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More details on MasteringPhysics are given in the course syllabus
Fluid Mechanics
States of Matter:
Solid - Has a definite volume and shape
object
vessel
States of Matter
All of the previous definitions are somewhat
artificial:
Window glass slowly flows although it appears to be a solid
Water and water vapor are indistinguishable at high
pressure and temperature
Is ice cream a solid or a liquid?
Beautiful science
Atoms or molecules
in a typical solid
Fluid Dynamics
Describes fluids in motion
solid
fluid
tension
compression
dp
dt
Incident molecule
pinx
piny
pin
F
force
prx
pr
pry
Reflected molecule
Pressure
In order to quantify the force of
compression exerted by a fluid, we use
pressure
The pressure P of the fluid at the level to
which an object has been submerged is the
ratio of the force to the area
F
P
A
For example, if F is the force acting on the
cube top and A is the area of the side of
the cube, then pressure P exerted by water
on the top of the cube is F/A.
Cube in water
Pressure, cont
Pressure is more convenient than force because force F is
proportional to area A (more fluid molecules bouncing off the
object) and thus pressure P = F/A is independent of area!
1 Pa 1 N/m
Units of Pressure
SI: 1 Pascal = 1N / 1 m2
Metrology: 1 bar = 105 Pascal
1 atmosphere = 1.013 bar
1 Torr = 1/760 atmosphere = 133.3 Pascal
1 psi (pounds per square inch) = 6,890 Pa
1 atm = 14.7 psi
Diamond
anvil cell
Degrees of vacuum:
Measuring Pressure
The spring is calibrated by a
known force
The compression length of
the spring is proportional to
the force x = F/k
The force due to the fluid
pushing on the top of the
piston and compressing the
spring
The force the fluid exerts on
the piston is measured
M rV r Ah
PA
j
P
A
j
M
gj
o
This chooses upward as positive
P = P0 + r g h
=0
Pbottom P0 rgh
r=103 kg/m3,
g = 9.8 m/s2, h = 5 m
F Pbottom P0 A
F=?
- Atmospheric pressure does not vary linearly with height over large height
variations because the density of air is not constant (decreases with height).
- Pressure always decreases with increasing height.
- Temperature of air is a complex function of height.
Density
P = P0 + r g h
Density Table
Atmospheric Pressure
If a liquid is open to the atmosphere, then pressure at the
surface of the liquid, P0, is equal to the atmospheric
pressure
P0 = 1.00 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa
The pressure at a given point in a fluid depends on the
value of pressure at its surface, P0, and on depth, h.
An increase in pressure at the surface must be transmitted
to every other point in the fluid
P=rgh
h =P/(r g )
Earth surface
Pascals Law
Named after French scientist Blaise Pascal
A change in the pressure applied to a
fluid is transmitted undiminished to
every point of the fluid and to the walls
of the container
F
P0
P0+P
h
P0+rgh
P0+rgh+ P
Blaise Pascal
(1623 1662)
P = F /A
Invented by Torricelli
A long closed tube is submerged in a
dish full of mercury, flipped closed end
up and lifted
The column of mercury is in
equilibrium at a certain height
The closed end is nearly at vacuum
P0 r Hg gh
mercury
Evangelista Torricelli
(1608-1647 )
P0
r Hg g
0.76 m
P1 P2
F1 F2
A1 A2
A2
F2 F1
A1
A1x1 A2 x2
We have shown that
A2 x1
A1 x2
A2 F2
A1 F1
F1x1 F2 x2
W1 W2
liquid
gas
liquid
gas
Solution:
hw
L = mw/(rw A2) =
= 0.1 kg/(103 kg/m3 *510-4 m2) = 0.2 m
(b) Pressures at points A and B in the picture above are equal to each other because these
points are at the same level in the same liquid (mercury), and there is the same type of liquid
below these points.
