Nanofluids

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
GENERATION AND PROPERTY EVALUATION OF

NANOFLUIDS
PROJECT REPORT
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2007
Pavan R Lohit (1MS03ME104)

Raghavendra N (1MS03ME113)
Rahul R (1MS03ME118)
Anil R G (1MS03ME195)
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Mr. RAJI GEORGE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

M.S. RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BANGALORE - 560054
VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
GENERATION AND PROPERTY EVALUATION OF

NANOFLUIDS
PROJECT REPORT
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2007
Pavan R Lohit (1MS03ME104)

Raghavendra N (1MS03ME113)
Rahul R (1MS03ME118)
Anil R G (1MS03ME195)
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Mr. RAJI GEORGE

BANGALORE - 560054
M.S.R.I.T POST, BANGALORE-560054

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work entitled “Generation and property
evaluation of nanofluids”, is a bonafide work carried out by Rahul R
(1MS03ME118), Pavan R Lohit (1MS03ME104), Raghavendra N
(1MS03ME113) and Anil RG (1MS03ME195) in partial fulfillment for
the award of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical
Engineering of the Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum
during the year 2007. It is certified that all corrections /suggestions
indicated for internal assessment have been incorporated in the report
deposited in the department library. The project report has been approved
as it satisfies the academic requirement in respect to project work
prescribed for the Bachelor of Engineering degree.
(RAJI GEORGE) (Dr. R. CHANDRASHEKAR) (Dr. K. RAJNIKANTH)

Assistant professor Head of the Department of Principal,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, M.S. Ramaiah Institute of
Mechanical Engineering, M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore-
M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore- 560054
Technology, Bangalore- 560054
560054
Pavan R Lohit Raghavendra N Rahul R Anil R G

(1MS03ME104) (1MS03ME113) (1MS03ME118) (1MS03ME195)
External Viva
Signature with date
Name of the examiners
1.
1.
2.
2.
ABSTRACT
Carbon nanotubes both multiwalled nanotubes (MWNT) and singlewalled nanotubes
(SWNT) have been successfully synthesized by the arc discharge method. The nan-
otubes were purified by the solvent approach and the purity of MWNT was found to
be 95%.
These nanomaterials were dispersed in SAE40 diesel oil to generate the nanofluid.
To improve the uniformity in distribution of MWNTs in the base oil, Sodium Dodecyl
Sulphate was used as the dispersant. It was experimentally determined that 1 weight%
of SDS was required to uniformly distribute 0.1 wt% of MWNT.
The wear resistant properties of the nanofluid was tested using a four ball wear
testing machine. For a given weight percentage of nanoparticle, the wear resistance of
nanofluids was assessed for varying loads (100-500N) and temperatures (40o C, 70o C
and 100o C) at a constant rpm of 1200. Each test was carried out for a period of 60
minutes after which the wear scar diameter formed on the steel balls was measured
using a microscope. At low load and temperatures, the nanofluid was found to exhibit
huge decrease in Coefficient of friction (upto 45%).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to,
1. Parents, relatives and friends for being a constant source of encouragement in

all our endeavors.
2. Management of M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology.
3. Teaching and non teaching staff of the Department of Mechanical Engineering,

M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology.
4. Teaching and non teaching staff of the Chemistry Department, M.S. Ramaiah
Institute of Technology for extending their equipments to help in our project
work.
5. Teaching and non teaching staff of the Department of Biotechnology, M.S. Ra-
maiah Institute of Technology for providing us with microscopic facilities.
6. Teaching and non teaching staff of the Department of Electrical Engineering,

M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology for extending their kelvin bridge appara-
tus.
7. S.K. Sharma, Manager - Sales, Ducom Pvt. Ltd. for guiding us.
8. Dr (Ms) Jayashree Bijwe, Professor, Industrial Tribology machine Dynamics and

Maintenance Engineering Centre (ITMMEC), Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi for guiding us and referring us to Dr. Satish V Kailas.
9. Dr. Satish V Kailas, Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian

Institute of Science for guiding us and for extending the four ball wear testing
facility free of charge.
10. Jagdeesh, Senior Research Scientist, Tribology lab, Department of Mechanical

Engineering, Indian Institute of Science for guiding us.
11. Cental Power Research Institute, Bangalore for providing Thermogravimetric
Analysis facility.
2
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.1 Nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Base fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Mineral oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Vegetable (natural) oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.4 Synthetic oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 SAE classification of Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Selection of Base fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Selection of Nanomaterial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Nanofluids- Synthesis and property evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.1 Synthesis of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.2 Generation of Nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.3 Property evaluation of Nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7 Properties of fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7.1 Oil Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7.2 Dynamic viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7.3 Kinematic viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7.4 Viscosity - Temperature relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7.5 Viscosity index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7.6 Viscosity-pressure relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7.7 Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7.8 Flash point and Fire point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1
1.7.9 Additive Compatibility and Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7.10 Lubricant Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.8 Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8.1 Abrasive wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.8.2 Erosive Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.8.3 Adhesive Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.9 SCOPE OF PRESENT WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 24
2.1 Nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.1 Preparation of Nanoparticles and Nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.2 Thermally enhanced Nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.3 Carbon nanotube based Nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 EXPERIMENTATION 27
3.1 Preparation of MWNT by arc-evaporation technique . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Purification of MWNTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3 Preparation of SWNT by arc-evaporation technique . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4 Purification of SWNTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5 Characterization of Nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5.1 Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.5.2 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.6 Generation of Nanofluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.7 Four Ball Wear Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.7.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.7.2 Cleaning Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.7.3 Test Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.7.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.7.5 Measuring wear scar diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4 RESULTS and DISCUSSIONS 44

4.1 Characterization of Carbon Nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2
4.1.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.1.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.1.3 Coding of nanofluid samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5 CONCLUSION 63
6 CHALLENGES FACED DURING EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT 64

6.1 Selection of suitable base oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.2 Non uniform dispersion of MWNT in base oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.3 Determination of method used to test wear resistant properties of oil 65
6.4 Searching for Four ball wear testing facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.5 Difficulty in obtaining slots for testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.6 Difficulty in producing 4 grams of purified Carbon nanotubes . . . . . 65
3
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Nanofluids
Nanofluids are engineered colloidal suspensions of nanoparticles in a base fluid. In

general the size of these nanoparticles vary from 1-100nm. The type of nanoparticle
used is directly dependent on the enhancement of a required property of the base
fluid.
All physical mechanisms have a critical length scale, below which the physical
properties of materials are changed. Therefore particles <100 nm exhibit properties
that are considerably different from those of conventional solids. The noble properties
of nanophase materials come from the relatively high surface area to volume ratio that
is due to the high proportion of constituent atoms residing at the grain boundaries.
The thermal, mechanical, optical, magnetic, and electrical properties of nanophase
materials are superior to those of conventional materials with coarse grain structures
[1].
1.2 Base fluids
Liquid lubricants may be characterized in many different ways. One of the most
common ways is by the type of base oil used. Following are the most common types:
1. Water
2. Mineral oil
3. Vegetable (natural oil)
4
4. Synthetic oils
5. Others
1.2.1 Water
Water can be used on its own or as a major component in combination with one of
the other base oils.
1.2.2 Mineral oil
This term is used to encompass lubricating base oil derived from crude oil. API
designates several types of lubricant base oil identified as:
• Group I - Saturates < 90% and / or Sulfur > 0.03% and Viscosity Index ≥ 80
to <120
• Group II - Saturates ≥ 90% and Sulfur ≤ 0.03% and Viscosity Index ≥ 80 to

<120
• Group III - Saturates ≥ 90% Sulfur ≤ 0.03% and Viscosity Index ≥ 120
• Group IV - Poly alpha olefins (PAO)
• Group V - All others not included above
The lubricant industry commonly extends this group terminology to include:
• Group I+ with a Viscosity Index of 103 - 108
• Group II+ with a Viscosity Index of 113 - 119
• Group III+ with a Viscosity Index of ≥ 140
1.2.3 Vegetable (natural) oils
These are primarily triglyceride esters derived from plants and animals. For lubricant
base oil use the vegetable derived materials are preferred. Common ones include high
oleic canola oil, palm oil, sunflower seed oil and rapeseed oil from vegetable and Tall
5
oil from animal sources. Many vegetable oils are often hydrolyzed to yield the acids
which are subsequently combined selectively to form specialist synthetic esters.
1.2.4 Synthetic oils
1. Poly alpha-olefin (PAO)
2. Synthetic esters
3. Poly alkylene glycols (PAG)
4. Phosphate esters
5. Alkylated naphthalenes (AN)
6. Silicate esters
7. Ionic fluids
1.3 SAE classification of Lubricants
The Oils used in the combustions and power transmission are graded according to
SAE J300 and SAE J306 classifications respectively. A recent SAE classification
establishes eleven engine oil grades and seven transmission oil grades.
Table 1.1: SAE Automotive oil specification

