work: work itself, pay, promotion, supervisor, and peers. A composite job
satisfaction score can be calculated by adding all the individual facet scores. If the study reported
only individual facets, we did not attempt to average or combine correlations with those facets, as
the correlation with a composite score will not necessarily be equivalent to the average of individual facet correlations.
We wanted to differentiate between global and composite job satisfaction measures. However,
there were few differences between the mean correlations for both types of satisfaction measures
across corresponding personality variables. Therefore, we combined effect sizes using both global
and composite job satisfaction measures in our analyses.
The most common job satisfaction measures (both global and composite) include the following: Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1985), Job in General (Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson, &
Paul, 1989), Job Descriptive Index (P. C. Smith et al., 1969), and the Occupational Stress Indicator
(C. L. Cooper, Sloan, & Williams, 1988). The average reliability of these four job satisfaction
scales was .87.
Big Five. We included only measures that specifically assessed the Big Five factors, which
are listed along with their respective mean scale reliabilities: Openness to Experience (.73), Conscientiousness (.81), Extraversion (.75), Agreeableness (.72), and Neuroticism/Emotional Stability (.82). The five factors were most commonly assessed with the following scales: NEO Five Factor Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1992), NEO Personality InventoryRevised (Costa & McCrae,
1992), and the Eysenck Personality Inventory (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1964).
PA. PA was measured most commonly with the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et al., 1988), followed by the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (Tellegen, 1982).
The mean scale reliabilities for these two measures were .85 and .75, respectively.
NA and trait anxiety. Trait anxiety studies were subsumed under NA because of the large
overlap between the constructs. We found that the mean correlation between NA and overall job
satisfaction and trait anxiety and overall job satisfaction was the same at .25. Furthermore, the
mean correlation of composite job satisfaction with NA and trait anxiety was .20 versus .22,
respectively.
In the majority of studies, NA was measured with the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule
(Watson et al., 1988), which had a mean scale reliability of .83. Two other scales used to assess NA
were the Multidimensional Personality Index (Watson & Tellegen, 1985) and the Negative
Affectivity Scale (Stokes & Levin, 1990). The average reliability of these two scales was .81. The
most commonly used trait anxiety measure was the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger,
Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs, 1983), which had a mean scale reliability of .88.
Trait Anger. The Trait Anger scale from the State Trait Personality Inventory (Spielberger,
1979) and the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (Spielberger, 1996) were used to measure
trait anger. The average reliability of these two scales was .84.
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BRUK-LEE ET AL.
LOC. LOC was measured in five ways: (a) overall, (b) work, (c) internal, (d) chance, and (e)
powerful others. Overall LOC describes the degree of control individuals perceive over the events
in their lives, surroundings, rewards, and outcomes. In contrast, work LOC describes the degree of
control perceived by individuals within the context of the work environment. Internal LOC assesses the degree to which one believes that outcomes are influenced by ones own behavior.
Chance LOC refers to the belief that fate, luck, or chance determines ones outcomes. Powerful
others is the belief that people in authority or who otherwise have power are in control. The two
most common LOC measures used by the studies were Spectors Work LOC (Spector, 1988) and
the InternalExternal Locus of Control scale (Rotter, 1966). The mean scale reliabilities for these
two measures were .79 and .75, respectively.
Type A personality. Type A personality measures consisted of three types of scales: (a) general, (b) Type A AS, and (c) Type A II. The two most common scales used to measure Type A personality were the Framingham Type A Scale (Haynes, Feinleib, Levine, Scotch, & Kannel, 1978)
and the Jenkins Activity Survey (Jenkins, Zyzanski, & Rosenman, 1979). The mean scale
reliabilities for these two measures were .66 and .77, respectively.
Narcissism. Three of the four studies reporting correlations for narcissism used the
Margolis-Thomas Measure of Narcissism (Margolis & Thomas, 1980), which had a mean scale
reliability of .58. The fourth study used the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (Raskin & Hall,
1979).
Machiavellianism. Machiavellianism was assessed with the Mach IV and the Mach V Attitude Inventory (Christie & Geis, 1970). The scale most commonly used in the studies was the
Mach IV, which had a mean scale reliability of .71.
Study and Sample Characteristics for Variables With Few Studies
Analyses for the variables of LOC (powerful others and chance), Type A (II and AS), trait anger,
and narcissism had a small number of studies included (i.e., K = 3 or 4). We present some of the
study and sample characteristics for these six variables in order to facilitate interpretation and
generalizability of the results. All of the studies used for these analyses were published in refereed
journals. The samples for these studies were employed full-time and consisted equally of women
and men, and the average age of participants ranged from 35 to 41 years. The response rates for the
studies ranged from 39% to 58%. The mean tenure for the studies was available for only three of
the variables: LOC powerful others (11 years), LOC chance (11 years), and Type A II (10 years).
Statistical Methods
For our analyses, we used the method outlined by Rosenthal (1991). Accordingly, we chose the
correlation coefficient as our indicator of effect size. Descriptive statistics (mean, weighted mean,
standard deviation of the observed correlations, ranges, and confidence intervals) are shown in our
tables only for cases where we had a minimum of at least three samples.
The coding process first included identifying the relevant correlation(s) that met our inclusion
criteria and would serve as the effect size, and the sample size for that study. Correlations were not
reported for samples that were not independent, which addresses the threat to validity posed by de-
165
pendent effect sizes. Finally, some studies reported a range for the sample size in the correlation
matrix. In these cases, a conservative approach was employed and the smaller sample size was
utilized.
When computing confidence intervals, P. M. Lee (1989) recommended using the square root of
the reciprocal of the total sample size across the studies included as the standard deviation for each
variable combination. Following, we calculated a 95% confidence interval by multiplying the
standard deviation by 1.96 and then adding and subtracting the result from the mean correlation.
Rosenthals approach to meta-analysis is similar to the more frequently used approach proposed
by Hunter and Schmidt (1990) in that both methods compute the same descriptive statistics on the
sample of correlations. The difference is that Hunter and Schmidt further estimate how much observed variance in correlations can be attributed to artifacts such as sampling error or unreliability
of measures by applying adjustment formulas. Further, these formulas are used to get an estimate
of the underlying theoretical population parameters by allowing for the adjustment of the observed mean correlations. Critics of this method (e.g., James, Demaree, & Mulaik, 1986;
Rosenthal, 1991; Spector & Levine, 1987) have noted that these adjustments can be problematic
and inaccurate, particularly when analyzing a small number of studies per variable, as is the case
with this meta-analysis. Consequently, we decided to follow Rosenthals approach and be conservative in not carrying out the statistical adjustments.
RESULTS
Job Satisfaction and the Big Five
The relationships between job satisfaction and the Big Five factors are presented in Table 1. H1a
and H1b were supported. Conscientiousness, Extraversion, and Agreeableness were positively associated with job satisfaction, whereas Neuroticism was negatively related to job satisfaction.
With the exception of Openness to Experience, the confidence intervals for all the factors excluded zero. Neuroticism (M r = .25) and Conscientiousness (M r = .16) were most strongly assoTABLE 1
Meta-Analysis of the Relationship of Job Satisfaction With
the Big Five Factors and Negative Affectivity/Trait Anxiety
Personality
Variable
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Openness
NA/Trait anxiety
PA
Prior
M
SD
Range
Median
Weighted
M
Confidence
Interval
.16
.12
.13
.25
.02
.25
.41
.20a
.19a
.13a
.24a
.01a
.33b
.49b
.13
.14
.10
.10
.09
.18
.15
.01/.46
.28/.33
.01/.32
.52/.03
.20/.05
.67/.39
.17/.68
.14
.15
.12
.22
.01
.26
.39
16
25
10
24
8
46
30
7,630
9,003
4,800
9,183
4,311
12,834
6,595
.07
.14
.09
.25
.02
.30
.40
.14/.18
.10/.14
.10/.15
.27/.23
.05/.01
.27/.23
.38/.43
Note. NA = negative affectivity; PA = positive affectivity; K = number of samples/correlations; N = combined sample

