Topic 4 and 14: Bonding

4.1.1 Describe the ionic bond as the electrostatic attraction between

oppositely charged ions.
An ionic bond is formed from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged
ions.
4.1.2 Describe how ions can be formed as a result of electron transfer.
Ions do not form in isolation. When one electron is transferred from one atom to
another, the atom with one less electron becomes a positive ion and the atom with
one more electron becomes a negative ion.
4.1.3 Deduce which ions will be formed when elements in groups 1, 2 and
3 lose electrons.
Group 1-3 ions become cations.
Chargers of ions: G1= +1, G2= +2, G3= +3
4.1.4 Deduce which ions will be formed when elements in groups 5, 6 and
7 gain electrons.
Group 5-7 ions become anions.
Charges of ions: G7= -1, G6= -2, G5= -3
4.1.5 State that transition elements can form more than one ion.
Transition elements can form more than one ion. An example of this is iron. Ions of
iron can be Fe+2 and Fe+3.
4.1.6 Predict whether a compound of two elements would be ionic from
the position of the elements in the periodic table or from their
electronegativity values.
Ionic compounds = metal + non-metal. Generally metals on left side of periodic
table, non-metals on the right side.
Ionic if the difference between electronegativity values is greater than 1.8.
4.1.7 State the formula of common polyatomic ions formed by non-metals
in period 2 and 3.
Nitrate
NO3Phosphate
SO43Nitrite
NO2
Ammonium
NH4+
Sulphate
SO42Hydrogen carbonate
HCO3Sulphite
SO32Hydroxide
OH4.1.8 Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds.
Basically a 3d array of ions with alternating charges. The amount of ions surrounding
a given ion is called the coordination number.

Topic 4 and 14: Bonding

4.2.1 Describe the covalent bond as the electrostatic attraction between a

pair of electrons and positively charged nuclei.
In covalent bonding noble gas configuration is obtained from two non-metals coming
together sharing a pair of electrons. It is an electrostatic force that combines the
negative electrons to the positive nucleus.
When two atoms have a single bond, 1 pair of electrons is shared between the
atoms. When two atoms have a double bond, 2 pairs of electrons are shared
between the atoms. The same concept applies for triple bonds.
4.2.2 Describe how the covalent bond is formed as a result of electron
sharing.
Covalent bonding is made up from shared pairs of electrons, one or more, each from
the binding atoms.
In Dative covalent bonds the shared pair originates from the same atom.
4.2.3 Deduce the Lewis (electron dot) structures of molecules and ions for
up to four electron pairs on each atom.
Examples:
Cl2
CN-

CO2

SO2-

4.2.4 State and explain the relationship between the number of bonds,
bond length and bond strength.
The greater the number of bonds, the shorter the bond lengths and the greater the
bond strength.
Multiple bonds have a greater number of shared electrons and therefore greater
electrostatic attraction between nuclei. Thus there is a greater pulling power on the
nuclei, bring the atoms closer together with greater strength.
4.2.5 Predict whether a compound of two elements would be covalent
from the position of the elements in the periodic table or from their
electronegativity values.
Covalent Bonds = non-metal + non-metal
In covalent bonds, the difference of electronegativity values is less than 1.8.

Topic 4 and 14: Bonding

4.2.6 Predict the relative polarity of bonds from electronegativity values.

The atom with the highest electronegativity will have a negative polarity ( -) and the
atom with the lowest electronegativity will have a positive polarity ( +).
4.2.7 Predict the shape and bond angles for species with four, three and
two negative charge centres on the central atom using the valence shell
electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR).
Charge centres
Bond Angles
Shape of electron
Shape of molecule
distribution
2
180
Linear
Linear
3
120
Trigonal planar
Trigonal planar
Bent
4
109.5
Tetrahedral
Tetrahedral
Trigonal planar
Bent
4.2.8 Predict whether or not a molecule is polar from its molecular shape
and bond polarities.
Not polar if polarities end up cancelling each other out.
4.2.9 Describe and compare the structure and bonding in the three
allotropes of carbon (diamond, graphite and C60 fullerene).
Diamond
Graphite
C60 fullerene
Each C is covalently
Each C is covalently
Structure is a closed
bonded to 4 others
bonded to 3 others,
spherical cage where each
tetrahedrally in a regular
forming hexagons in
C is bonded to 3 others.
repetitive pattern.
parallel layers. The layers
Contains 12 pentagons
are held by weak van der
and 20 hexagons with 60
Waals forces
C.
No mobile electrons
1 delocalized electron per
Readily accept electrons
atom
4.2.10 Describe the structure of and bonding in silicon and silicon dioxide.
Each Si is covalently bonded to 4 others in a tetrahedral arrangement. It results in a
giant lattice.
SiO2 is similar is it create a giant covalent structure. Every Si is covalently bonded to
4 O and every O to 2 Si.