SAE number Viscosity range, SUS
At 18o C At 99o C
Min Max Min Max
5W 4000 39
10W 6000 12000 39
20W 12000 48000 39
20 45 58
30 58 70
40 70 85
50 85 110
1.4 Selection of Base fluid
The main criteria in the selection of base oil for generating nanofluids were as follows:-
6
1. The base oil had to have minimum amount of additives so that there would be
no adverse effects resulting in destabilization of nanofluid when nanomaterials
were added to it.
2. The lubricating oil had to be easily available and common in use.
A monograde oil is designed to work at higher temperatures and lacks the polymer
additives that multigrade oil commonly posses in order to perform at a wider range of
temperatures. Hence commonly available monograde diesel oil (SAE40) manufactured
by Shell was chosen as the base fluid.
1.5 Selection of Nanomaterial
The prime focus of the project was to improve the lubrication properties of the base
fluid. Multiwalled carbon nanotubes possessing a tubular structure seemed an out-
right choice and hence was chosen to enhance the wear resistant behavior of the
lubricant.
1.6 Nanofluids- Synthesis and property evaluation
1.6.1 Synthesis of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon Nanotubes were discovered by Sumio Iijima in 1991, since then numerous
procedures have been developed to produce Multiwalled carbon nanotubes. However
arc evaporation process is one of the simplest methods which produces a yield of high
purity, defect free MWNTs. MWNTs were prepared inhouse using a stainless steel
arc discharge chamber and were purified using solvent approach.
1.6.2 Generation of Nanofluids
Nanofluids were prepared by dispersing purified MWNTs (95% purity) in SAE 40

diesel oil using ultrasonic energy. Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate (SDS), a commonly used
surfactant, was employed as a dispersing agent to enchance uniformity in dispersion
of MWNTs.
7
1.6.3 Property evaluation of Nanofluids
The enhancement in wear reduction property of the nanofluid was evaluated using
a four ball wear tester at the Tribology lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore. The tests were conducted at varying
loads (100-500N) and temperatures (40o C, 70o C and 100o C); each test was carried
out for 60 minutes and the spindle speed was constant at 1200rpm.
1.7 Properties of fluids
1.7.1 Oil Viscosity
The parameter which plays a fundamental role in lubrication is oil viscosity. Different
oils exhibit different viscosities. In addition, oil viscosity changes with temperature,
shear rate and pressure and the thickness of the generated oil film is usually propor-
tional to it. So, at first glance it appears that the more viscous oils would give better
performance, since the generated films would be thicker and a better separation of the
two surfaces in contact would be achieved. This unfortunately is not always the case
since more viscous oils require more power to be sheared. Consequently the power
losses are higher and more heat is generated resulting in a substantial increase in the
temperature of the contacting surfaces which may lead to the failure of the compo-
nent. For engineering applications the oil viscosity is usually chosen to give optimum
performance at the required temperature. Knowing the temperature at which the oil
is expected to operate is critical as oil viscosity is extremely temperature dependent.
The viscosity of different oils varies at different rates with temperature. It can also
be affected by the velocities of the operating surfaces (shear rates). The knowledge
of the viscosity characteristics of a lubricant is therefore very important in the design
and in the prediction of the behaviour of a lubricated mechanical system.
1.7.2 Dynamic viscosity
Consider two flat surfaces separated by a layer of fluid of thickness h as shown in

figure 1.1 The force required to move the upper surface is proportional to the wetted
8
Figure 1.1: Schematic representation of the fluid separating two surfaces
area A and the velocity u, i.e.,
F = Au (1.1)
Assume that the fluid film separating the surfaces is made up of a number of
infinitely thin layers. Compare now two fluid films of different thickness made up of
equispaced layers. If the surface velocity remains unchanged in these two cases then
a single layer in the thicker film will undergo less relative sliding than in the thinner
film. The velocity gradients for these two layers will be different. Since the thicker
film contains more single layers, less force will be needed to shear a single layer so the
viscous resistance will vary as the reciprocal of the film thickness h1 . The force needed
to move the upper surface is thus proportional to:
u
F ∝A (1.2)
h
This relationship is maintained for most fluids. Different fluids will exhibit a
different proportionality constant η, called the dynamic viscosity given by
u
F = ηA (1.3)
h
or
τ
η= u (1.4)
h
Where: η is the dynamic viscosity (Pas); τ is the shear stress acting on the fluid
9
Table 1.2: Commonly used equations to determine viscosity-temperature relationship
Name Equation Comments
Early equation; accurate only for a
Reynolds η = be−aT
very limited temperature range
a Reasonable; useful in numerical
Slotte η = b+T c
analysis
1 Forms the basis of the ASTM
Walther µ + a = bd T c
viscosity-temperature chart
b Most accurate; very useful in engi-
Vogel η = ae T −c
neering calculations
(Pa); u
h
is the shear rate, i.e., velocity gradient normal to the shear stress s−1 .
1.7.3 Kinematic viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to fluid density:
η
µ= (1.5)
ρ
where: µ is the kinematic viscosity (m2 s−1 ); η is the dynamic viscosity (Pas); ρ is the
fluid density (kg/m3 ).
The most commonly used kinematic viscosity unit is the Stoke (S). This unit, how-
ever, is often too large for practical applications, thus a smaller unit, the centistokes
(cS), is used. The SI unit for kinematic viscosity is (m2 s−1 )
1.7.4 Viscosity - Temperature relationship
There are several viscosity-temperature equations available; some of them are purely
empirical whereas others are derived from theoretical models. The most commonly
used equations are summarized in Table 1.2. Among them the most accurate is the
Vogel equation. Three viscosity measurements at different temperatures for a specific
oil are needed in order to determine the three constants in this equation. The oil
viscosity can then be calculated at the required temperature, or the operating tem-
perature can be calculated if the viscosity is known. Apart from being very accurate
the Vogel equation is useful in numerical analysis.
10
1.7.5 Viscosity index
The viscosity index is an inverse measure of the decline in oil viscosity with temper-
ature. High values indicate that the oil shows less relative decline in viscosity with
temperature.
Figure 1.2: Viscosity-temperature characteristics of selected oils
1.7.6 Viscosity-pressure relationship
Lubricant viscosity increases with pressure. For most lubricants this effect is consid-
erably larger than the effect of temperature or shear when the pressure is significantly
above atmospheric. This is of particular importance in the lubrication of heavily
loaded concentrated contacts which can be found, for example, in rolling contact
bearings and gears. The pressures encountered in these contacts can be so high and
the rate of pressure rise so rapid that the lubricant behaves like a solid rather than
a liquid. The phenomenon of viscosity increasing with pressure and the possibility
11
of lubricant failure by fracture rather than viscous shear is often observed but not
always recognized. The best known equation to calculate the viscosity of a lubricant
at moderate pressures (close to atmospheric) is the Barus equation [2, 3].
The Barus equation is of the form:
ηp = ηo eαp (1.6)
where: ηp is the viscosity at pressure p (Pas); ηp is the atmospheric viscosity (Pas);

α is the pressure-viscosity coefficient (m2 N −1 ), which can be obtained by plotting the
natural logarithm of dynamic viscosity η versus pressure p. The slope of the graph is
α; p is the pressure of concern (Pa).
For higher pressures Chu et al. [7] suggested that the following formula can be
used:
ηp = ηo (1 + Cp)n (1.7)
where: C, n are constants, n is approximately 16 for most cases and C can

be obtained from the diagram shown in figure 1.3 [7].The pressure-viscosity coef-
ficient is a function of the molecular structure of the lubricant and its physical
characteristics such as molecular interlocking, molecular packing and rigidity and
viscosity-temperature characteristics.There are various formulae available to calcu-
late the pressure-viscosity coefficient. One of them is
α = (0.6 + 0.965log1 0ηo )10−8 (1.8)
where: α is the pressure-viscosity coefficient (m2 N −1 ); ηp is the atmospheric vis-