Pressure at point A is: P = P0 + rw g L because this pressure comes from the column of
air (P0) and the column of water (rw g L) above the point A
Pressure at point B is: P = P0 + rm g (h+(L-hw)) because this pressure comes from the
column of air (P0) and the column of mercury (rm g (h+L-hw)) above the point B
h = hw-(1-rw /rm) L
(1)
Finally, the volume of mercury above the initial mercury level (black dashed line) is the same
as the volume of water below the initial mercury level (so that the total volume of mercury is
conserved):
A1 h = A2 (L-hw)
(2)
h=
kg/m3
*(1+ 10/5)
h = (L rw)/(rm(1+A1 /A2))
= 0.0049 m = 4.9 mm
Buoyant Force
Let us revisit the example of an imaginary
cylinder of water inside of a beaker full of
water
The net force from the water surrounding the
cylinder exerted on the cylinder is (P-P0)A
This force is counterbalanced by the gravity
force acting on the water in the cylinder:
Mwater g
Since the gravity force points down, the force
acting on the cylinder from the surrounding
water must point up (the sum of the two
forces must be zero in equilibrium)
The buoyant force, FB, is the upward force
exerted by a fluid on any immersed object
Archimedess Principle
Since the buoyant force exerted on the cylinder of water is
counterbalanced by the gravity force (also called weight)
Mwater g, the magnitude of the buoyant force is
FB = Mwater g
This consideration forms the basis of the Archimedess
Principle:
The magnitude of the buoyant force always equals the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object
Water in water:
FB = Mwater g
Steel in water:
FB
Mwater g
FB
Msteel g
Wood in water
Steel in water
rwood<rwater
rsteel>rwater
FG= FB
robj Vfluid
rfluid Vobj
robj Vfluid
rfluid Vobj
The fraction of the volume
of a floating object that is
below the fluid surface is
equal to the ratio of the
density of the object to that
of the fluid
Vwater
rice
917kg / m3
f
0.89
3
Vice
r water 1030kg / m
Archimedes
- Discovered his principle while taking a bath, then
took to the streets naked crying "Eureka!" ("I have
found it!")
- His most famous word: "Give me a lever long enough
and a place to stand, and I will move the world."
- Was killed by a Roman soldier during a siege of
Syracuse. At the moment he was working on a
geometry problem drawing on sand and his last words
to the soldier were: "Don't disturb my circles"
287-212 BC
The father of integral calculus
and mathematical physics
Turbulent flow
An irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool like regions.
Turbulent flow occurs when the particles go above some critical
speed
Viscosity
Characterizes the degree of internal friction in the fluid
This internal friction, viscous force, is associated with the
resistance that two adjacent layers of fluid have due to
moving relative to each other
Viscosity causes part of the kinetic energy of a fluid to be
converted to internal energy (heat)
Viscous force is similar to the friction force exerted on an
object sliding on rough surface
Viscosity is also called internal friction
Streamlines
The path the particle takes in
steady flow is a streamline
Equation of Continuity
Consider a fluid moving through a
pipe of nonuniform size (diameter)
The particles move along streamlines
in steady flow
The volume of fluid that crosses area
A1 in some time interval is the same
as the volume that crosses area A2 in
that same time interval
This is because (i) fluid is
incompressible and (ii) does not
accumulate in the pipe
Bernoullis Equation
As a fluid moves through a region
where its speed and/or elevation
above the Earths surface changes,
the pressure in the fluid varies with
these changes
1700 - 1782
Bernoullis Equation, 2
Consider a segment of a fluid in a pipe
from point 1 to point 2
In a time interval t the left boundary of
the segment moves through a distance
x1 while the right boundary of the
segment moves through a distance x2
Consider forces exerted on the right and
the left boundaries of the segment as
the segment moves in the pipe:
Force exerted on the left boundary:
F1 = P1A1
Force exerted on the right boundary:
F2 = -P2A2
Bernoullis Equation, 3
Work done by force F1 is W1 = P1 A1 x1
Work done by force F2 is W2 = - P2 A2 x2
Since the fluid is incompressible,
A1 x1 = A2 x2 = V
The net work W done by the two forces
on the segment is
W = W1+W2 = (P1 P2) V
Part of this work goes into changing the
kinetic energy of the segment and part
goes into changing the gravitational
potential energy of the segment
Bernoullis Equation, 4
There is no change in the kinetic energy of the
grey portion of the segment (steady-state
streamline flow)
The net effect of the flow in a time interval t is
displacement of a the volume of fluid V from
the lower part of the pipe to the upper part
Initial kinetic energy of the lower portion of
volume V is m v12
Bernoullis Equation, 5
There is no change in potential energy
of the fluid in the grey middle portion of
the section
The change in gravitational potential
energy due to displacement of volume
V from the lower part to the upper part
of the pipe is:
U = m g y2 m g y1
Bernoullis Equation, 6
Substituting the expressions for W, K
and U:
(P1 P2)V = m v22 - m v12 + m g y2 m g y1
Airplane Wing