size.
aMean uncorrected correlations reported in Judge et al. (2002). bMean uncorrected correlations reported in Connolly
and Viswesvaran (2000).
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BRUK-LEE ET AL.
ciated with job satisfaction. On the whole, the pattern of relationships between the Big Five factors
and job satisfaction mirrored those found by Judge et al. (2002), as seen when comparing our
mean correlations in column 2 with Judge et al.s prior means in column 3 of Table 1. The biggest
discrepancy was for Extraversion; our mean correlation was .12, whereas it was .19 for Judge et al.
Job Satisfaction and Affective Dispositions

Table 1 also shows the relationships of NA and PA with job satisfaction. The moderate, negative
mean correlation for NA (M r = .25) included studies that used trait anxiety as an indicator of NA.
PA had a strong, positive relationship with job satisfaction (M r = .41). This suggests that PA may
have more of an influence on job satisfaction than NA, because of the significant difference between these correlations, as indicated by the exclusive confidence intervals (see Table 1). The confidence intervals for PA and NA did not include zero, providing support for H2a and H2b, respectively. These effect sizes are similar to but somewhat smaller in magnitude than those found by
Connolly and Viswesvaran (2000). They found mean correlations of .33 and .49 for NA and PA,
respectively, although we had quite a few more studies.
When comparing the mean correlations of affective dispositions and the Big Five with job satisfaction, PA (M r = .41) and Extraversion (M r = .12) were found to have significantly different effect sizes (z = 19.43, p < .001). Thus, H3a was supported. In contrast, there was no difference in
mean correlations for NA (M r = .25) and Neuroticism (M r = .25). Therefore, H3b was not
supported.
Job Satisfaction and LOC
As seen in Table 2, the mean correlation between overall LOC and job satisfaction was .12, with
the correlations ranging from .55 to .45 across 62 studies. It is worth noting that some of these
studies may have reversed scored the LOC scale while failing to report doing so. Although the
TABLE 2
Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Personality Traits
Personality
Variable
LOC
Overall
Work
Internal
Powerful others
Chance
Type A
Achievement striving
Impatience/Irritability
Trait anger
Narcissism
Machiavellianism
Note.
SD
Range
Median
Weighted
M
Confidence
Interval
.12
.34
.23
.19
.38
.09
.28
.15
.23
.07
.19
.23
.29
.25
.44
.22
.13
.24
.09
.03
.24
.25
.55/.45
.71/.45
.19/.53
.73/.33
.62/.20
.35/.08
.13/.56
.24/.07
.26/.21
.27/.22
.47/.31
.19
.42
.33
.17
.33
.06
.16
.15
.23
.12
.24
62
28
13
4
3
18
3
3
4
4
7
13,073
5,046
3,020
302
180
6,083
732
732
900
789
1,241
.13
.37
.16
.03
.32
.05
.20
.20
.24
.14
.26
.18/.08
.37/.31
.20/.27
.30/.07
.53/.24
.11/.06
.21/.36
.23/.08
.30/.17
.14/.00
.25/.14
LOC = locus of control; K = number of samples/correlations; N = combined sample size.
167
confidence interval for overall LOC did not include zero, it was based on a sample size of more
than 13,000, making almost any correlation significant. As explained earlier, LOC was coded into
the four specific types of internal, work, powerful others, and chance LOC. Internal LOC was positively associated with job satisfaction (M r = .23), high scores on this scale indicate internality. In
contrast, work, powerful others, and chance LOC all had a negative relationship with job satisfaction (M r = .34, .19, and .38, respectively). Given that low scores on these scales represent an
internal LOC, the negative mean correlations support the notion that higher levels of satisfaction
are associated with internality. The confidence intervals for all types of LOC excluded zero, providing support for H4a. H4b also was supported. The mean correlation for work LOC was greater
in magnitude that the one for overall LOC (z = 14.09, p < .001).
Job Satisfaction and Type A
Studies were coded depending on whether they reported an effect size for global Type A, AS, or II
(see Table 2). Although the association between global Type A and job satisfaction was small (M r
= .09), more robust relations were found for AS and II (M r = .28 and .15, respectively). The
confidence intervals for all three measures did not include zero. Therefore, H5 was supported. AS
was positively related to job satisfaction, whereas II was negatively associated with job satisfaction. The relationship between global Type A and job satisfaction should be interpreted with caution because the large sample size for global Type A allowed a very small correlation to be
significant.
Job Satisfaction, Trait Anger, Narcissism, and Machiavellianism
As seen in Table 2, trait anger had a moderate, negative relationship with job satisfaction (M r =
.23), which was significantly different from zero. Thus, H6 was supported. Narcissism and
Machiavellianism had negative mean correlations with job satisfaction (M r = .07 and .19, respectively). The confidence interval for narcissism included zero, whereas the one for
Machiavellianism excluded zero.
Longitudinal Relationships Between Job Satisfaction
and Personality Traits
The Big Five. Longitudinal relationships between overall job satisfaction and the Big Five
personality factors are presented in Table 3. With the exception of Openness to Experience, all of
the Big Five personality variables have been examined in relation to job satisfaction in a longitudinal context. Over a 1-year period, Conscientiousness had a moderate, positive relationship with
job satisfaction (M r = .15), which was significantly different from zero. Agreeableness was examined in only one longitudinal study. It had a moderate, positive association with job satisfaction (r
= .11) 1 year later. The confidence interval for Agreeableness excluded zero. Extraversion had a
moderate, positive relationship with job satisfaction (M r = .13) over periods of 6 weeks to 7 years.
The confidence interval for Extraversion did not include zero. These findings support H1a. The
longitudinal relationship between Neuroticism and job satisfaction was moderate, negative (M r =
.17), and significantly different from zero, providing support for H1b. This effect size is signifi-
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TABLE 3
Meta-Analysis of the Longitudinal Relationship between Job Satisfaction
Personality
Variable
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
NA/Trait anxiety
PA
LOC
Overall
Work
Type A
Achievement striving
Impatience/Irritability
SD
Range
Median
Weighted
M
Confidence
Interval
.15
.13
.11
.17
.18
.31
.09
.07