cosity (cP); i.e. 1(cP ) = 10−3 (P as)
1.7.7 Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity also varies linearly with the temperature and is affected by
polarity and hydrogen bonding of the molecules. The thermal conductivity of most
of the mineral and synthetic hydrocarbon based lubricants is in the range between
0.14 [W/mK] at 0C to 0.11 [W/mK] at 400C. For a rough estimation of a thermal
12
Table 1.3: Dynamic viscosity and pressure-viscosity coefficients of some commonly
used lubricants
Lubricants Dynamic viscosity Pressure-viscosity
ηo measured at at- coefficientα
mospheric pressure (x10−9 m2 N −1 )
(10−3 P aS)
30o C 60o C 100o C 30o C 60o C 100o C
High VI oils
Light machine oil 38 12.8 5.3 - 18.4 13.4
Heavy machine oil 153 34 9.1 23.7 20.5 15.8
Heavy machine oil 250 50.5 12.6 25 21.3 17.6
Cylinder oil 810 135 26.8 34 28 22
Medium VI Oils
Spindle oil 18.6 6.3 2.4 20 16 13
Light machine oil 45 124 13.9 28 20 16
Medicinal white oil 107 23.3 6.4 29.6 22.8 17.8
Cylinder oil 171 31 7.5 28 23 18
Low VI Oils
Spindle oil 30.7 8.6 3.1 25.7 16 15.4
Heavy machine oil 165 30 6.8 33 22.8 16
Cylinder oil 2000 180 24 28 41.5 25
Other fluids and lubricants
Water 0.8 0.48 0.28 0 0 0
Ethylene oxide - propylene 204 62.5 22.5 17.6 14.3 12.2
oxide copolymer
Castor oil 360 80 18 15.9 14.4 12.3
Di(2-ethylehexyl)phthalate 43.5 11.6 4.05 20.8 16.6 13.5
Glycerol(glycerine) 535 73 13.9 5.9 5.5 3.6
Polypropylene glycol 750 82.3 - - 17.8 - -
Polypropylene glycol 1500 177 - - 17.4 - -
Tri-aryl phosphate ester 25.5 - - 31.6 - -
13
Figure 1.3: Evaluation of viscosity index
conductivity the following formula can be used:
0.12
K= (1 − 1.66710−4 )θ (1.9)
s
where; K is the thermal conductivity (W m−1 K −1 ); θ is the temperature of interest

(o C); s is the specific gravity at 15.6o C.
1.7.8 Flash point and Fire point
The ’flash point’ of the lubricant is the temperature at which its vapour will ignite.
In order to determine the flash point the oil is heated at a standard pressure to
a temperature which is just high enough to produce sufficient vapour to form an
ignitable mixture with air. This is the flash point. The ’fire point’ of an oil is the
temperature at which enough vapour is produced to sustain burning after ignition.
14
1.7.9 Additive Compatibility and Solubility
The additives used in the lubricants should be compatible with each other and soluble
in the lubricant. These additive features are defined as additive compatibility and
additive solubility.
Additive Compatibility
Two or more additives in an oil are compatible if they do not react with each other
and if their individual properties are beneficial to the functioning of the system. It is
usually considered that additives are compatible if they do not give visible evidence of
reacting together, such as a change in colour or smell. This also refers to the compat-
ibility of two or more finished lubricants. Lubricants should also be compatible with
the materials of the components used in a specific application. For example, min-
eral oils are incompatible with natural rubber, and phosphate esters are incompatible
with many different rubbers. Mineral oils give very poor performance with red hot
steels because they produce carburization whereas with rape-seed oil this problem is
avoided. In most industries these problems can be overcome by careful selection of
lubricants. On the other hand, in some industries like pharmaceutical and foodstuffs
where any lubricant leaks are not acceptable, process fluids might be used as lubri-
cants. For example, in sugar refining high viscosity syrups and molasses can be used,
if necessary, to lubricate the bearings, but they are in general poor lubricants and
their use may lead to severe problems.
Additive Solubility
The additive must dissolve well in petroleum products. It must remain dissolved over
the entire operating temperature range. Separation of an additive in storage or in
service is highly undesirable. For example, elemental sulphur could be used as an
additive in extreme conditions of temperature and pressure but it is insoluble in oil
and it would separate during storage and service
15
1.7.10 Lubricant Additives
A large number of additives are used to impart performance characteristics to the

lubricants. The main families of additives are:
1. Antioxidants
2. Viscosity index improvers
3. Anti-wear
4. Metal deactivators
5. Corrosion inhibitors
6. Rust inhibitors
7. Friction modifiers
8. Extreme Pressure
9. Demulsifying / Emulsifying
Antioxidants
Antioxidants are molecules that slow or prevent the oxidation of other chemicals.
Oxidation is a redox chemical reaction that transfers electrons from a substance to
an oxidizing agent. Oxidation reactions can involve the production of free radicals,
which can form dangerous chain reactions. Antioxidants can terminate these chain
reactions by removing radical intermediates and can inhibit other oxidation reactions
by being oxidized themselves. As a result, antioxidants are often reducing agents such
as thiols or phenols.
Anti-wear
AW additives, or antiwear additives, are additives for lubricants to prevent metal-to-

metal contact between parts of gears. EP additives are usually used in applications
such as gearboxes, while AW additives are used with lighter loads such as bushings.
AW additives typically contain zinc and phosphorus compounds.
16
Some popular AW additives are:
• zinc dithiophosphate (ZDP)
• zinc dialkyl dithio phosphate (ZDDP), probably the most widely used in formu-
lated engine oils, also acts as a corrosion inhibitor and antioxidant
• Tricresyl phosphate (TCP), used for high-temperature operation, often used as

an AW and EP additive in turbine engine lubricants, and also in some crankcase
oils and hydraulic fluids
• Halocarbons (chlorinated paraffins), for extreme pressure operations
• Glycerol mono oleate
• Stearic acid, adhering to surfaces via reversible adsorption process under 150 C,
which limits its use to mild contact conditions.
Metal deactivators
Metal deactivators are fuel and lubricant additives used to stabilize fluids by deactivat-
ing (usually by sequestering) metal ions, mostly introduced by the action of naturally
occurring acids in the fuel and acids generated in lubricants by oxidative processes
with the metallic parts of the systems. Metal deactivators inhibit the catalytic effects
of such ions, especially copper, retarding the formation of gummy residues (eg. gels
containing copper mercaptide). An example of a metal deactivator used for gasoline
and jet fuels is N,N’-disalicylidene-1,2-propanediamine. It is used in turbine and jet
fuels, diesel, heating oil, and greases. It is approved for military and commercial
aviation fuels. Benzotriazole and its various derivatives are also common in lubricant
formulas.
Corrosion inhibitors
A corrosion inhibitor is a chemical compound that, when added in small concentra-

