REVIEW OF TOMITAS EXPERIMENT:

Y tomita a renowned Japanese scientist(hokaido university of education ) studied about

Atomization of a jet produced by the interaction of 1 MHz focused
ultrasound with a water surface was investigated using high-speed
photography. Viewing various
aspects of jet behavior, threshold conditions were obtained necessary for
water surface
elevation and jet breakup, including drop separation and spray formation.
High-speed photography, with a maximum rate of 50 000 frames/s,
together with still photographs using light with a short exposure time,
revealed a variety of jet behaviors, and for a set of specified conditions,
captured cavitation phenomena produced inside a drop-shaped water
mass positioned at the tip of a jet.
Objective of the experiment: Jet atomization and cavitation

induced by interactions between focused ultrasound and

a water surface)

Experimental equipments:
1) a piezoelectric concave transducer with a focal length of 80 mm and
frequency of 1 mhz
2) a external power supply
3)a beaker for containing the transducer

Experimental procedure:
Y tomita demonstrated the experiment in the following steps:
1) Firstly US waves with a frequency, f, of 1 MHz were generated using a multi-

purpose synthesizer and bipolar amplifier , and focused continuously at a water

surface by a concave transducer, made of lead zirconate titanate (PZT)
ceramic, with a geometric focal length, R, of 80 mm. The transducer was fixed at
the bottom of a plastic rectangular container (200 100 300 mm) filled with
distilled water at 20 C, with its center-axis vertical to the water surface, and the
distance between the bottom of the vibrating surface and water surface
maintained at 80 mm.
2) Secondly ,The D factor of this transducer, an indicator expressing the
convergence performance

D = a2/(R)

of the US, was defined as

; its value was calculated to be 3.4,
where a (=20 mm)
represents the radius of the chord length of the transducer and (=1.48 mm) the
wavelength of
1 MHz US in distilled water at 20 C.

3) Thirdly, Pressures were detected with a hydrophone . The maximum pressure, pmax,
defined as half the value of the full amplitude of the maximal pressure signal among the
leading 20 waves, ranged from 1.42 to 2.55 MPa. The characteristic length of the region
where the acoustic energy was focused, i.e., the full width half maximum (FWHM) of

2R/(a), andwas calculated to be 3.8 mm.

2
The corresponding acoustic intensities, I, expressed as pmax /(2c) where
pmax is theoretically given by

is the density of water and c the US velocity in water, were calculated as ranging from
68 to 220 W/cm2. The acoustic energy density, E in J/cm2, may be calculated as the
product of I and the US exposure time, Tex.
4)But to determine the liquid breakup position and spray onset position, high-speed
photography was conducted utilizing a high-speed digital camera at a frame rate of
50,000 frames/s.
5)Latly , A xenon lamp, with a pulse duration of 2 s, was flashed 54 s after the US
irradiation in order to precisely determine the time at which the US began to interact with
the water surface. Due to capturing high quality of images, still photographs were taken
as necessary, using two types of light source with a short-pulse duration, in a dark room.
One was a xenon lamp with a pulse duration of 2 s ,
Second one is a nano-pulse light with 180 ns;

But latter was also used when taking shadowgraphs of standing waves that developed in
the water near its
surface.

Observations after under conduction of the

experiments:
The following observations are made after we complete the experiment
with diagrams:

1) Description of the diagram of the first stage of the experiment:

In fig 1(a ) In our study, under the conditions that I = 220 W/cm2
and Tex = 1000 ms, no fringes occurred in the shadowgraphs upto
55 s, but a black and white fringe pattern appeared after 60 s, as
shown
An ejecting jet can be seen in Fig. 1(b), which was taken at 4.5 ms.
Each black or white fringe location coincides with a pressure antinode where the density was locally higher or lower than that of
undisturbed water at 20 C. As a result, light was refracted while US
passed through the region because the space derivative of the
refractive index is proportional to the density gradient with respect
to space. We have obtained 1.46 mm as the average gap length
between two black or white fringes, which is very close to the
wavelength.
The onset times of the surface elevations, Tex,e, are shown in Fig.
1(c) for five acoustic intensities, I. For a smaller intensity, a longer
onset time was needed.

