ReproductioninOrganisms

AsexualReproduction

Theperiodthroughwhichacertainorganismlivesisknown
asitslifespan.
Reproductionistheprocessbywhicheveryorganism
ensuresitscontinuity.
Itistheprocessthroughwhichorganismsproduceyoung
ones,whichinturnmaturetogiverisetotheiryoungones.
Reproductioncanbe:
AsexualOnlyoneindividualisinvolved
SexualTwoindividuals(maleandfemale)are
involved

AsexualReproduction
Inthistype,asingleparentcanproduceoffspring.
Theproducedoffspringareclonesofeachother(i.e.,
identicaltoeachotherandtotheparent).
Itiscommonlyseeninunicellularorganismsbelongingto
protistaandmonera.
Here,thecelldivisionitselfisthemodeofreproduction.
MeansofAsexualReproduction
BinaryFission
Inthisprocess,thecelldividesinto
halves,andeachhalfdevelopsintoanadult(example:
Amoeba
,
Paramecium)
.

 Budding
Inthisprocess,thecelldividesunequallyto
formbuds,whichremainattachedtotheparentinitially,and
thendetachanddevelopintoamaturecell(example:
yeast).

Formationofspecializedstructures
Conidia(Example:
Penicillium)
Gemmules(Example:Sponges)
Buds(Example:
Hydra
)

ZoosporesMicroscopic,motilespores(Example:
Algae)
Vegetativepropagation
Itmeansofasexual
reproductioninplants.Differentstructuresarecapableof
givingrisetonewplants.
Runner(Example:Gladiolus)
Rhizome(Example:Ginger)
Sucker
Tuber(Example:Potato)
Offset
Bulb(Example:Onion)

SexualReproduction:PreFertilisationEvents
Sexualreproductioninvolvestheformationofthemaleand
femalegametesineitherthesameindividualortwo
individuals.Thesegametesfusetoformazygote,which
developsintoanewindividual.
Offspringarenotidenticaltoeachotherortotheparents.
So,sexualreproductiongivesrisetodiversityamongliving

organisms.
Allorganismspassthroughtwostages.
JuvenilephasePeriodofgrowthnonreproductive
Vegetativephaseorreproductivephase
Innonprimatemammalslikerats,sheep,dogs,cowsand
tigers,thecyclicchangeintheactivitiesoftheovariesand
theoviductiscalledthe
oestruscycle
inprimateslike
monkeys,apesandhumans,itiscalledthe
menstrual
cycle
.
Certainmammalsarecalled
continuousbreeders
since
theycanreproducethroughouttheirreproductivephase,
whilesomearecalled
seasonalbreeders
sincetheycan
reproduceonlyinthefavourableseasons.
EventsinSexualReproduction
Organismsreproducingsexuallyexhibitcertainevents.
Theseare:
Prefertilisationevents
Fertilisationevents
Postfertilisationevents
PreFertilisationEvents
Eventstakingplacebeforethefusionofthegametes
Consistof:
Gametogenesis
Gametetransfer
Gametogenesis
Processofformationofgametes(maleandfemale)

 Gametesarehaploid
Insomeorganisms(likealgae),theyarealmostsimilar
(homoorisogametes),andcannotbecategorisedasmale
andfemalegametes.
Inothers,thetwogametesaremorphologicallyand
physiologicallydifferent(heterogametes),andareoftwo
typesantherozoidorsperm(malegamete)andeggor
ovum(femalegamete).
Insomeorganismsboththesexesarepresentinthesame
individual(monoeciousorhomothallic),andinothers,they
arepresentintwoindividuals(dioeciousorheterothallic).
Inaunisexualflower,themalefloweriscalledstaminateand
thefemalefloweriscalledpistillate.
Gameteformationtakesplacebycelldivision.
Inhaploidparents,itisbymitosisindiploidparents,itisby
meiosis,withspecialisedcellscalledmeiocytesundergoing
meiosis.
.
GameteTransfer
Fortheirfusiontotakeplace,thegametesneedtobe
transferred.
Inmostorganisms,themalegametesaremotile,whilethe
femalegametesarenonmotile,andthemalegametesneed
amediumfortheirmovement.Alargenumberofmale
gametesdonotmakeittothefemalegamete,andhence,
severalthousandsofmalegametesareproducedto
overcomethisloss.

 Inangiosperms,thepollengraincarriesthemalegamete
andtheovulecarriesthefemalegamete.
Pollengrainsareproducedintheantherandneedtobe
transferredtothestigmaforfertilisationtooccur.Thisis
easyinmonoeciousplantsasboththeantherandthe
stigmaarepresentclosebyindioeciousplants,ittakes
placebypollination.
SexualReproduction:FertilisationEvents
Fertilisationisthemostimportanteventinsexual
reproduction.
Thisprocessisalsocalled
syngamy
andleadstothe
formationofthezygote.
However,insomeorganisms,zygoteformationtakesplace
withoutfertilisation,andisknownas
parthenogenesis
(occursinrotifers,honeybeesandsomelizards).
Inmostaquaticorganismsandamphibians,fertilisation
takesplaceoutsidetheirbody(inthewater),andistermed
as
externalfertilization
.Theireggsandoffspringare
highlyvulnerabletopredatorsandthisthreatenstheir
survivaluptoadulthood.
Inmostterrestrialorganisms,fertilisationisinternal,i.e.,it
takesplaceinsidethefemalebody.Inthisprocess,themale
gameteismotileandreachesthefemalegametetofuse
withit,therebyformingzygote.Malegametesareproduced
inlargenumbers.
SexualReproduction:PostFertilisationEvents
Eventstakingplaceafterfertilisationarecalled

postfertilisationevents.
Zygote
Thehaploidgametesfusetoformadiploidzygoteinall
organisms.
Inexternalfertilisation,azygoteisformedinanexternal
medium,andininternalfertilisation,azygoteisformed
insidetheindividual.
Thedevelopmentofazygotedependsuponthelifecycleof
anorganismanditssurroundings.Insomeorganisms,the
zygotedoesnotdevelopimmediately,anddevelopsathick
wallarounditself.Thiswallisresistanttodamageand
desiccation.
Embryogenesis
Itistheprocessofdevelopmentoftheembryofromthe
zygote.
Thezygoteundergoescelldivisionanddifferentiation.
Celldivisionincreasesthenumberofcellsoftheembryo,
andcelldifferentiationhelpsthecellsundergomodifications
toformspecialisedtissuesandorgans.
Animalscanbegroupedintotwocategoriesbasedonhow
andwherethedevelopmentofthezygotetakesplace.These
categoriesare:
Oviparous
Thefertilisedeggiscoveredbya
calcareousshellandisreleasedintotheoutside
environment.Thedevelopmenttakesplaceinsidethe
eggandtheyoungonehatchesout(example:birds
andreptiles).

 Viviparous
Thedevelopmentofthezygotetakes
placeinsidethefemalebody,andthedevelopedyoung
oneisdeliveredoutside(example:mammals,including
humans).
Infloweringplants,thezygoteisformedinsidetheovule.
Zygote

Developsinto

Embryo
Ovule

Developsinto

Seed

Ovary

Developsinto

Fruit

Contains

Seeds

Disperseandgerminatetoformnewplants