tion, stops or slows down corrosion of metals and alloys. A typical good corrosion
inhibitor will give 95% inhibition at concentration of 80 ppm, and 90% at 40 ppm.
17
Some of the mechanisms of its effect are formation of a passivation layer (a thin
film on the surface of the material that stops access of the corrosive substance to
the metal), inhibiting either the oxidation or reduction part of the redox corrosion
system (anodic and cathodic inhibitors), or scavenging the dissolved oxygen. Some
corrosion inhibitors are hexamine, phenylenediamine, dimethylethanolamine, sodium
nitrite, cinnamaldehyde, condensation products of aldehydes and amines (imines),
chromates, nitrites, phosphates, hydrazine, ascorbic acid, and others. The suitability
of any given chemical for a task in hand depends on many factors, from the material
of the system they have to act in, to the nature of the substances they are added into
and their operating temperature.
Friction modifiers
Friction modifiers are added to lubricants to reduce the surface friction of the lubri-
cated parts. Typically thes are polar chemical compounds having high affinity for
metal surfaces and possessing long alkyl chains.Glycerol mono-oleate is a common
example of a friction modifier Extreme Pressure additives EP additives, or extreme
pressure additives, are additives for lubricants with role to decrease wear of the parts
of the gears exposed to very high pressures. They are also added to cutting fluids
for machining of metal. EP additives are usually used in applications such as gear-
boxes, while AW additives are used with lighter loads such as bushings. EP additives
typically contain organic sulfur, phosphorus or chlorine compounds which chemically
react with the metal surface under high pressure conditions. Under such conditions,
small irregularities on the sliding surfaces cause localized flashes of high temperature
(300-1000 C), without significant increase of the average surface temperature. The
chemical reaction between the additive and the surface is confined to this area.
Some of the EP additives are:
• Dark inactive sulphurized fat
• Dark active sulphurized fat
• Dark active sulphur hydrocarbon
18
• Short and medium chain chlorinated alkanes (see chlorinated hydrocarbons and
chlorinated paraffins)
• Esters of chlorendic acid
• Polymer esters
• Organophosphates (phosphoric acid esters), eg. tricresyl phosphate, TCP)
• Zinc phosphates (zinc dialkyl dithio phosphate, ZDDP)
• Polysulfides
• Molybdenum compounds
Anti-foaming
The main task of foam inhibitors is to destabilize foam generated during the oper-
ation of the machinery. Usually long chain silicone polymers are used in very small
quantities of about 0.05% to 0.5% by weight. The amount of additive used is quite
critical, i.e. excessive amount of this additive is less effective.
Viscosity improvers
These are additives which arrest the decline in oil viscosity with temperature and they
are commonly known as viscosity index improvers. Viscosity improving additives
are usuallyhigh molecular weight polymers which are dissolved in the oil and can
change shape from spheroidal to linear as the temperature is increased. This effect
is caused by a greater solubility of the polymer in the oil at higher temperatures
and partly offsets the decline in base oil viscosity with temperature. The linear or
uncoiled molecules cause a larger rise in viscosity in comparison to spheroidal or coiled
molecules. Typical viscosity improvers are polymethacrylates in the molecular weight
range between 10,000 and 100,000. It seems that linear polymer molecules with only
a small number of side chains are the most effective. These additives are used in
small concentrations of a few percent by weight in the base oil. They have been
used for many years as an active ingredient of multigrade oils. The main problem
19
associated with these additives is that they are easily degraded by excessive shear
rates and oxidation. Under high shear rates viscosity improvers can suffer permanent
or temporary viscosity loss. Temporary viscosity loss results from the alignment of
the polymer molecules under high shear rates and is reversible. On the other hand,
permanent viscosity loss involves the breakdown of large polymer molecules under
high shear rates and is irreversible. Viscosity improvers can usually raise the viscosity
index of an oil from 110 to 150, but only at moderate shear rates and for a limited
period of time. Oil oxidation can also contribute to the degradation or breakdown of
the polymer molecules. Pressure-viscosity coefficients are not significantly affected by
polymer viscosity improvers although some minor effects have been reported in the
literature.
1.8 Wear
Wear [4] is a damage to a solid surface, generally involving progressive loss of material
due to relative motion between that surface and a contacting substance or surface.
There are basically three types of wear viz.,
1. Abrasive wear
2. Erosive wear and
3. Adhesive wear
Wear by abrasion and erosion are forms of wear caused by contact between a
particle and solid material. Abrasive wear is the loss of material by the passage of
hard particles over a surface. Erosive wear is caused by the impact of particles against
a solid surface. Adhesive wear occurs when there is surface interaction and welding
at localized contact areas when one material is sliding over another. Abrasion and
erosion in particular are rapid and severe forms of wear, which when not adequately
controlled can result in significant costs.
20
Figure 1.4: Adhesive Wear
1.8.1 Abrasive wear
Abrasive wear occurs whenever a solid object is loaded against particles of a material
that have equal or greater hardness. Any material, even if the bulk of it is very soft,
may cause abrasive wear if hard particles are present.
1.8.2 Erosive Wear
Erosive wear is caused by the impact of particles of solid or liquid against the surface
of an object. In common with other forms of wear, mechanical strength does not
guarantee wear resistance and a detailed study of material characteristics is required
for wear minimization. The properties of the eroding particle are also significant and
are a relevant parameter in the control of this type of wear.
1.8.3 Adhesive Wear
Adhesive wear [5] is the second most common form of wear in industry. It is defined as:
‘The action of one material sliding over another with surface interaction and welding
(adhesion) at localised contact areas’
Adhesive wear may be between metallic materials, ceramics or polymers, or combi-
nations. It is dependent on adhesion between the materials and that in turn depends
on surface films like oxides or lubricants, as well as the mutual affinity of one material
for another. If loads are light and the natural spontaneous oxidation of a metal can
keep up with the rate of its removal by wear, then that wear rate will be relatively
low (the oxide acting as a lubricant) and is known as Mild Wear. If loads are high
and the protective oxide is continually disrupted to allow intimate metallic contact
21
and adhesion, then the wear would be classified as Severe Wear
With materials which have thin, brittle oxides, notably stainless steel, aluminium
alloys and titanium, the protective oxide is easily disrupted and the consequent mas-
sive adhesion and wear is called Galling. The terms Mild wear, Severe wear and
Galling are used with specific meanings. They are in relation to unlubricated sliding.
Mild wear is characteristic of dry sliding metals where the conditions are such
that the naturally protecting oxide can continuously reform at the slidng contact, so
acting with a degree of dry lubrication and reducing the wear rate. It also occurs with
hardened alloys (usually steels) when, even under high contact loads and speeds, the
underlying substrate can support the oxide and prevent its disruption by deformation
below it.
Severe wear occurs (generally in soft metals or alloys) when the conditions are such
that the oxide is disrupted at a greater rate than which it can reform, so that clean
metal is exposed below and massive adhesion occurs between the mating surfaces.
It is not uncommon for soft materials to show sudden transitions between these
two wear regimes. With mild steel at low load, mild wear results. As the load is
increased, a point is reached when the oxide cannot keep pace and there is a sudden
100 fold increase in wear rate. At even higher loads, the frictional heating is such that
the oxidation rate rapidly increases and can again form a protective layer; and mild
wear is re-established.
The use of a lubricant is to separate the surfaces and to eliminate contact and
wear. This is achieved by the generation of a wedge of oil as the lubricant is drawn
into the contact region by the motion of the parts.
1.9 SCOPE OF PRESENT WORK
Nanofluids are engineered colloidal suspensions of nanoparticles in a base fluid. The

enhancement in a particular property of nanofluids is dependent on the dispersed
nanomaterials.
Carbon nanotubes have a thermal conductivity of 6000W/mK and a cylindrical
structure which makes it an outright choice for generation of nanofluids.
22
In the present work, an attempt is made with some degree of success to uniformly
disperse MWNTs in the SAE40 diesel oil with the aid of Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate.
The wear resistant property of the nanofluid is studied extensively using a four ball
wear testing machine. Reduction in coefficient of friction (upto 45%) was observed.
23
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Nanofluids
Nanofluids are engineered colloidal suspensions of nanoparticles in a base fluid. In

general the size of these nanoparticles vary from 1-100nm. The type of nanoparticle
used is directly dependent on the enhancement of a required property of the base fluid.
The research work on nanofluids until now has focused mainly on the improvement
of thermal properties of the base fluid.
All physical mechanisms have a critical length scale, below which the physical
properties of materials are changed. Therefore particles <100 nm exhibit properties
that are considerably different from those of conventional solids. The noble properties
of nanophase materials come from the relatively high surface area to volume ratio that
is due to the high proportion of constituent atoms residing at the grain boundaries.
The thermal, mechanical, optical, magnetic, and electrical properties of nanophase
materials are superior to those of conventional materials with coarse grain structures
[1].
2.1.1 Preparation of Nanoparticles and Nanofluids
There are many methods that are used to prepare nanoparticles for dispersion in base
fluids. Current nanophase technology can produce large quantities of powders with
average particle sizes of about 10-nm. Several “modern” nanophase materials have
been prepared by physical gas-phase condensation or chemical synthesis techniques [6].
The gas-phase condensation process involves the evaporation of a source material and
24
the rapid condensation of vapor into nanometer-sized crystallite or loosely agglomer-
ated clusters in a cool, inert, reduced pressure atmosphere [7, 8]. A chemistry-based
solution-spray conversion process starts with water-soluble salts of source materials.
The solution is then turned into an aerosol and dried by a spray-drying system. Rapid
vaporization of the solvent and rapid precipitation of the solute keeps the composition
identical to that of the starting solution. The precursor powder is then placed in a
fluidized-bed reactor to evenly pyrolyze the mixture, drive off volatile constituents,
and yield porous powders with a uniform homogeneous fine structure [9]. A third
technique is to generate nanophase materials by condensation of metal vapors during
rapid expansion in a supersonic nozzle [10, 11, 12]
Nanofluids are generally prepared by dispersing nanosized particles (10-100nm)
in a base fluid. However nanofluids with uniformly dispersed nanoparticles are very
difficult to prepare as the particles agglomerate over time due to mutually attractive
Van der waal’s forces. Hence some kind of dispersant is generally added for this
purpose. The choice of the dispersant depends on the type and the properties of
the base fluid. The most commonly used dispersant for aqueous solution of carbon
nanotubes is Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate (SDS). Lian Gao et al. [13] have conducted
extensive stability analysis on aqueous suspension of carbon nanotubes using UV-
Spectrophotometric measurements. It was found that the optimum concentration of
SDS to disperse 0.5wt% of CNTs was 2wt%. Addition of higher percentages of SDS
results in the formation of micelles which hinder proper distribution of CNTs.
2.1.2 Thermally enhanced Nanofluids
It is a well known fact that the thermal conductivity of solid particles is much higher
than those of liquids. For example, at room temperature the thermal conductivity of
copper (401 W/mK) is 691 times greater than that of water (0.58 W/mK). Therefore it
is natural that addition of copper particles increases the thermal conductivity of water.
However the size of these particles makes a significant impact on the properties of the
fluid. Milli or micrometer sized particle suspensions have limited applications as the
particles settle down or clog the filters. This is where nanofluids come into picture;
25
the small size of these particles offer a unique stability and application advantage
when compared with all other commercially available heat transfer fluids.
For example 0.3 volume percent of copper nano-particles dispersed in ethylene
glycol increases its thermal conductivity by about 40% [14]. Metal oxides such as
aluminum oxide or titanium oxide are also used to enhance the thermal conductivity
of base fluids although the amount of heat transfer increase is not as large as that seen
in metal particle suspensions [15]. The effectiveness of heat transfer enhancement is
known to be dependent on the amount of dispersed particles, material type, particle
shape, and so on. However there has been no established mechanism for the heat
transfer enhancement. The reason may arise from the difficulty caused by the fact
that the heat-transfer between the base fluid and particles occurs while the particles
are in random Brownian motion. Also, depending on the flow condition and chemical
nature of particles, dispersion state can be different [16, 17].
2.1.3 Carbon nanotube based Nanofluids
Carbon nanotubes exhibit exotic properties. Their extraordinary stiffness and strength
combined with their thermal and electronic properties have grabbed the attention of
researchers worldwide. Multiwalled nanotubes have a stiffness of 1.8TPa [18, 19,
20]while their thermal conductivity is around 6600W/mK at room temperature [21]
which are higher than those of graphite and diamond.
Nanotube based nanofluids have been studied extensively by various research
groups for its thermally enhanced properties [22, 23, 24, 25, 26], however there has
been very little research done in the area of lubrication property enhancement of
nanofluids. Carbon nanotubes which are one of the allotropic forms of carbon re-
sembles the shape of a roller bearing at the nanolevel, besides carbon graphite is
also a good solid lubricant; hence CNTs might show some extraordinary lubrication
properties. Very few research groups have explored this area [27, 28].
26
Chapter 3
EXPERIMENTATION
3.1 Preparation of MWNT by arc-evaporation tech-

