STAG 6243

GEOHAZARDS

SEMESTER II, SESSION 2010/2011

Synopsis
This course is to familiarize students with geohazards, their nature,
characteristics and their associated risks. The focus of the lecture content is
to introduce students to their causes and to describe ail the associated
hazards and risks to life and property. The lectures also emphasise the
methods of geological investigation as well as data collected and used in the
geohazard assessment and risk mitigation relating to these processes. This
includes how these can be applied in predicting and managing natural
hazards. The course also aims to assist students develop their understanding
of the importance of applying geological knowledge and priciples in
identifying, analysing and mitigating geohazards. Topics on geohazards
include: Introduction to hazards and geohazards, types of geohazards,
landslides, ground subsidence, sinkholes, earthquakes, tsunami, with special
focus on Malaysian experiences and case studies. Also included some topics
of hazards and risk management, policy and planning responses on selected
types of geohazards in Malaysia.

Lecturer:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tajul Anuar Jamaluddin
Prof. Dato; Dr. Ibrahim Komoo
Office:
Geology Building, FST, UKM
LESTARI, UKM
Office Phone:
TAJ: 03-89215395
IBK:
Email:

taj@ukm.my
ibkomoo@hotmail.com
Office Hours:
- by appointments
1. Objective: To understand the geological and natural processes that affect the human
environment in catastrophic ways. Geohazards are commonly magnified as a result of human
activity that modifies the surrounding environment, thus interfering with natural geologic
processes. These are examined in terms of science, prediction, mitigation, avoidance and the
policy/safety issues that are involved.

2. References:

N.K. Coch, 1995. "GEOHAZARDS, NATURAL AND HUMAN - First Edition " .
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Federation of Emergency & Management Agency, USA (FEMA). 1997.
MULTIHAZARDS IDENTIFICATION & RISK ASSESSMENT.

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. 2007.

THE GLOBAL ALLIANCE FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTIONBUILDING SAFER, RESILIENT COMMUNITIES. Disaster Policy and
Preparedness Department, P.O. Box 372 1211 Geneva 19 Switzerland
Web site: www.ifrc.org

Asian Disaster Reduction Center. 2005. Total Disaster Risk Management

Good
Practices
(http://www.adrc.asia/publications/TDRM2005/
TDRM_Good_Practices/PDF).

Benson, C. & Twigg, J. 2007. Tools for mainstreaming disaster risk

reduction: Guidance notes for development organizations. PROVENTION
Consortium Secretariat. Switzerland.

3. Lecture Times:
Moday from 9.00a am 11.00am in Room 4125, Geology Building, FST. Attendance is
strongly encouraged at all scheduled class meetings. Much of the exam material will be
derived from my class notes and slide presentations, therefore attendance is beneficial to
your grade.

4. Course Requirements:
The goal of this course is not to make you memorize an endless stream of facts that you'll
quickly forget after taking the final exam. Rather, this should be a fun and interactive
experience. Knowing the basic fundamentals and learning to think objectively will give you a
framework to appreciate the landscape around you and understand the natural processes
that impact our lives.

Exams: There will be one mid-term and one final examination (non-cumulative). Each
exam may include short essay questions and/or problem solving. Exam questions will
be based on material covered in the lectures, videos and assigned reading. Make-up
exams will only be given in extreme circumstances! Please try and make the two
exams.

Project: There will be a group research project that will involve an in-depth analysis
of a geologic or atmospheric hazard in Malaysia today. Each group will be responsible
for reporting the following information for their particular hazard: (1) the geologic
and geographic setting (population centers, land use, transportation routes, etc.) (2)
previous hazardous activity and impacts on the population (3) current scientific
research and the monitoring/mitigation efforts and (4) the current public policy and
safety issues. Each student will prepare a specific part of the written report for
these projects and a team leader for each group will present the entire project to
the class using a PowerPoint-style presentation. More specific information regarding
the project will be distributed at a later date.