FIG. 2. Jet behaviors for various exposure times, Tex (I = 220 W/cm2).
(a)t = 3, 5, 10, 15, and 20 ms, for Tex = 2 ms.
(b)t = 3, 15, 22, 25, and 30 ms, for Tex = 3 ms.
(c) t = 3, 5, 5.8, 10, and 30 ms, for Tex = 5 ms
(d) t = 3, 6, 7, 10, and 12 ms, for Tex = 20 ms.
(e)t = 3, 6, 7, 10, and 15 ms, for Tex= 1000 ms]. The scale bars represent 10
mm.

Description of the second stage of various jet

behaviours:

In case (a), where Tex = 2 ms, a jet was produced that reached its maximal height
without separation.

In case (b), where Tex = 3 ms, a jet moved upwards with slight fluctuations in the
radial direction,
mainly due to capillary perturbations, as shown in the
second picture (t = 15 ms). Following this, drop separation occurred at around 20
ms. The detached drop continuously moved upwards at a velocity of 0.13 m/s,
inducing surface oscillation in the second mode.

On the other hand, the pattern of jet ejection that developed in Fig. 2(c) at Tex = 5
ms was clearly different from that in (a) and (b). Multiple beaded water masses
were formed at the leading part of the jet column during its development. As
evident in the fourth frame from the left, taken at 10 ms, the second drop-shaped
water mass was elongated along the vertical axis. Subsequently, the primary drop
separated, followed by a satellite. Although the US power supply was terminated
at 5 ms in case (c), the water surface fluctuation continued for a long period, until

about 60 ms, because the surface wave motion was strongly affected by the
vessel configurations as well as the mechanical
inertia of the transducer.

In case (d), Tex = 20 ms, and case (e), Tex = 1000 ms, vigorous sprays were
generated at a lower location of each jet column before its breakup, while a very
weak spray was generated at 5.84 m.

Description of third stage of jet breakup:

Figure 3 shows the jet breakup positions measured from an undisturbed water surface
(open circles, ), and the onset position of spraying (solid circles, ), for a wide range of
US exposure times, Tex, where the acoustic intensity, I, was fixed at 220 W/cm2. Lb is the

first jet breakup position, Ls the position of the first spray formation, and Ts,th
the spray threshold exposure time at which the liquid breakup pattern changes
from drop separation to jet breakup with spraying.

Description of the fourth stage with various

substages:

The temporal evolutions of the tip of a jet () and the isolated drop
() are shown
(a), for I = 220 W/cm2 and Tex = 5 ms; B1 and B2 correspond to the
first and second breakups, respectively
Subsequently, a jet was formed at t = 4.84 ms that moved upwards
with a velocity of 2.2 m/s. At 5.84 ms, cavitation occurred near the
center of a drop-shaped mass at the jet tip (this will be discussed
later). A very weak spray was also generated near the neck of the
drop-shaped mass. In Fig. 4(a), B1 and B2 are the first and second
breakup times, corresponding to 12.5 ms and 15.83 ms, respectively

Figure 4(b) shows the results for two acoustic intensities, namely, 220 W/cm 2 ()
and 80 W/cm2 (_). In the case of I = 220 W/cm2, a single drop separation occurred
in the range 2.5 ms Tex < 5.0 ms, and the jet velocity increased with increasing
Tex, reaching 2.2 m/s at Tex = 5 ms; at this point, the breakup pattern changed
from drop atomization to water mass separation

Jet velocities, Vj, are plotted as a function of the exposure time, Tex, for
two acoustic intensities, I = 220 W/cm2 () and I = 80 W/cm2 .

Description of the fifth stage:

Drop separation position without spraying, Lb/Rj, versus the jet

Weber number, Wej, with Rj being the radius of a jet.
Figure 5 shows the variation of Lb/Rj as a logarithmic function of
Wej, which ranged from 0.95 to 333.2; the Reynolds number varied
from 202 to 4252. The solid line in Fig. 5 denotes the power-law
fitting expressed by Lb/Rj = 11.6wej0.128
This gives that the jet breakup length, Lb/Rj, is 11.6 when Wej = 1;
this is slightly larger than the Lj/Rj value of about 9 predicted by Tan
et al.14 for the same Weber number. This is because the jet breakup
length, Lb, consists of the sum of the swelling height, Hs, and the jet
length, Lj.

