Adem Kucuk

17299060

Introduction
A crime is simply considered to be an action that violates the harmony of law and order
and directly results to a form of punishment relative to the provisions of the law.
However, punishment varies depending on the severity of the crime committed and
these can range from, imprisonment, fines, incarceration or simply community service.
In some cases, both aspects can be applied against the offender. In todays society
criminal activities are ever increasing due to a range of factors such as economic
disputes, family and marriage, poverty, emotional disturbance, lack of religious control
and unemployment these are just to name a few. These elements are increasingly
becoming common in the modern society and largely contribute to the high level of
insecurity (Hagan, 2012). Henry Thomas Buckle quotes Society prepares the crime;
the criminal commits it. Its important to understand that crime is a social construct and
there is no definite concept regarding crime. An act that is illegal in one jurisdiction
might be entirely legal in another. However, the main issue is focused on actions that
are linked to violence and threats to the public, which results in insecurities in society.
Crimes are considered to be more serious and effective police involvement and
response process is expected (Eck et al, 2015). In addition, there is a gradual change
based on how different generations interpret and understand crime as over the years
the definition has expanded. This essay focuses on these changes and highlights the
discussion from four specific fronts, these are; different schools of thoughts regarding
crime, the causes of victimization, incorporation of official and unofficial data and the
various definitions that have been provided as far as crime is concerned.

1 Changes in Our Understandings of What Causes Crime

Changes in the understanding of crime causatives

Schools of thought; the positivist vs. the classical
These two schools of thoughts were designed with the objective of developing and
dealing with criminal activities from a current perspective. These thoughts were
established on the notion of halting divergent behaviour that poses a threat to the
society members (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990). Raffaele, Enrico Ferri, and Cesare
Lomroso introduced the positivist school of thought in Europe in the 19th Century as its
proposers. This approach introduces the element of embracing science when it comes
to analysing and establishing an explanation regarding certain crimes. The school of
thought relies on the biological, sociological and psychological aspects of human nature
when developing criminological explanations, it places its focus on the person.
Treatment experts and other scientists are instrumental in the positivist theoretical
framework (Lilly et al, 2014).
However, the classical school of thought was introduced in the 18 th Century, which was
prior to the positivist school of thought. The school of thought focuses on the idea of a
human being having free will and that he or she is responsible for their own morality. It
is designed on the construct that one is innocent until proven guilty. It upholds human
dignity and since one is only considered guilty when a court of law states so (Lynch,
2002), this school of thought focuses on the causes of crime in reference to the

2 Changes in Our Understandings of What Causes Crime

Adem Kucuk

17299060

interpretation of the criminal justice system. The school of thought was propagated by
social reformers and philosophers (Akers, 2013).

Changes in our understandings of what causes victimization

Victimisation is asymmetrical association that illegal, destructive, parasitical and
abusive. A victim is a criminals target; he or she either suffers financially,
psychologically or physically from the criminals action. The law is designed to protect
the individual and also give them the justice they deserve however; this is not always
the case. In some cases, the law is subjected to loopholes thus leading to a downhill
battle where victimisation occurs. The criminal justice system has always focused on
establishing justice for the injured parties and correcting the offenders behaviours.
However, sometimes the system does not assist the criminal effectively and, instead,
subjects him or her to victimization (Mitchell et al, 2015). People who are in custody
often end up being mistreated and tortured and in rare cases they die whilst in custody.
They also face the same victimisation from the society when they leave prison. The
main aim of a prison is to rehabilitate but instead people tend to reoffend because the
system does not work, with many going back to prison because they get access to a
bed, three meals per day and healthcare.
Victimisation can also occur at the group level, which, for example, is experienced by
the Aboriginal community due to racism stereotypical views held by society. Aboriginal
people are known to be loud, drunk and aggressive and criminals. The concept of
victimisation initially focused on the injured individual, for example, rape victims are
easily victimized this is done by shifting the blame to them (Smokowski, 2014). The

Changes in Our Understandings of What Causes Crime 3

concept of victimisation has currently changed and the criminal justice system is
considered to be the greatest perpetrator by victimising prisoners in reference to the
crimes they committed.
Official Vs Unofficial data
There are two general techniques that are used when it comes to measuring crime, this
is done by evaluating official data and self-reported or unofficial data. Official data is
data which is usually gathered from the criminal justice agencies this generally includes
the number of arrests and convictions that have occurred over time (Thonperry & Krohn,
2003). However, the unofficial approach is done using two fronts, these are done by
either asking specific people if they have been victims of a crime or by asking criminals
to report their own crime. However, both the official and unofficial data are subjected to
certain shortcomings when it comes to measuring crime (Walklate, 2005). For example,
when focusing on the official data, it is vital to note that not all offenders that are linked
to a certain offence are convicted sentencing usually varies and a lot of factors are
taken into consideration whilst handing out the punishment hence why no two cases are
the same. There are offences that do not have an offender that is identified by a court of
law. This can be referred to as attrition rate. On the other hand, when evaluating
unofficial data, the elements being measured during a certain survey would sometimes
not be recorded as criminal activities if they are reported to the police (Walklate, 2005 ).
Based on this approach, it can be argued that it is very difficult to measure crime.