5. Grading: Your final grade will be based on your performance on the 2 exams, the class
project, and in- class participation. The grade will be calculated using the following breakdown:
Mid-term Exam = 10-20%,
Final Exam = 40-60%,
Class Project = 10-30%,
Class Participation = 10%.
6. Course Contents:

Week

Topics

Lecturer

Introduction to Hazards & Geohazards

Conceptual Remarks
Types and classification of Hazards & Geohazards
Examples of common hazards
Hazards and Risks Concepts
Strategy for risk reductions
Introduction to Risk Management

TAJ

Landslides
Definitions, characterisations, identifications,
Classifications
Examples
Causing factors
Natural Factors
Man-made factors
Landslide Mitigation

TAJ

Landslide Hazards and Risk Management

Hazards Identification
Hazards Characterisation & Assessments

TAJ

4.

5
6.

Risk Assessments
Risk Analysis
Risk Reduction & Mitigation
Policy & Guidelines

Landslides Malaysian Case Studies

Pos Selim- Cameron Highland Highway
Bukit Lanjan Rock Fall
Kundasang Landslide Complex
Land subsidence & sinkholes

TAJ

Earthquakes
Understanding earthquakes
Terminology
Classifications
Magnitude, Intensity, Frequency
Locations
Detection & Measurements
Earthquake hazards
Structural Integrity
Eaarthquake prediction
Earthquake Mitigation Efforts

TAJ

7.

TAJ

TAJ
MID SEMESTER EXAM

8.
9

MID SEMSESTER BREAK

Tsunami
Backgound information
Characteristics
o Wavelength
o Wave height
o Run-up
o Inundation
o Velocity/Speed
Tsunami impact and damages
Monitoring & Early Warning
Palaeotsunami
Mitigation & Preparedness

10.

Policy & Planning Response for Earthquake & Tsunami Hazards

in Malaysia

IBK

11.

Floods & Flash Floods

TAJ

12.

Hazard & Risk Management

IBK

13.

Group Presentation Mini Seminar on Geohazards

Group 1: Earthquakes & Tsunami in Malaysia
Group 2: Ground Collapse & Sinkholes in Malaysia
Group 3: Landslides & Slope Failures in Malaysia

IBK

14.
15.

REVISION WEEK
EXAM WEEK

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the module you should be able to understand:
1.

Hazards Classification, Natural Hazards and Technological Hazards, Geohazards and

types of geohazards.

2.

The nature, distribution and mechanisms of geohazards, especially those

encountered in and experienced by Malaysia, notably landslide, ground sttlement;
sinkholes, erosion, floods, earthquakes and tsunami;

3.

Geohazards identification, characterisation, analyses and prediction, as well as

mitigation measures, public awareness and disaster reduction/preparedness
measures.

4.

Holistic approach in managing geohazards and risks

5.

Applying geological and scientific knowlegde in investigating geohazards.

Suggested Readings;
1.

CROZIER, M.J. 1986. Landslides: Causes, Consequences, and Environment.London: Croom Helm.

2.

ELLIOTT C. SPIKER AND PAULA L. GORI. 2003. National Landslide Hazards Mitigation Strategy A
Framework for Loss Reduction. Circular 1244. U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey.
56p.
HIGHLAND, L.M., AND BOBROWSKY, PETER, 2008, The landslide handbookA guide to understanding
landslides: Reston, Virginia, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1325, 129 p.

3.
4.

IBRAHIM KOMOO & MAZLAN OTHMAN (EDS.). The 26.12.04 Tsunami Disaster in Malaysia An
Environmental, Socio-Economic and Community Well-Being Impact Study. Akademi Sains
Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. p.83-100.

5.

IBRAHIM KOMOO (ED.). Bencana Tsunami 26.12.04 di Malaysia Kajian Impak Alam Sekitar, Sosioekonomi dan Kesejahteraan Masyarakat. Akademi Sains Malaysia. p.67.

6.

NATIONAL TSUNAMI HAZARD MITIGATION PROGRAM. 2001. Designing for tsunamis Seven Principles
for Planning and Designing for Tsunami Hazards. National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program
Steering Committee, NOAA, USGS, FEMA, NSF, Alaska, Califrnia, Hawaii, Oregon & Washington. 60p.

7.