Description of the sixth stage of cavitation:

Cavitation produced inside a drop-shaped water mass at the jet head (I = 220
W/cm2, Tex = 5 ms). The photographs were taken at times t = 5.80, 5.82, 5.84,
and 5.86 ms after the interaction. The scale bar represents 1.0 mm .
In case (a), nothing was evident inside the primary water mass .
However, in case (b), 5.82 ms, and case (c), 5.84 ms, some dark-colored region
may be seen near its center.
Subsequently, this region lightened in color, as shown in Fig. 6(d) taken at 5.86
ms, before finally disappearing from view. The dark-colored region was visible for
4050 s at most, i.e., it disturbed light for this duration. The jet tip moved
upwards by 0.13 mm along the symmetric axis during the 60 s over which these
images were taken, yielding a jet velocity of 2.1 m/s.

description of the seventh stage:

A snapshot taken under the same conditions as Fig. 6 (I =
220 W/cm2, Tex = 5 ms). (a) The entire jet is shown, taken
at 5.835 ms; WS denotes the water surface. The scale bar
represents 1.0 mm. (b) Magnified image of (a), where C
and S correspond to cavitation and spray, respectively.
The scale bar represents 0.5 mm.

Figure 7(a) shows a representative photograph of the whole jet standing above
the water surface, denoted by WS; the maximum jet height was 5.14 mm. The
configuration of the jet base was a deformed, swollen shape connected to a
domed water mass, above which two beaded water masses1 were positioned. The
beaded jet shape at the tip was presumably created from the mixed effects of
capillary perturbations on the jet surface and US wave interactions. Again, a darkcolored region appeared inside the primary drop-shaped water mass, although its
shape differed slightly from that observed in Fig. 6.

Viewing Fig. 7(b) more carefully, a small amount of spray may be seen discharging
from the neck between the primary and secondary drop-shaped water masses. It
is known that capillary waves are induced vigorously by the repeated interaction
of US with a free surface.1, 2 This is particularly the case when capillary waves
are produced near the waist between two beaded water masses, and the two
waves propagating just above and below the waist are superposed in phase, as
the amplitude of these waves can be enlarged owing to the high curvature at the
neck. Subsequently, numerous fine drops would become isolated from the crests
of the individual liquid ligaments developed from the capillary waves, and be
discharged into the air.

Description of the eigth stage:

Effects of acoustic intensity, I, on the maximum separation position of a drop
without spraying, Lb (), and the threshold position for spraying, Ls,th (). The
dashed line implies the swelling limit for I = 220 W/cm2, of height 3.2 mm.
Figure 8 shows the maximum separation position of a drop without spraying (),
and the threshold position of spraying (), for five acoustic intensities. Both
positions slightly increase with increasing acoustic intensity. It can be easily
estimated that more than 80 W/cm2 was necessary for spraying.
However, it must be noted that spraying required a definite energy even when a
higher acoustic intensity was applied. This suggests that the threshold exposure
times depend on acoustic intensity. For instance, when I = 220 W/cm2 and the
exposure time, Tex, was 1.5 ms, a swelling was maintained during US irradiation
even after surface elevation. For slightly longer exposure times, such as 2.0 ms
Tex < 2.5 ms, a jet was ejected, but no atomization occurred. Drop separation
without spraying was produced in the range 2.5 ms Tex < 5 ms, while spraying
inevitably occurred for Tex 5 ms.

Conclusion:
The following conclusions are made after
experiment:

Jet breakup and atomization produced by the interaction of 1 MHz

US with a water surface have been investigated for various
combinations of acoustic intensity, I, and exposure times, Tex. The
onset time for surface elevation depended on the acoustic intensity;
however, a threshold acoustic intensity, Ith, existed, below which a
water surface was deformed to produce a swelling but no jet was
formed.

The jet breakup pattern changed from drop separation to jet

breakup at an exposure time of about 5 ms, and was sometimes
accompanied by the spraying of numerous fine droplets with an
average diameter of 8 m.
Cavitation phenomena occurred at the center of the primary dropshaped water mass, presumably due to the production of a local
pressure that was lower than the saturated vapor pressure,
generated by the superimposition of focused expansion waves
reflected at the curved air-water boundary surface of the primary
water mass.
This phenomenon of atomisation shown by tomita became an
important theory for the discovery of nebulisation and spray
formation in medical hospitals.