Topic 4 and 14: Bonding

4.3.1 Describe the types of intermolecular forces (attractions between

molecules that have temporary dipoles, permanent dipoles or hydrogen
bonding) and explain how they arise from the structural features of
molecules.
Van de Waals forces
Occur in non-polar molecules
Weakest of intermolecular forces
Electrons temporarily may be unevenly distributed producing a temporary attraction
Increases as molecular mass increases
Dipole-dipole forces
Occur between negative and positive polar regions of different molecules
Medium strength of intermolecular forces
Electrostatic force weakly pulls opposite polar molecules
Hydrogen bonding
Occurs when H is directly bonded to O, N or F
Strongest intermolecular force
The high difference in electronegativity results in increased polarity, strengthening
forces exerted
4.3.2 Describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling
points of substances.
As intermolecular forces increase, so does the energy required to break these forces.
Therefore the boiling point will be affected as stronger intermolecular forces will
require more heat to break completely.
4.4.1 Describe the metallic bond as the electrostatic attraction between a
lattice of positive ions and delocalized electrons.
The metallic bond is due to the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive
ions and delocalized electrons.
4.4.2 Explain the electrical conductivity and malleability of metals.
Metals can conduct because the delocalised electrons are mobile and can move
throughout the structure, allowing a current to pass.
Metals are malleable because the positive ions can slide over each other if pressure
is applied without breaking more bonds than are made.

Topic 4 and 14: Bonding

4.5.1 Compare and explain the properties of substances resulting from

different types of bonding.
Bond
Melting and
Conductivity
Malleability
Solubility
Boiling point
Ionic
High
Only when in
Brittle
Soluble in
solution or
polar solvents
molten state
Molecular
Relatively low
Never
Dependent on Depending on
covalent
intermolecular polarity, either
forces
solvent in polar
or non-polar
solvents
Giant covalent High
Never (except
Brittle
Never
graphite)
Metallic
Variable but
In liquid or
Malleable
Never
generally high solid form
14.1.1 Predict the shape and bond angles for species with five and six
negative charge centres using the VSEPR theory.
Charge centres Shape of electron
Bond Angles
Shape of molecule
distribution
5
Triangular
120, 90 and 180
Triangular
bipyramidal
bipyramidal
See saw
T-shaped
Linear
6
Octahedral
90
Octahedral
Square pyramidal
Square planar
14.2.1 Describe and bonds.
A bond is formed when two atomic orbitals on different atoms head-on overlap
along a line drawn through the two nuclei.
A bond is formed when parallel p orbitals overlap sideways on above and below
the line drawn through the two nuclei.
14.2.2 Explain hybridization in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to
form new orbitals for bonding.
Hybridization is the combining of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals.

Topic 4 and 14: Bonding

14.2.3 Identify and explain the relationships between Lewis structures,

molecular shapes and types of hybridization (sp, sp2 and sp3).
Hybridization
Types of
Explanation
Shape
bonds
sp3
Single
Energetically favourable,
Tetrahedral
able to form 4 bonds
2
sp
Double
Can form 3 bonds and 1 Planar triangular
bond
sp
Triple
Can form 2 bonds and 2 Linear
bonds
14.3.1 Describe the delocalization of electrons and explain how this can
account for the structure of some species.
In some molecules, the position of double bonds is less restricted. The delocalised
electrons are free from the constraints of a single bonding position, and spread
themselves out where possible, conferring greater stability in the molecule or ion.
Example of Resonance Structure

When delocalization occurs, it affects bond length, and an intermediate length

between the double and single bonds in created. This is exemplified in the benzene
ring. Though it contain 3 double bonds and 3 single bonds, all bond lengths are the
same, shorter than single bonds but longer than double bonds.