TAJUL ANUAR JAMALUDDIN & IBRAHIM KOMOO. 2007. Structurally-controlled landslide in Weathered Rock
Masses Typical Examples from Malaysia. Proc. 2nd Malaysia-Japan Symposium on Geohazards &
Geoenvironmental engineering. 20-22 Nov. 2007. Langkawi. P.137-148.

8.

TAJUL ANUAR JAMALUDDIN, FELIX TONGKUL, IBRAHIM KOMOO, MOHD SHAFEEA LEMAN, LIM CHOUN SIAN,
HAMZAH LATIEF & ADIT R. GUSMAN. 2007. Policy and Planning Responses for Earthquake and Tsunami
Hazards in Malaysia - Preliminary Results. Proc. CCOP Thematic Sessions, Cebu, Philippines, 24-25
Oct. 2007.

9.

TAJUL ANUAR JAMALUDDIN, IBRAHIM KOMOO & MOHD FOR, M. A. (2003). Geohazards in Tropical
Mountainous Terrain The Malaysian Experiences. In: Hood, S., Ibrahim, K., Mazlan, O., Ibrahim, K. &
Sarah, A. (eds. ) Culture & Science of Mountains. Institute for Environment & Development
(LESTARI), UKM Bangi. p. 257-272. (ISBN 983-9444-54-9).

LECTURE #1: INTRO TO GEOHAZARDS

Date: 27 August 2002

Part 1: Introduction
Geohazard = Earth processes (involving the lithosphere, hydrosphere &
atmosphere) that, upon interaction with human activity, cause loss of life and
property.

* important to understand the human element:

without it, there would be no hazard

because of it, the topic/science of geohazards becomes more important
every year (mitigation = reduction/prevention)

WHY is the human element so critical??

1. Population increase
o
o
o

more people living in hazard-prone areas

populations are becoming hyper-concentrated
consumption of resources

Examples:
today there are 6 billion people on Earth (~ 50% live in cities)
by 2025, there will be ~8 billion people (~ 66% in cities)
of these cities, 40% are coastal (prone to severe storm damage) and a
large majority lie in areas subject to other geohazards (volcanoes, EQ's,
etc)
more people are therefore prone to disasters
2. Better global communications, monitoring, and scientific studies
What's the GOAL??

can not stop the geologic processes

can not stop the population growth/expansion
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therefore, we must try to reduce (mitigate) the hazards through:

o
o
o
o

scientific study
population education
changes in engineering/building practices
development of management plans and hazard response scenarios

Two general classes: natural and human

A) NATURAL HAZARDS:

examples: volcanoes, floods, earthquakes (EQ's), tornadoes, floods, etc.

act adversely on human processes
can occur:
1. passively, without warning (ie, earthquakes)
2. passively, with warnings (precursors) (ie, satellite monitoring of
hurricanes tracks or the deformation of a volcano)
3. actively, through human intervention (ie, earthquakes in Colorado,
ground collapse from over mining)

* important to remember that these processes are neither good nor bad and are
not subject to politics or human actions
1. Frequency (F): how often a given event occurs in a certain region
2. Magnitude (M): how powerful (amount of energy released) an event is
- for example, high M hazards happen with low F, but are much more
destructive
3. Scope (S): area affected by a given hazard

local: landslides, floods, EQ, fire ...

regional: volcanoes, larger EQ, hurricanes ...
global: large volcanoes, tsunamis, global warming, meteorite impacts, ...

B) HUMAN HAZARDS:

examples: groundwater pollution, "controlled" forest fires, ozone depletion

these hazardous conditions result from direct human activity
(anthropogenic)
because of that, there is a greater chance to remedy the situation if
detected in time
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C) HAZARD MITIGATION & MANAGEMENT:

function of several factors:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Accepting Losses
o
o

building codes in EQ and hurricane-prone areas

reengineer older structures to withstand these events
construction of mitigation structures such as sabo dams (for
volcanic lahars) and floodwalls (for large-scale flooding)