nique
A stainless steel vertical chamber with a viewing port was used as the basic arc evapo-
ration setup. The chamber has an inlet port for Helium and an outlet port connected
to a vacuum pump as shown in figure 3.1. The chamber consists of a copper cathode
(φ 12mm) and a consumable graphite anode (φ 7mm and length 3in). The entire
chamber is cooled by passing water through anode and cathode supports, chamber
walls and through copper tubes surrounding the electrodes. Carbon nanotubes are
produced by evaporating the graphite anode in a helium atmosphere at 500torr vac-
uum. A cylindrical deposit is formed on the cathode with a diameter greater than
that of the initial graphite anode evaporated. Consequently, an anode feed mecha-
nism is employed to maintain a constant arc gap of 1mm between the electrodes. The
arc struck between the electrodes is sustained with a DC voltage of 20V and current
of 100A. The process takes about an hour to complete producing soot on the inside
walls of the chamber and a cathode deposit. The soot contains amorphous carbon
and minute quantities of fullerenes. The cathode deposit (figure 3.2) has a cigar like
structure and contains MWNTs, amorphous carbon and polyhedral particles in its
core. MWNTs along with impurities are extracted from the deposit.
27
Figure 3.1: Schematic view of arc-evaporation apparatus
28
Figure 3.2: A photograph of the cathode deposit
3.2 Purification of MWNTs
MWNTs are extracted by the solvent approach. The impure MWNTs obtained from
the cathode deposit is dispersed in ethanol and is sonicated (figure 3.3) at 150V
for 20 minutes. Nanotubes get separated from the surrounding debris as the graphite
impurities being of relatively higher density settle down in the beaker. The solution is
then decanted and the process is repeated several times. Finally the residue containing
mainly graphite particles is discarded. The decanted solution is left undisturbed for
a day to allow the MWNTs to agglomerate and settle at the bottom. Around 75
percent of the ethanol is recovered by decantation. The remaining ethanol containing
settled MWNTs is evaporated to obtain a residue of pure MWNTs.
3.3 Preparation of SWNT by arc-evaporation tech-

nique
SWNTs are produced in the same arc evaporation chamber shown in figure 3.1 by
co -vaporization of graphite and bimetal catalyst (Co and Ni) in a composite anode.
The graphite rod is 6mm in diameter and 150mm in length. A hole of 4mm is drilled
axially and densely packed with mixture of cobalt, nickel and graphite powder. The
helium pressure is maintained at 500 torr. A stable arc is formed at 20V and 75A.
The gap between electrodes is maintained around 2mm.
29
SWNTs are formed as a web like structure in the chamber (figure 3.4) and also as
a collaret around the cathode. It should be noted that cylindrical deposit also grows
at the cathode, consisting of a hard gray shell and a soft core. The soft core has
poorly developed columnar structure and contains MWNTs and polyhedral particles.
3.4 Purification of SWNTs
The mixed carbon and metal vapour that escapes the electrode gap then condenses
and deposits on the reactor surface. The product obtained can be divided in to three
structural types; a spongy soft belt called collaret is formed around the cylindrical
deposit while relatively a strong cloth like soot is found on the chamber walls and
finally a web like structure is suspended in the chamber volume between cathode
and walls. The above three type contains varying amount of SWNTs, Fullerenes and
amorphous carbon. To extract SWNTs, the soot is heated at 450o C for 20 minutes
to vaporize volatile impurities. The residue is then treated with HN O3 to dissolve
metal catalyst particles. The soot, free from volatile impurities and catalyst particles
is filtered to separate it from HN O3 and the residue thus obtained is dissolved in
ethanol followed by sonication for 20 minutes. The decanted solution is finally heated
to vaporize ethanol to obtain pure SWNTs.
3.5 Characterization of Nanotubes
The basic tools used to characterize Carbon Nanotubes are:
1. Electron microscopy
(a) Transmission Electron Microscopy and
(b) Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
2. Raman Spectroscopy and
3. Thermogravimetric Analysis
30
Figure 3.3: Photograph of Ultrasonicator used for sonication
Figure 3.4: Schematic view of arc-evaporation apparatus
31
3.5.1 Electron Microscopy
Optical microscopes have been used from centuries together, to magnify objects. How-
ever, even compound optical microscopes are limited in their ability to resolve fine
details by the properties of light and the refractive materials used to manufacture
lenses. A lens magnifies by bending light by refraction. Optical microscopes are re-
stricted in their ability to resolve features by a phenomenon called diffraction which,
based on the numerical aperture (AN ) of the optical system and the wavelengths of
light used (λ), sets a definite limit (d) to the optical resolution. Assuming that optical
aberrations are negligible, the resolution (d) is given by:
λ
d= (3.1)
2An
If λ = 550 nm is assumed corresponding to green light and with air as medium,

the highest practical An is 0.95, and with oil, up to 1.5. This limits the resolution to
around 0.2µ.
In order to increase the resolution of microscopes so as to observe nanomaterials,
light of lower wavelength (λ) than visible light must be used. This is the basic principle
employed in Electron Microscopes.
Electron Microscopes use electrons in order to examine a given specimen. The
wavelength of an electron can be given by debroglie equation:
h h
λ= =√ (3.2)
p 2me Eb
where h is Plancks constant. The electron has rest mass me and energy Ee =
me c2 = 511keV .
If an electron with charge qe is accelerated from rest by an electrical potential U ,
to the electron beam energy Eb = qe U , it will have a wavelength of 1 nm at 1 eV
decreasing to 1 pm at 100 keV where it will be travelling with 50% the speed of light.
There are two general types of electron microscopes:
1. Scanning Electron Microscope that scans an electron beam over the surface of
an object and measures how many electrons are scattered back and
32
Figure 3.5: A very simple sketch of a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) and
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) compared to an optical transmission micro-
scope and a cathode ray tube (CRT) TV screen - both systems have many things on
common with the electron microscope. The optical microscope uses lenses to control
the lights pathway through the system and is in many ways built up like a TEM -
only the TEM uses electromagnetic lenses to direct the beam of electrons. The CRT
uses electromagnetic lenses as the TEM and SEM to control the electron beam, and
generates an image for the viewer by scanning the beam over a fluorescent screen - in
the same way the a SEM generates an image by scanning the electron beam over a
small sample.
2. Transmission electron Microscope that shoots electrons through the sample and
measures how the electron beam changes because it is scattered in the sample.
Electrons are easily scattered by gases and hence the microscopes must be used in
a vacuum or very low pressure environment which makes the instruments larger and
expensive.
The electron optical system sets limitations to the achievable primary beam cur-
rent and radius. The expected image resolution set by the primary beam cannot be
reached if the signal detected for imaging is caused by electrons scattered far in the
sample. The trajectory of an electron penetrating a bulk solid is a complex trajectory
due to multiple elastic and inelastic collision events. As the primary electron (PE)
33
penetrates into the sample it will gradually change direction and loose energy in col-
lisions. The mean free path due to elastic and inelastic collisions, λmf p , depends on
the atomic number of the material and the PE energy. At 100 keV λmf p = 150nm
for carbon and 5 nm for gold. For samples thinner than λmf p the main part of the
PE will pass relatively unaffected through the sample, which is the basis for TEM.
The PE are scattered within the interaction volume, defined the electron range in the
material. The range is longer than the mean free path λmf p . The SE have a very
short range, and only those created within that range from the surface can escape the
material. This defines the SE escape depth. SEM can be used for thicker specimens.
The electrons that escape from the sample in a new direction compared to the PE
due to elastic collisions are called backscattered electrons (BSE). The electron range
is about 1 m at 10 keV for carbon, decreasing with higher atomic number for the
material. Both the high energy PE and BSE generate secondary electrons (SE) by
inelastic scattering events. The SE are generally defined as having energy below 50
eV while the BSE have energies up to the PE energy. The range of SE is typically 1
nm for metals and about 10 nm for insulators
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
In a scanning electron microscope a beam is scanned over the sample surface in a