.07
.10
.09
.08/.21
.08/.18
.26/.09
.26/.01
.24/.37
.15
.13
.20
.20
.31
2
2
1
6
6
2
702
326
603
1,799
905
115
.19
.13
.11
.19
.21
.28
.07/.22
.02/.24
.03/.19
.22/.13
.24/.11
.12/.49
.22
.33
.01
.16
.15
.19
.10
.12
.45/.00
.44/.27
.15/.08
.14
.27
.04
5
3
3
1
1
3,780
322
814
109
109
.06
.33
.05
.16
.15
.25/.18
.44/.22
.08/.06
.03/.35
.34/.04
cantly different from the cross-sectional effect size (r = .25), as the confidence intervals are
exclusive.
Affective dispositions. The relationship between NA/trait anxiety and job satisfaction has
been investigated in multiple longitudinal studies. NA/trait anxiety had a moderate, negative association with job satisfaction (M r = .18) over periods of 2 weeks to 7 years. PA was examined in
two longitudinal studies. It had a moderate to strong and positive relationship with job satisfaction
(M r = .31) over time lags of up to 3 years; although this effect size is excluded from the cross-sectional confidence interval (95% = .38, .43). The confidence intervals for NA and PA excluded zero
(see Table 3). These results support H2a and H2b.
Similar to the cross-sectional analyses, when comparing the mean correlations of the Big Five
and affective dispositions with job satisfaction, PA (M r = .31) and Extraversion (M r = .13) were
found to have significantly different effect sizes (z = 1.73, p = .04). Thus, H3a was again supported
by these data. There was not a significant difference in mean correlations for NA (M r = .18) and
Neuroticism (M r = .17). Therefore, H3b was not supported.
Additional personality traits. The longitudinal relationships of overall LOC and work LOC
with job satisfaction were moderate to strong and negative (M r = .22 and r = .33, respectively).
The confidence intervals for both did not include zero (see Table 3). Given that low scores on the
overall and work LOC scales represent internality, these results provide longitudinal support for
the notion internals tend to have higher levels of satisfaction. Furthermore, these longitudinal findings are consistent with previous research that has shown work LOC scales tend to have stronger
relationships with work outcomes than overall LOC measures (Spector, 1988). Thus, both H4a
and H4b are supported by this longitudinal analysis. Finally, the longitudinal relationship between
overall LOC and job satisfaction was not significantly different from the cross-sectional relationship, although the confidence intervals are almost exclusive (see Tables 2 and 3). This difference
may be because of the small number of studies included in the longitudinal analysis (K = 5).
169
Over 6 weeks to 1-year intervals, global Type A personality had a small, negative relationship
with job satisfaction (M r = .01), which was not significantly different from zero (see Table 3).
Only one study examined the relationships of the Type A II and AS dimensions with job satisfaction over time. After 1 year, job satisfaction was negatively associated with II (r = .15), whereas it
was positively related to AS (r = .16). The confidence intervals for II and AS included zero. Consequently, H5 is supported in the longitudinal context; however, more research in this area is
needed.
We were not able to identify any longitudinal studies examining the relationships of trait anger,
narcissism, or Machiavellianism with job satisfaction. The relationship between these variables
and job satisfaction over time is currently unknown.
DISCUSSION
The goal of this meta-analysis was to investigate the relationship between personality and employee job satisfaction in both longitudinal and cross-sectional contexts. Although previous
meta-analyses have investigated the role that NA/PA and the Big Five play in job satisfaction
(Connolly & Viswesvaran, 2000; Judge et al., 2002), we investigated a wider range of variables
and considered the Big Five factors and individual personality traits separately. It was necessary to
keep personality variables distinct despite overlapping construct definitions to assess whether
they, in fact, had differential relationships with job satisfaction. Furthermore, the current
meta-analysis included personality traits that, although are important in understanding job satisfaction, have not been previously aggregated in meta-analyses.
Global and Composite Job Satisfaction
Measures of job satisfaction can be generally grouped into two types: composite or global scales.
Composite scales measure various facets of job satisfaction, which are summed to obtain an overall job satisfaction score. Global scales ask employees to make overall assessments of their job
satisfaction. Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson, and Paul (1989) argued that one should not assume that the sum of facets is equivalent to an overall job satisfaction assessment because composite scales may not include all of the relevant facets for some jobs, the frame of reference may
differ when answering global versus facet measures, and a linear sum of the facets may not adequately capture individual patterns. However, our findings indicated that the relationships between personality and both types of job satisfaction measures were very similar, therefore addressing some of the concerns raised by previous research. Although it may be the case that
composite measures are not equivalent to global measures of job satisfaction in relation to other
variables, our findings with personality fail to support this notion.
Mechanisms for Understanding the Personality/
Job Satisfaction Relationship
The results of this meta-analysis indicate that a variety of personality variables beyond the widely
studied Big Five and NA/PA are significantly related to job satisfaction. In addressing these results, it is important to discuss possible mechanisms by which sets of variables are related. The
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purpose in doing this is to provide possible explanations for such relationships, which may in turn
stimulate future research to test such mechanisms. Although the means by which personality affects job attitudes have received attention in other domains (see Moyle, 1995; Spector, Zapf,
Chen, & Frese, 2000), this article attempts to integrate potential processes across various personality variables. These processes can be classified into nine different theoretical mechanisms,
which are not necessarily mutually exclusive, or nonoverlapping. These mechanisms are presented in Table 4.
TABLE 4
Mechanisms for Understanding the Personality/Job Satisfaction Relationship
Mechanism
General tendency to be Satisfied/
Dissatisfied
Selection
Threshold for negative emotion/