Hazard Warnings / Evacuations

o
o
o

limit population expansion

require better construction standards

Engineering Solutions
o
o
o

if a frequency of a hazard is low vs. the cost of building (or the

memory of the population), then the threat is commonly overlooked
human's have a short memory even only a few years after a major
hazard

Restrictive Zoning
o
o

awareness of the problem

amount of scientific study
fiscal restraints
commercial/political factors

today, this is the best we can do in most situations

prediction is nearly impossible
goal is to develop monitoring/warning systems for people most at
risk
ie, news broadcasts, sirens, direct/automated responses
Severe Storms Laboratory in Florida, tsunami sirens in
Hawaii, lahar warning system on Mt. Rainier

Abandonment of Hazardous Areas

o
o
o

usually happens after a hazard has hit

prone to large amounts of legal and political pressures
not always a practical solution (Los Angles)

D) COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS:
1. Thinking Earth is not a closed system

material is niether lost/gained

pollution never truly disappears

2. "Out of sight/out of mind"

displaced problems

3. Frequency

"major events will not happen here"

human short term memory compared to the geologic time scale

E) SCIENTIFIC STUDY:

very high priority in the last decade as the price tag for damage repair has
skyrocketed
NASA, NSF, EPA, NOAA all have major funding programs for the research
into and about natural hazards

F) LOCAL (WESTERN PA) HAZARDS:

hazard

natural or
human ?

frequency (F) preparedness

?

flooding

natural

high

high

landslides

both

moderate high

moderate

ground
collapse

human

moderate low

moderate high

tornado

natural

very low

very low

Part 2: Physics Review

1. Equations of energy:
10

Recall, we defined magnitude as the amount of energy released by an

event. In a hazardous situation, the event is marked by a conversion of
energy from stored [potential, (PE)] to active [kinetic, (KE)].
PE = m g h ; KE = 1/2 m v2
where, m = mass of the object; g = gravitational constant; h =
height/distance traveled; and v = velocity of the object.
Setting the energy equations equal to one another gives us:
m g h = 1/2 m v2
2 g h = v2
** Depending on the hazard studied, we can solve the above equations for
the unknown terms. These can be different for different hazards. For
example, in the case of landslide, the gravitational constant and the height
are known, and we solve for the velocity of the moving rock mass:
v = (2 g h)1/2
And, in the case of an earthquake, we know the distance that the fault
ruptured and the velocity of the seismic waves passing through the earth,
so we solve for the ground acceleration (a) (which is substituted for g):
m a h = 1/2 m v2
a = 1/2 v2 / h
2. Energy systems on Earth:
a. Internal (subject of Chapter 2):
o derived from internal heat (decay of radioactive elements)
o drives volcanoes, EQ's, plate tectonics ...
b. External (subject of Chapter 3):
o gravity plus the energy derived from external heat (Sun)
o drives hydrologic cycle, erosion, landslides, weather ...
3. Stress (s): force / area (units: Pascals)
if, F = m a
and, s = F / x2
then, s = m a / x2
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where, m = mass; a = acceleration, and x = length

lithostatic stress == overlying pressure of rocks and increases with
depth

Three Types of Stress:

compressive (dominant stress in convergent plate boundaries)

tensional (dominant stress in divergent plate boundaries)

shear (dominant stress in transform plate boundaries)

4. Strain (e): change in length / length (unit-less value)

Three Types of Strain:

elastic (results in no permanent change in shape after force is

removed)
example: rubber band

plastic (results in a permanent change in shape after force is

removed)
example: upper mantle, silly putty

brittle (results in a failure/break during the application of force)

example: lithosphere, glass

Old Synopsis
Classification system of slope failures and landslides; falls, slips and flows. Morphology
and anatomy of landslides; factors influencing slope stability. Landslide investigation;

12

instrumentation and laboratory testing. Stability evaluation and methods for stabilization
of soil and rock slopes in civil engineering. Computer aided stability analysis. Factor
of safety. Collection, presentation and analysis of geological data using stereopraphic
plotting. Slope stabilization methods. Evaluation of the risk of landslides and zonation
of landslides. Monitoring, influence of human activities on slope stability and
landslides. Case histories from Malaysia and overseas.

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