Different definitions of crimes

4 Changes in Our Understandings of What Causes Crime

Adem Kucuk

17299060

Crime is based on different definitions according to social perceptions and the criminal
justice system. The main aspects that have been used to define crime include; crime as
a violation of law, as violation of moral codes, as social construct, as ideological
censure, as historical intervention and as social harm (Muncie, 1996).
Crime as a violation of the law: One is considered a criminal only if he is tried and
convicted by a court of law. An action is not considered to be a crime unless it stated
within the criminal law (Muncie, 1996).
Crime as a violation of moral codes: This simply focuses on the norms that have been
developed by the society and are not necessarily incorporated within the criminal justice
system. In this context, the term crime is not often used to refer to violation of moral
codes. Terminologies used often include concepts such as anti-social or nonconformity.
Crime as a social construct: This approach argues that the lawful approach of a certain
behaviour leading to the crime is not incorporated within the crime itself. It creates a
false perception to the individuals engaging in it (Chambliss, 2013).
Crime as ideological censure: This crime focuses on behaviour that are conducted with
the objective of disrespecting regulations or laws that are established by a public
authority.
Crime as historical intervention: This definition focuses on crime as a human conduct
which is established by identifying behaviour that causes conflict and identifying this
behaviour as crime.
Crime as social harm: In this context, crime is defined relative criminal and harmful acts
that threaten the society (Takiwaza et al, 2014).

Changes in Our Understandings of What Causes Crime 5

Conclusion
In conclusion, it is important to point out that the criminal justice system and the
government should work closely together in order to minimize crime in the society. The
justice system should not remain rigid regarding the perceptions of crime considering
the fact that these perceptions are continuously changing. Different schools of thought
such as the classical and the positivist theories that prompt the criminal justice system
to use a different approach when executing their duties have established this. The
element of victimisation has also changed over time and prisoners are also subjected to
such. When it comes to the concept of measuring crime, one must come to the
realization that there is no ideal approach that can be used to measure crime
considering that both official and unofficial data are subject to certain limitations.
Different definitions of crime focus on different ideologies and the criminal justice system
should put these ideologies into consideration.

6 Changes in Our Understandings of What Causes Crime

Adem Kucuk

17299060

References
1. Akers, R.L., (2013). Criminological theories: Introduction and evaluation.
Routledge.
2. Chambliss, W.J., Michalowski, R. and Kramer, R. eds., (2013). State crime in the
global age.

Willan.

3. Eck, J.E. and Weisburd, D.L., (2015). Crime places in crime theory. Crime and
place: Crime prevention studies, 4.
4. Hagan, F.E., (2012). Introduction to criminology: Theories, methods, and criminal
behavior.

Sage Publications.

5. Gottfredson, M.R. and Hirschi, T., (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford
University Press.
6. Lilly, J.R., Cullen, F.T. and Ball, R.A., (2014). Criminological theory: Context and
consequences. Sage Publications.
7. Lynch, M., (2002). The culture of control: Crime and social order in contemporary
society.

PoLAR: Political and Legal Anthropology Review, 25(2), pp.109-

112.
8. Mitchell, K.J., Jones, L.M., Turner, H.A. and Wolak, J., (2015). TechnologyInvolved

Harassment Victimization: Placement in a Broader Victimization

Context.
9. Muncie, J. (1996). The Construction and Deconstruction of Crime. Researchgate.
Print
10. Smokowski, P.R., (2014), January. Differential Effects of Episodic and Chronic
Bullying: How Victimization Affects School Experiences, Social Support, and

Changes in Our Understandings of What Causes Crime 7

Mental Health. In Society for Social Work and Research 18th Annual
Conference: Research for Social Change: Addressing Local and Global
Challenges. Sswr
11. Takizawa, R., Maughan, B. and Arseneault, L., (2014). Adult health outcomes of
childhood bullying victimization: evidence from a five-decade longitudinal British
birth cohort. American journal of psychiatry.
12. Thornperry, T.P & Krohn, M.D., (2003). Comparison of Self-Report and Official
Data for Measuring Crime. The National Academic Press. Accessed on 18 th April,
2016 from http://www.nap.edu/read/10581/chapter/4
13. Walklate. S. (2005). Crimonology; The Basics. Taylor & Francis Publishers. Print.

8 Changes in Our Understandings of What Causes Crime