Hyper-reactivity
Performance as a mediator
Dissatisfaction/Stressor creation
Attrition/Change
Third variables
Perception/Appraisal
Cognitive consistency
Description
Satisfaction may act like a trait, although it might be associated with other
personality traits, most notably positive affectivity or negative affectivity.
According to this mechanism, satisfaction would not be mediated by
situational factors associated with personality.
Personality may relate to the objective features of jobs through selection,
including both self-selection and organizational selection. Hence,
individuals with certain personality characteristics may be selected into
better jobs with more opportunities for job satisfaction.
Individuals with certain personality characteristics may be hyper-reactive to
work conditions or events that lead to negative or positive emotions, which
in turn can affect job attitudes. This mechanism assumes that chronic
exposure to emotion can affect attitudes, which has been supported by
research (e.g., Van Katwyk, Fox, Spector, & Kelloway, 2000).
Lawler and Porter (1967) proposed that performance leads to satisfaction
through the allocation of rewards. Research has shown that certain
personality variables relate to performance (see a review by Hough & Ones,
2001), which might affect job satisfaction.
Individuals with certain personality characteristics might create dissatisfying
conditions for themselves (Depue & Monroe, 1986; Dohrenwend,
Dohrenwend, Dodson, & Shrout, 1984). For example, research has shown
that people have negative responses to individuals who appear depressed
(Sacco, Dumont, & Dow, 1993). Therefore, the social environment at work
might be less supportive, thus mediating the relationship between
personality and job satisfaction.
Individuals with certain personality characteristics are more or less likely to
quit or leave dissatisfying situations. For example, an individual high in NA
might find the prospect of leaving a dissatisfying job to be anxiety
provoking, and so he or she might remain on the job. As a result, there
would be a disproportionate representation of certain personalities in
dissatisfying jobs, which would produce a correlation with job satisfaction.
The correlation between job satisfaction and a personality trait might be
spurious due to third variables that relate to both. These could include
individual differences, mood, or situational variables.
People with certain personality characteristics have a tendency to perceive the
job differently from others, thus resulting in higher/lower levels of
satisfaction.
Some individuals are more likely to re-evaluate their situation in a favorable
light in order to make sense of their behavior or to be consistent with their
personality type, thus reporting higher levels of job satisfaction.
171
Each of these mechanisms is relevant to a subset of individual personality traits. Research support can be found for some mechanismtrait combinations, but some combinations have not been
tested and remain theoretical in nature. Whenever available, empirical evidence that supports
these mechanisms was presented. An overview of the proposed relationships between personality
variables and mechanisms for understanding the personality/job satisfaction relationship can be
seen in Table 5. Next are the nine mechanisms that are used to further discuss the results and a
brief description of each.
The Big Five