raster pattern while a signal is recorded from electron detectors for SE or BSE. The
PE energy is kept relatively low (1-30 keV) to limit the interaction volume in the
specimen that will contribute to the detected signal. Especially low energy PE will
provide high sensitivity to surface composition as they cannot penetrate far into the
sample.
The figure 3.6 above showed the effect of PE penetration depth of a carbonaceous
nanostructure with a gold core, where only the surface is visible at low PE energies,
while the carbon becomes increasingly transparent and the core visible at high PE
energies.
The low energy SE can easily be attracted and collected by a positively charged
detector and are hence an efficient source for an image signal. The standard SE de-
tector is an Everhart-Thornley (ET) detector where a positively charged grid attracts
34
Figure 3.6: The electron range increases with beam energy. The internal structure
of the EEBD deposits can be examined at high electron beam energies in SEM. At
5 kV with shallow penetration depth, the surface of the tips is clearly visible while
at higher energies a core of more dense material becomes increasingly visible. At 100
keV and above, TEM images can achieve atomic resolution where the lattice planes
in nanocrystals such as the gold nanocrystal in (c). The gold crystal is embedded in
amorphous carbon with no clear lattice pattern [29].
the SE and accelerates them to sufficiently high energies to create a light pulse when
striking a scintillator. The light pulse is then amplified by a photomultiplier. Despite
the complex construction, the ET detector is remarkably efficient.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
is an imaging technique whereby a beam of electrons is transmitted through a speci-

men, then an image is formed, magnified and directed to appear either on a fluorescent
screen or layer of photographic film (see electron microscope), or to be detected by a
sensor such as a CCD camera. The contrast in a TEM image is not like the contrast
in a light microscope image. A crystalline material interacts with the electron beam
mostly by diffraction rather than absorption, although the intensity of the transmit-
ted beam is still affected by the volume and density of the material through which
it passes. The intensity of the diffraction depends on the orientation of the planes
of atoms in a crystal relative to the electron beam at certain angles the electron
beam is diffracted strongly from the axis of the incoming beam, while at other angles
the beam is largely transmitted. Modern TEMs are often equipped with specimen
holders that allow the user to tilt the specimen to a range of angles in order to obtain
specific diffraction conditions, and apertures placed below the specimen allow the user
to select electrons diffracted in a particular direction.
35
A high contrast image can therefore be formed by blocking electrons deflected
away from the optical axis of the microscope by placing the aperture to allow only
unscattered electrons through. This produces a variation in the electron intensity
that reveals information on the crystal structure, and can be viewed on a fluorescent
screen, or recorded on photographic film or captured electronically.
This technique (known as Bright Field or Light Field) is particularly sensitive to
extended crystal lattice defects in an otherwise ordered crystal, such as dislocations.
As the local distortion of the crystal around the defect changes the angle of the crystal
plane, the intensity of the scattering will vary around the defect. As the image is
formed by the distortion of the crystal planes around the defect, the contrast in these
images does not normally coincide exactly with the defect, but is slightly to one side.
It is also possible to produce an image from electrons deflected by a particular
crystal plane. By either moving the aperture to the position of the deflected electrons,
or tilting the electron beam so that the deflected electrons pass through the centred
aperture, an image can be formed of only deflected electrons, known as a Dark Field
image.
In the most powerful diffraction contrast TEM instruments, crystal structure can
also be investigated by High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM),
also known as phase contrast imaging as the images are formed due to differences in
phase of electron waves scattered through a thin specimen.
Resolution of the HRTEM is limited by spherical and chromatic aberration, but a
new generation of aberration correctors has been able to overcome spherical aberra-
tion. Software correction of spherical aberration has allowed the production of images
with sufficient resolution to show carbon atoms in diamond separated by only 0.89
Ȧ and atoms in silicon at 0.78 Ȧ (78 pm) at magnifications of 50 million times. Im-
proved resolution has also allowed the imaging of lighter atoms that scatter electrons
less efficiently lithium atoms have been imaged in lithium battery materials. The
ability to determine the positions of atoms within materials has made the HRTEM
an indispensable tool for nanotechnology research and development in many fields,
including heterogeneous catalysis and the development of semiconductor devices for
electronics and photonics.
36
Figure 3.7: A Perkin-Elmer TGA7
3.5.2 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is an analytical technique used to determine a

materials thermal stability and its fraction of volatile components by monitoring the
weight change that occurs as a specimen is heated. The measurement is normally
carried out in air or in an inert atmosphere, such as Helium or Argon, and the weight
is recorded as a function of increasing temperature. A derivative weight loss curve
can also be used to tell the point at which weight loss is most apparent.
3.6 Generation of Nanofluids
Nanofluids were prepared by dispersing MWNTs (nanoparticle) in SAE40 diesel oil

(basefluid). However ensuring uniform dispersion of nanotubes in the base oil has
been a serious challenge. The nanotubes tend to aggregate, form agglomerates and
separate from the dispersion under the influence of strong Vanderwaal’s forces. In
order to reap maximum property enhancement from the nanofluid, the MWNTs need
to be dispersed uniformly, which was accomplished to a certain extent by the addition
of a dispersing agent. The use of dispersion agents, such as surface-active agents, to
disperse fine particles of hydrophobic materials in aqueous solution have been reported
in literature [30, 31]. Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate (SDS) is one of the commonly used
surfactant to disperse carbon nanotubes in aqueous solution and hence was adopted
37
to disperse MWNTs in oil medium. In order to determine optimum concentration
of SDS to uniformly disperse MWNTs, varying weight percentages of SDS was used
to disperse 0.1wt% of MWNT in SAE 40 oil. The mixture was sonicated for 30
minutes and analyzed under a microscope of 40x magnification to find any trace of
agglomerates. The photographs of agglomerates with different weight fractions of
SDS is shown in figure 3.8
From figure 3.8 it can be seen that the nanotubes are dispersed quite uniformly in
the oil for 1wt% of SDS which leads to the conclusion that the optimum concentration
of SDS for 0.1wt% CNT is 1wt% SDS. Any amount lower or higher than this will lead
to large aggregation as can be seen in figure 3.8.
Insufficient surfactant cannot produce an efficient coating that will induce elec-
trostatic repulsion and counterbalance the Vanderwaals attractions. At higher SDS
concentrations, the clusters become larger and denser. Such a behavior can presum-
ably be ascribed to the reduction of electrostatic repulsion forces between MWNTs
due to the large ionic strength and the increasing concentration of surfactant aggre-
gates, known as micelles [13]. Micelles cannot fit in between two CNT bundles that
are close to each other. As a result, the osmotic pressure of the micelles around bun-
dles creates an effective attraction. In classical colloidal suspensions and in multiwall
nanotube dispersions, this attraction is known as a depletion attraction.
It was inferred that the concentration of SDS has to be roughly 10 times the
concentration of MWNT assuming linear variation. Therefore to prepare 0.25wt%
MWNT nanofluid, 2.5wt% of SDS was added. However some portion of SDS always
settled at the bottom even after sonication time reaching 5 hours. Therefore the as-
sumed linear variation was incorrect. For preparing other weight fractions of MWNT
nanofluid, 1.25 wt% of SDS was used and the dispersion was found to be adequate.
3.7 Four Ball Wear Test
The Four Ball Wear Test method [32] can be used to determine the relative wear
preventive properties of lubricating fluids in sliding contact. This test puts one rotat-
ing ball against three fixed balls under specific conditions of pressure, temperature,
38
(a) 0.25 wt% SDS (b) 0.50 wt% SDS
(c) 0.75 wt% SDS (d) 1 wt% SDS
(e) 2 wt% SDS (f) 3 wt% SDS
(g) 4 wt% SDS (h) micelle
Figure 3.8: Dispersion analysis for 0.1 wt% of CNT
39
Figure 3.9: Schematic of a four ball wear test machine
revolutions per minute and duration figure 3.9. The test may be used to evaluate the
friction and wear control ability of liquid lubricants or greases in sliding contact figure
3.10.
3.7.1 Materials
Test Balls are of chrome alloy steel, made from AISI standard steel No. E-52100, with
diameter of 12.7 mm [0.5 in.] Grade 25 EP (Extra Polish). However the Rockwell
C hardness should be between 64 to 66, a closer limit than is found in the ANSI
requirement.
3.7.2 Cleaning Fluids
Cleaning Fluids for preparing balls and apparatus for the test should be those ap-
proved as nontoxic, capable of removing antirust coatings from the balls, eliminating
test-oil carryover from one test to the next, and not contribute to wear or antiwear
of the test lubricant. When the fluid is flammable, appropriate precautions should be
taken. In our tests we used Hexane as a cleaning fluid.
3.7.3 Test Conditions
The testing parameters for the base oil and 0.25wt% MWNT nanofluid is given in
table 3.1
40
Figure 3.10: Four Ball Wear Tester
Base Oil 40o C 70o C 100o C