Our findings were reasonably consistent with Judge et al.s (2002) meta-analytic results concerning
the Big Five, with the largest difference being for Extraversion. As stated in the results, Conscientiousness was one of the strongest Big Five correlates of job satisfaction. The positive association between Conscientiousness and job satisfaction may be explained through performance as a mediator.
For instance, Conscientiousness has been associated with high job performance (Barrick & Mount,
1991) and was reported to be the best predictor of job performance in a meta-analysis of European
data (Salgado, 1997). To the extent that performance leads to rewards, the conscientious employee
may, consequently, feel satisfied with his or her job. An alternative process may have to do with cognitive consistency theory (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1977, 1978). Employees look at their behavior retrospectively and form attitudes (i.e., job satisfaction) to make sense of their actions. A conscientious
employee who puts a great deal of effort and time into the job might evaluate his or her job as satisfying to rationalize his or her conscientious work behavior.
Our results also support the notion that extraverted employees report higher levels of job satisfaction. The supposition that productivity causes satisfaction may help explain this relationship
(Lawler & Porter, 1967) given that Extraversion has been shown to be positively related to job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991), higher salaries, and more promotions (Seibert & Kraimer,
2001). The more extraverted employee also may report higher levels of job satisfaction because of
the traits association with positive moods, thus supporting a mechanism driven by third variables.
Some evidence to support this process can be found in research that demonstrated extraverts experience more pleasant moods than others (Matthews, Jones, & Chamberlain, 1990).
We found a smaller positive correlation between Extraversion and job satisfaction than did
Judge et al. (2002). This may be accounted for by the decision to treat PA separately. In fact, there
was a large, significant difference in mean correlation magnitude between measures of Extraversion and PA (.12 vs. .41, respectively). Had we combined these constructs, the mean correlation would have been in the high .20s. We recommend that Extraversion and PA be analyzed separately, not combined, in future research and meta-analyses.
Although we used only measures that specifically assessed Agreeableness, we found a positive
mean correlation identical to that of Judge et al. (2002). There is not enough research to assert possible mechanisms by which Agreeableness relates to job satisfaction. Nevertheless, it seems plausible that these individuals simply have a tendency to view situations in a more favorable light,
which then causes them to be more satisfied with their jobs. Alternately, agreeable individuals
might get along better with others, including coworkers and supervisors, and their experiences at
work are more favorable than those of disagreeable individuals, leading to higher job satisfaction.
This suggests that Agreeableness would relate more strongly to interpersonal facets of job satisfaction than other facets.
172
X
X
General
Tendency
X
X
Selection
X
X
Threshold/
Hyper-reactivity
X
X
X
X
Performance
as Mediator
X
X
Stressor
Creation
X
X
Attrition
X
X
X
Third
Variables
X
X
X
Perception/
Appraisal
Cognitive
Consistency
Note. PA = positive affectivity; NA = negative affectivity; LOC = locus of control.

aNarcissism and Openness were not included given their nonsignificant relationships with job satisfaction. bThere was not enough empirical support for any of the possible mechanisms.
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeablenessb
Neuroticism
PA
NA/Trait anxiety
LOC
Type A
Trait angerb
Machiavellianism
Personality
Variablea
Mechanism
TABLE 5
Proposed Relationships Between Personality Variables and Mechanisms for Understanding
the Personality/Job Satisfaction Relationship
173
The finding that individuals high in Neuroticism report lower job satisfaction is consistent with
previous meta-analytic findings (Judge et al., 2002). Barrick and Mount (1991) reported a negative correlation between Neuroticism and job performance, thus it is possible that one process that
explains its relationship to job satisfaction is that of performance as a mediator. It also has been
suggested that individuals high on Neuroticism have a tendency to select themselves into situations that promote negative emotions (Diener, Larsen, & Emmons, 1984; Larsen, Diener, &
Emmons, 1985), which may be taken as support for the selection mechanism. Further, given their
focus on negative stimuli, individuals high in Neuroticism tend to be hyper-reactive to negative
events (Rusting & Larsen, 1998) and allow their negative moods to affect their level of job satisfaction (Ilies & Judge, 2002). Relevant processes for Neuroticism are discussed further in the next
section on affective dispositions.
Finally, a very weak, negative correlation was found between Openness to Experience and job
satisfaction. This relationship was indistinguishable from zero. These results are not surprising
given that half of the effect sizes were not significantly different from zero. Furthermore, this is
consistent with Judge et al. (2002), who also reported a mean correlation close to zero. Although
there is no apparent bivariate relationship between Openness and job satisfaction, it still might be
relevant. Openness to Experience might play a role in personjob fit, in that jobs that allow new
experiences would be more satisfying for individuals high in openness than for those low in Openness. Even further, an individual might differ in the aspects of life where she or he is open to experiences (e.g., aesthetics), so that the particular type of experience would need to match the persons preference for Openness in order to result in job satisfaction.
Affective Dispositions
Our findings were consistent with those of Connolly and Viswesvaran (2000) in showing that individuals high in PA are more satisfied with their jobs, whereas those high in NA/trait anxiety are
less satisfied. Although a strong, positive mean correlation was found between PA and job satisfaction, there is little empirical research on the processes by which they may be related. Nevertheless, consistent with the perception/appraisal process described earlier, it has been suggested that
individuals high in PA are more sensitive to pleasurable stimuli, which causes them to be more satisfied (Tellegen, 1985). Whatever the mechanism that drives the relationship is, it is important to
note that the mean effect size for PA was much larger than that of Extraversion.
A number of processes explaining the effect of NA/trait anxiety on job satisfaction have been
supported, including emotion-threshold, perception/appraisal, selection, and stressor creation
(e.g., Moyle, 1995; Spector, Zapf, Chen, & Frese, 2000). For example, individuals high in NA frequently experience feelings of anger, frustration, irritability, hostility, and/or dissatisfaction, theoretically, in the absence of obvious stressors (Clark & Watson, 1991). According to the perception/
appraisal process, high NA individuals have a greater tendency to see the world as threatening and
stressful (i.e., perceived stressors), which would result in higher levels of strain, such as job dissatisfaction. For example, Moyle hypothesized that those who are high in NA tend to perceive their
job situation as being negative, which leads them to experience job dissatisfaction. It is also posited that high NA individuals are hyper-responsive to the environment. They do not necessarily
perceive stressors differently than a low NA person; rather, they have an exaggerated strain response to stressors.
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BRUK-LEE ET AL.
Further, Schaubroeck, Ganster, and Kemmerer (1994) suggested that individuals low in NA
make better job choices and have higher levels of job satisfaction because they are in better jobs.
Low NA individuals have been shown to be more successful in employment interviews (K. W.
Cook, Vance, & Spector, 2000), thus providing additional support for the selection leads to satisfaction mechanism. There is also evidence that individuals high in NA tend to be in jobs with objectively less desirable characteristics (Spector, Fox, & Van Katwyk, 1999; Spector, Jex, & Chen,
1995).
It is also possible that the relationship between NA and job satisfaction is explained by the
stressor creation mechanism. For example, high NA individuals may get into conflicts with others
more often, do a worse job of managing their workflow, or perform worse on the job than those
low in NA, which in turn would lead to lower satisfaction. Judge (1993) provided evidence for the
attrition mechanism in showing that NA moderated the relation between job satisfaction and turnover, such that individuals high in NA do not quit when they are dissatisfied but those low in NA
do. This might result in lower job satisfaction for high NA employees because dissatisfied low NA
individuals have quit and are not found in the sample (at least in as large numbers). It is possible
that the relationship between job satisfaction and NA is simply driven by third variables. For example, a persons mood might affect their reports of both job satisfaction and NA, such that those
in better moods will report higher satisfaction and lower NA than those in worse moods (Spector,
Chen, & OConnell, 2000).
As stated earlier, NA and trait anxiety were combined after initial analyses confirmed that the
two had the same negative mean correlation with job satisfaction and almost identical standard deviations and confidence intervals. Similarly, it is worth noting that the mean effect size for
Neuroticism was identical to that of NA/trait anxiety. Although we kept these results distinct to
address both the Big Five and NA/PA typologies, the findings suggest that measures of
Neuroticism, NA, and trait anxiety may be combined into one. In fact, a reanalysis of the data including effect sizes for the three traits revealed that the mean Pearson productmoment correlation and confidence intervals were essentially identical to the results displayed in Table 1 for NA/
trait anxiety.
LOC
As posited in the literature, a stronger mean correlation was found for work LOC than an overall
LOC measure. This finding suggests that context specific measures of LOC should be used in organizational research over more general measures and that it is essential to distinguish between
these in further meta-analytic studies. As posited, employees with an external LOC reported being
less satisfied with their jobs, whereas those who are internals were more satisfied. Several processes may account for internals higher level of job satisfaction. The fourth mechanism relates to
the position that performance leads to satisfaction through the allocation of rewards (Lawler &
Porter, 1967). Therefore, to the extent that internals perform better and that rewards follow performance, it could be expected that internals will be more satisfied. A number of studies have shown
that employees with an internal LOC perform better than externals in jobs requiring autonomy,
initiative, and responsibility (Rizzo, House, & Lirtzman, 1970; Spector, 1986). Furthermore, Kren
(1992) showed that LOC moderated the relationship between performance-contingent rewards
and performance, such that internals performed better than externals when incentives were pres-
175
ent. In a study with self-managing teams, Garson and Stanwyck (1997) found that groups of internals that expected performance-contingent rewards reported higher levels of supervisor satisfaction. In addition to finding a positive relationship between contingent rewards and satisfaction,
Gupta (1980) also found that internals reported a higher degree of certainty that rewards would result from their performance than did externals.
A second process that explains why internals would be more satisfied with their jobs than externals refers to selection. Specifically, it may be that internals are selected into better jobs and,
hence, experience more satisfaction. Two studies by K. W. Cook et al. (2000) regarding the impact
of personality on the interview process showed that internals performed better and were more
successful.
Attrition is another mechanism by which the expected relationship may be explained, particularly pertaining to the inclination of internals to take action in situations that require change. J. H.
Harvey, Barnes, Sperry, and Harris (1974) showed that internals perceived more alternatives than
did externals in situations where a choice had to be made. Furthermore, Spector (1982) suggested
that internals are more likely to leave a dissatisfying situation because of their perceived level of
control. In fact, internals who choose not to take action in an unfavorable job situation will experience cognitive pressure to reevaluate the situation in a more favorable light, supporting cognitive
consistency theory.
The relationship between LOC and job satisfaction may be linked to job characteristics or
third variables. Job characteristics theory posits five job dimensions that impact job satisfaction
(Hackman & Oldham, 1975). Kimmons and Greenhaus (1976) reported that internals tend to
perceive greater autonomy and feedback and are more satisfied with their jobs than externals.
Knoop (1981) also reported that internals perceived their jobs as being more enriched and
having more motivating potential than did externals, both of which have been linked to job
satisfaction.
The stressor creation mechanism may also explain the relationship between LOC and job satisfaction. For example, externals are more likely to respond to a perceived job stressor with counterproductive work behavior (Storms & Spector, 1987), potentially causing more stressors for
themselves.
Type A and Its Dimensions
This meta-analysis supports the notion that there is a differential relationship between specific dimensions of Type A personality and job satisfaction, which helps to clarify the mixed conclusions
reached in studies of global Type A personality and job satisfaction (Chusmir & Hood, 1988; Frost
& Wilson, 1983; Matteson, Ivancevick, & Smith, 1984; Moyle & Parkes, 1999). This is an important finding given that, to our knowledge, there has been no previous meta-analytic work that has
investigated this distinction. Although the relationship with job satisfaction was fairly small and
negative for measures of global Type A, analyses of the two Type A dimensions revealed that the
AS dimension is beneficial to the experience of job satisfaction, whereas II is detrimental. These
associations may be explained by several mechanisms.
First, it may be that the relationship between global Type A and job satisfaction is explained by
third variables. Specifically, C. Lee, Ashford, and Bobko (1990) explained that the relationship
between Type A and job satisfaction depends, in part, on the level of perceived control reported by
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employees. They concluded that under high level of perceived control, Type A was positively associated with job satisfaction, whereas the opposite was true under low levels of perceived control.
In addition, it may be that Type A individuals are more hyper-reactive to job conditions that
may lead to (dis)satisfaction, such as job stressors, hence making Type A personality itself a potential moderator. In the case of II, Jex, Adams, Elacqua, and Bachrach (2002) concluded that individuals higher in the trait were less satisfied when jobs were more mentally demanding. The researchers also found that AS moderated the stressorjob satisfaction relationship such that
individuals high in AS were more satisfied than those low in AS under conditions of high role
overload. Day and Jreige (2002) also reported that high AS individuals were more satisfied than
low AS ones under conditions of low job control, providing support for the moderating role of
Type A and the hyper-reactivity mechanism.
The impact of AS on job satisfaction may also be explained through performance as a mediator.
Researchers have shown that AS is positively related to performance (Barling & Charbonneau,
1992; Helmreich, Spence, & Pred, 1988). To the extent that better performance leads to rewards,
individuals high in AS would experience more job satisfaction.
Trait Anger, Narcissism, and Machiavellianism