100N 2 2 2
200N 2 2 2
300N 2 2 2
400N 2 2 2
500N 2 2 2
Table 3.1: Parameters for testing of base oil and 0.25 wt% MWNT nanofluid
41
3.7.4 Procedure
1. The four test balls, clamping parts for upper and lower balls and the oil cup are
thoroughly cleaned with hexane and finally wiped using a fresh tissue paper. It
is to be noted that no trace of solvent must remain when the test oil is introduced
and the machine assembled.
2. One of the clean balls is tightened onto the spindle of the test machine.
3. The remaining three clean test balls are assembled in the test-oil cup and hand
tightened using the supplied wrench figure 3.12.
4. The oil to be evaluated is poured into the test-oil cup to a level at least 3 mm
above the top of the balls. It has to be noted that this oil level still exists after
the test-oil fills all of the voids in the test-oil cup assembly.
5. The test-oil cup with the three balls is installed in the machine and the normal
load and coefficient of friction is tared to zero.
6. The test conditions are set properly and the load is applied slowly to avoid shock
figure3.13.
7. The heaters have to establish the given temperature ±2o C while the variation
in rpm can be ± 60
8. The test is conducted for 60 ± 1 minutes after which the heaters and drive
motors are switched off and the test-oil cup and three-ball assembly is removed.
3.7.5 Measuring wear scar diameter
The test oil is drained from the three-ball assembly. The scar area is wiped with a
tissue and the scars are marked for easy observation in microscope. The wear scar
diameter figure 3.11 is measured twice once parallel to the scar and the other perpen-
dicular to the scar. The arithmetic average of the six measurements are reported as
scar diameter in millimeters.
42
Figure 3.11: Photograph of a wear scar
Figure 3.12: Three ball Assembly
Figure 3.13: Four ball wear tester software
43
Chapter 4
RESULTS and DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Characterization of Carbon Nanotubes
4.1.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy
Transmission Electron Microscopy image of the MWNT and SWNT produced by arc
discharge method is shown in figure [4.1, 4.2]. The sample is quite pure and contains
few amorphous carbon.
4.1.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis
Thermogravimetric analysis gauges the thermal stability and purity of a particular

substance in a given sample. TGA graph for MWNT is shown in figure 4.3. Around
95% of the sample is thermally stable upto 460o C with only 5% by weight of the
sample decomposing, implying the presence of amorphous impurities. The steep loss
of weight at about 520o C is due to MWNT. Therefore it is concluded that the purified
sample of MWNT subjected to thermogravimetric analysis was of 95% purity.
4.1.3 Coding of nanofluid samples
A typical code used during testing was 1B4a. The first letter ‘1’ indicates 100N,
similarly if the first letter is ‘2’, it indicates 200N. The letter B in the code signifies
base oil, C indicates 0.25 weight percent MWNT additive, D indicates 0.5 weight
percent MWNT additive, E indicates 0.75 wt %, F indicates 1 wt%, H indicates 3
wt%, A indicates 0.1 wt% and finally Z indicates 0.05 wt% of MWNT additive. The
44
Figure 4.1: Transmission Electron Microscopy image of MWNT
Figure 4.2: Transmission Electron Microscopy image of SWNT
45
Figure 4.3: Thermogravimetric analysis of MWNT
third letter stands for the temperature used: 4 stands for 40o C, 7 stands for 70o C, 10
stands for 100o C. The last letter in the code indicates the trial number: a indicate
trial–1 and b indicates trial–2.
(a) Trial–1 (b) Trial–2
Figure 4.4: Variation of COF of base oil with TIME at 100N and 40o C
46
47
48
49
50
Figure 4.19: Comparison of COF of base oil and 0.25wt% additive oil with TIME at
100N and 40o C
51
200N and 40o C
300N and 40o C
400N and 40o C
52
500N and 40o C
100N and 70o C
200N and 70o C
53
300N and 70o C
400N and 70o C
500N and 70o C
54
100N and 100o C
200N and 100o C
300N and 100o C
55
400N and 100o C
500N and 100o C
500N and 40o C
56
500N and 40o C
500N and 40o C
Figure 4.1.3 shows the variation of coefficient of friction of Single walled nanotube
additive oil with time. There is a noticeable reduction in coefficient of friction when
compared to that of the base oil.
The wear scar diameter for different weight fractions of MWNT additive is shown
in figure 4.41. It can be inferred that the optimum weight fraction of MWNT additive
added to the base oil for effective wear and coefficient of friction reduction is 0.25
weight percent. This maybe because of failure in optimum dispersion of higher weight
fractions of MWNT in the base oil.
At higher temperatures and higher loads SDS seems to become ineffective in dis-
persing MWNT. Several samples of oil after undergoing testing for one hour in the
four ball tester showed separation as shown in figure 4.45. This maybe one of the
reason for the poor performance of the nanofluid at higher loads and temperatures.
Gum arabic has been used by Xuan et al. [33] to disperse MWNT in water. It
57
400N and 40o C
500N and 40o C
500N and 40o C
58
Figure 4.40: Comparison of COF of base oil and 1wt% SWNT additive oil with TIME
at 500N and 40o C
was found that after maintaining a proper pH and treating the solution of water and
disentangled MWNTs for 30 mins in a high shear homogenizer produced nanofluids
with no visible sedimentation for months. Therefore to improve the performance of
the nanofluid at higher load and higher temperatures, gum arabic might be used as
an alternative to SDS.
59
Figure 4.41: Variation of Wear Scar Diameter with different weight fraction of additive
Figure 4.42: Variation of Wear Scar Diameter with different loads at 40o C
60
61
Figure 4.45: Separation of MWNT from the base oil seen in some samples at higher
loads and higher temperatures
62
Chapter 5
CONCLUSION
1. Carbon nanotubes were successfully synthesized using arc evaporation tech-

nique.
2. Multiwalled nanotubes were purified through solvent approach. Carbon nan-

otube purity were evaluated using Thermogravimetric analysis and was found
to be 95%.
3. Nanofluids were prepared successfully by dispersing purified Multiwalled Nan-

otubes in SAE40 diesel oil. Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate (SDS), a commonly used
surfactant, was employed to disperse Multiwalled Nanotubes in the base oil.
4. The optimum weight percentage of Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate to disperse 0.1

weight percent of Multiwalled nanotube in SAE40 diesel oil was experimentally
determined to be 1 weight percent.
5. The nanofluid was tested for its wear resistant properties at the Tribology lab,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. At low load and temperatures, the
nanofluid was found to exhibit huge decrease in Coefficient of friction (upto
45%). However at higher temperatures multiwalled nanotubes were found to
agglomerate and separate from the base fluid (figure 4.45). This behaviour may
be attributed to the failure of Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate in dispersing carbon
nanotubes.
6. To improve the performance of the nanofluid at higher load and higher temper-
atures, gum arabic might be used as an alternative to SDS.
63
Chapter 6
CHALLENGES FACED DURING

EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT
6.1 Selection of suitable base oil
At the early stages of the project, the base oil to be used for preparation of nanofluid
was ambiguous. It was not clear whether to use single grade oil, multigrade oil
or synthetic oil for the project. However it was later decided that single grade oil
with comparatively fewer additives would provide us a platform for better property
evaluation.
6.2 Non uniform dispersion of MWNT in base oil
Multiwalled Nanotubes attract towards each other due to weak vanderwaals forces
and agglomerate in a solution. Surfactants are generally used to coat the surface
of MWNT and prevent agglomeration. However if the weight fraction of surfactant
is higher than the critical micellar concentration, they begin to form micelles which
dents their ability to disperse MWNTs. Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate (SDS) was used
to disperse MWNT and extensive analysis was conducted to determine the optimum
concentration of SDS for dispersing 0.1 weight fraction of MWNT.
64
6.3 Determination of method used to test wear re-
sistant properties of oil
After the nanofluids were generated, there was some ambiguity in choosing the method
used to characterize their wear resistant property. Finally we decided to adopt four
ball wear testing method as it was the standard method used in the industry for
similar purposes.
6.4 Searching for Four ball wear testing facility
The major obstacle in the completion of the project was to find a four ball tester in
bangalore to characterize the nanofluid. After searching in various establishments, we
were successful in obtaining the facility at the Tribology lab, Department of Mechan-
ical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
6.5 Difficulty in obtaining slots for testing
The machine at IISc was overbooked by various student project groups from other
projects and we were very lucky to obtain slots for testing of our nanofluid. In most of
the circumstances, we worked in night shifts from evening 6pm to 10am next morning.
6.6 Difficulty in producing 4 grams of purified Car-

bon nanotubes
The yield of MWNT obtained by arc discharge was very meagre. The cathode deposits
from over 10 experiments (each 40 minutes) yielded only 0.1 gram of pure MWNT
(95% purity). Hence it was very difficult to produce 4 grams of purified MWNT and
we almost took two and a half months to prepare the same.
65
List of Figures
1.1 Schematic representation of the fluid separating two surfaces . . . . . 9

1.2 Viscosity-temperature characteristics of selected oils . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Evaluation of viscosity index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Adhesive Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1 Schematic view of arc-evaporation apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.2 A photograph of the cathode deposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3 Photograph of Ultrasonicator used for sonication . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4 Schematic view of arc-evaporation apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5 A very simple sketch of a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) and
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) compared to an optical transmis-
sion microscope and a cathode ray tube (CRT) TV screen - both sys-
tems have many things on common with the electron microscope. The
optical microscope uses lenses to control the lights pathway through the
system and is in many ways built up like a TEM - only the TEM uses
electromagnetic lenses to direct the beam of electrons. The CRT uses
electromagnetic lenses as the TEM and SEM to control the electron
beam, and generates an image for the viewer by scanning the beam
over a fluorescent screen - in the same way the a SEM generates an
image by scanning the electron beam over a small sample. . . . . . . 33
66
3.6 The electron range increases with beam energy. The internal structure
of the EEBD deposits can be examined at high electron beam energies
in SEM. At 5 kV with shallow penetration depth, the surface of the tips
is clearly visible while at higher energies a core of more dense material
becomes increasingly visible. At 100 keV and above, TEM images
can achieve atomic resolution where the lattice planes in nanocrystals
such as the gold nanocrystal in (c). The gold crystal is embedded in
amorphous carbon with no clear lattice pattern [29]. . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.7 A Perkin-Elmer TGA7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.8 Dispersion analysis for 0.1 wt% of CNT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.9 Schematic of a four ball wear test machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.10 Four Ball Wear Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.11 Photograph of a wear scar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.12 Three ball Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.13 Four ball wear tester software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy image of MWNT . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy image of SWNT . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3 Thermogravimetric analysis of MWNT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4 Variation of COF of base oil with TIME at 100N and 40o C . . . . . . 46
4.14 Variation of COF of base oil with TIME at 100N and 100o C . . . . . 50
67
4.19 Comparison of COF of base oil and 0.25wt% additive oil with TIME
at 100N and 40o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
at 200N and 40o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
at 300N and 40o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
at 400N and 40o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
at 500N and 40o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
at 100N and 70o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
at 200N and 70o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
at 300N and 70o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
at 400N and 70o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
at 500N and 70o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
at 100N and 100o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
at 200N and 100o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
at 300N and 100o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
at 400N and 100o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
68
at 500N and 100o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.34 Comparison of COF of base oil and 0.1wt% additive oil with TIME at
500N and 40o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
at 500N and 40o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
at 500N and 40o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
at 400N and 40o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
at 500N and 40o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
at 500N and 40o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.40 Comparison of COF of base oil and 1wt% SWNT additive oil with
TIME at 500N and 40o C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.41 Variation of Wear Scar Diameter with different weight fraction of additive 60
4.42 Variation of Wear Scar Diameter with different loads at 40o C . . . . . 60
4.43 Variation of Wear Scar Diameter with different loads at 70o C . . . . . 61
4.44 Variation of Wear Scar Diameter with different loads at 100o C . . . . 61
4.45 Separation of MWNT from the base oil seen in some samples at higher
loads and higher temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
69
List of Tables
1.1 SAE Automotive oil specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.2 Commonly used equations to determine viscosity-temperature relation-
ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Dynamic viscosity and pressure-viscosity coefficients of some commonly
used lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1 Parameters for testing of base oil and 0.25 wt% MWNT nanofluid . . 41
70
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VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

GENERATION AND PROPERTY EVALUATION OF

Pavan R Lohit (1MS03ME104)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GENERATION AND PROPERTY EVALUATION OF

Pavan R Lohit (1MS03ME104)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(RAJI GEORGE) (Dr. R. CHANDRASHEKAR) (Dr. K. RAJNIKANTH)

Pavan R Lohit Raghavendra N Rahul R Anil R G

1. Parents, relatives and friends for being a constant source of encouragement in

2. Management of M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology.

3. Teaching and non teaching staff of the Department of Mechanical Engineering,

6. Teaching and non teaching staff of the Department of Electrical Engineering,

8. Dr (Ms) Jayashree Bijwe, Professor, Industrial Tribology machine Dynamics and

9. Dr. Satish V Kailas, Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian

10. Jagdeesh, Senior Research Scientist, Tribology lab, Department of Mechanical

4 RESULTS and DISCUSSIONS 44

6 CHALLENGES FACED DURING EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT 64

Nanofluids are engineered colloidal suspensions of nanoparticles in a base fluid. In

1.2 Base fluids

3. Vegetable (natural oil)

1.2.2 Mineral oil

• Group II - Saturates ≥ 90% and Sulfur ≤ 0.03% and Viscosity Index ≥ 80 to

• Group IV - Poly alpha olefins (PAO)

• Group V - All others not included above

The lubricant industry commonly extends this group terminology to include:

• Group I+ with a Viscosity Index of 103 - 108

• Group II+ with a Viscosity Index of 113 - 119

• Group III+ with a Viscosity Index of ≥ 140

1.2.3 Vegetable (natural) oils

1.2.4 Synthetic oils

1. Poly alpha-olefin (PAO)

3. Poly alkylene glycols (PAG)

5. Alkylated naphthalenes (AN)

1.3 SAE classification of Lubricants

Table 1.1: SAE Automotive oil specification

1.4 Selection of Base fluid

2. The lubricating oil had to be easily available and common in use.

1.5 Selection of Nanomaterial

1.6 Nanofluids- Synthesis and property evaluation

1.6.1 Synthesis of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes

1.6.2 Generation of Nanofluids

Nanofluids were prepared by dispersing purified MWNTs (95% purity) in SAE 40

1.7 Properties of fluids

1.7.1 Oil Viscosity

1.7.2 Dynamic viscosity

Consider two flat surfaces separated by a layer of fluid of thickness h as shown in

area A and the velocity u, i.e.,

1.7.3 Kinematic viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to fluid density:

1.7.4 Viscosity - Temperature relationship

Figure 1.2: Viscosity-temperature characteristics of selected oils

1.7.6 Viscosity-pressure relationship

where: ηp is the viscosity at pressure p (Pas); ηp is the atmospheric viscosity (Pas);

where: C, n are constants, n is approximately 16 for most cases and C can

α = (0.6 + 0.965log1 0ηo )10−8 (1.8)

where: α is the pressure-viscosity coefficient (m2 N −1 ); ηp is the atmospheric vis-

1.7.7 Thermal Conductivity

conductivity the following formula can be used:

where; K is the thermal conductivity (W m−1 K −1 ); θ is the temperature of interest

1.7.8 Flash point and Fire point