The negative mean relationship between trait anger and job satisfaction is consistent with occupational stress research showing that individuals high in this trait are likely to experience more
stressors and strains. Although there are too few studies to provide empirical evidence for any of
the processes through which trait anger may influence satisfaction, some theoretical suggestions
have been made by Spector (2003). For example, it is possible that individuals high in trait anger
create an environment that is more stressful and, consequently, less satisfying. Another process
may be that of perception/appraisal. Specifically, it is possible that high trait anger people perceive
their work environment as being threatening and less satisfying. Last, individuals high in trait anger are more hyper-reactive than those low in the trait. Therefore, they experience feelings of anger more readily and, consequently, less satisfaction.
Given the inconsistent findings regarding narcissism and job satisfaction, it is not surprising
that the resulting mean correlation was weak and indistinguishable from zero. The nonsignificant
findings may be due to the complexity of the construct itself. For example, it could be that some
narcissists inflate their sense of accomplishment and, thus, report being more satisfied. At the
same time, narcissists also have been described as suffering from feelings of inferiority, which
may result in dissatisfaction. Consequently, the relationship between this trait and job satisfaction
may cancel out.
More interesting, though, was the relationship between Machiavellianism and job satisfaction.
Although the findings suggest that employees who are more Machiavellian are less satisfied with
their jobs, little is known as to why this relationship exists. Gemmill and Heisler (1972b) reported
a nonsignificant relationship between Machiavellianism and job satisfaction once the effects of
additional variables were partialled out. This suggests that the process by which Machiavellianism
impacts job satisfaction is through third variables. However, Topol and Gable (1988) suggested
that individuals low in Machiavellianism simply tend to be more satisfied than those high in the
trait, which supports the general tendency mechanism.
177
Longitudinal Relationships Between Job Satisfaction

The longitudinal relationships of the Big Five factors (Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism), affective dispositions (PA and NA/trait anxiety), LOC (overall and
work), and Type A (global, AS, and II) with job satisfaction were also meta-analyzed. Although
slightly smaller, the longitudinal effect sizes for the Big Five factors of Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, and Agreeableness were similar in magnitude to the cross-sectional ones, even with
time lags that varied from 6 weeks to 7 years. There was a more substantial difference in effect size
for Neuroticism, NA/trait anxiety, and PA over periods that varied from 2 weeks to 7 years. That
these personality variables had smaller longitudinal than cross-sectional mean correlations was
expected, given that Neuroticism, NA, and PA all reflect a tendency to experience a multitude of
(negative or positive) emotional states, which are transitory in nature and less stable.
Longitudinal studies using a work LOC measure had a mean correlation that was similar to, yet
slightly smaller than, the cross-sectional one. However, the longitudinal mean correlation for
overall LOC (M r = .22) was substantially stronger than the cross-sectional (M r = .12 ) one.
This was probably because the effect size for the individual overall LOC studies in this analysis
ranged from .45 to .00. Moreover, this finding lends support to the proposition that coding errors
by the original authors may have affected the meta-analytical, cross-sectional relationship between these variables.
The longitudinal effect size for global Type A (M r = .01) was smaller than the cross-sectional
one (M r = .09) and was indistinguishable from zero. This indicates that the relationship between
global Type A personality and job satisfaction may not remain stable over time. This finding
should be replicated in the future, as there were a small number of studies included in this analysis
(K = 3).
Overall, with the exception of global Type A, the relationships found between job satisfaction
and personality with longitudinal studies were consistent with those found with cross-sectional
ones. It should be noted that the longitudinal analyses were based on a small number of studies
(i.e., K = 26). Therefore, longitudinal findings should be examined with caution and further
tested with future research.
Limitations
Although we attempted to include as many effect sizes as possible given our inclusion criteria, a
few of our findings are based on a small number of studies and, therefore, require more careful
consideration. It has been noted that the measurement of some personality traits, such as NA, trait
anxiety, and Neuroticism, suffers from restriction of range (Brief, Burke, George, Robinson, &
Webster, 1988). Consequently, this might have led to attenuated correlations with job satisfaction
in the study presented here. Furthermore, it was not possible to include mean effect sizes for specific facets of job satisfaction due to the paucity of studies reporting such correlations. Therefore,
we were limited to only the discussion of personality and overall job satisfaction.
Another limitation is that all of the studies we included in our analyses relied entirely on
self-reports by employees. It is certainly possible that reports of job satisfaction and personality
share biases that would inflate observed relationships. Conversely, biases that are unshared would
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BRUK-LEE ET AL.
serve to attenuate correlations. For example, social desirability might bias reports of emotional
stability and NA but are unlikely to bias job satisfaction (Moorman & Podsakoff, 1992) rendering
observed correlations with job satisfaction to be underestimates. Studies utilizing alternative
methods of assessing these variables would add to our understanding of how personality relates to
job attitudes.
Implications and Future Directions

This meta-analysis has several important implications for research and our fields understanding
of the nature of the relationship between personality and job satisfaction. It is apparent from the
results of this meta-analysis that there is good support for a dispositional effect on job satisfaction.
Beyond a replication of findings for the Big Five and NA/PA, these results make it clear that other
personality variables are essential in understanding variability in job satisfaction. In addition, the
results confirmed that, in the case of LOC, specific measures are more appropriate than a global
measure in the study of organizational variables. Similarly, differentiating between dimensions of
Type A is critical in job satisfaction research and, potentially, in other organizational domains.
Given the scarcity of studies that assessed both Type A dimensions in conjunction with job satisfaction, this is an area ripe for and in need of additional research. Further, Machiavellianism and
trait anger are promising personality traits in the study of job satisfaction; however, their limited
use in organizational research makes it difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding the processes
whereby they impact employee attitudes. Again, this area is wide open for future research and theoretical development.
This study also addressed the important issue of whether measures of different personality
traits can be subsumed into one, a practice that is relatively common in personality research.
Based on these findings, it is suggested that measures of NA, trait anxiety, and Neuroticism can
be combined to measure one overarching construct in the study of job satisfaction. However,
the results clearly indicate that combining measures of PA and Extraversion is an inappropriate
practice that can distort the actual relationships of these distinct constructs with relevant outcomes. Future research should examine how combining personality constructs, not limited to
those investigated here, affects the relationships between personality and other organizational
outcomes.
Beyond these implications for research and theory, two broad contributions to research on personality and job satisfaction are also made. First, our knowledge about the relationships between
dispositions and job satisfaction has been advanced by examining these variables meta-analytically in a longitudinal context and by looking beyond the widely used personality typologies and
including equally important variables that warranted attention. Second, we have presented a theoretical explanation for how these traits might relate to job satisfaction. In doing so, we realized that
there is insufficient research that examines the theoretical connections between personality and
job satisfaction. It seems that hypotheses regarding expected relationships are often based on previous findings, and little effort is made to understand why such relationships should be expected.
Ideally, the findings and theoretical discussion presented here will serve as a catalyst for researchers to investigate some of the more promising traits in greater depth, elaborating on and increasing
the investigation of the theoretical processes for the relationship between personality and job
satisfaction.
179
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PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

Note. NA = negative affectivity; PA = positive affectivity; K = number of samples/correlations; N = combined sample

Job Satisfaction and Affective Dispositions

LOC = locus of control; K = number of samples/correlations; N = combined sample size.

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

Threshold for negative emotion/

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

The Big Five

Note. PA = positive affectivity; NA = negative affectivity; LOC = locus of control.

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

Trait Anger, Narcissism, and Machiavellianism

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

Longitudinal Relationships Between Job Satisfaction

Implications and Future Directions

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

PERSONALITY/JOB SATISFACTION META-ANALYSES

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