GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM

Elective submitted to

University of Rajasthan, Jaipur

For Partial Fulfillment and Award of
the Degree of M.Sc. Biotechnology
(2011-12)

Under the Supervision of

Submitted by
Sangeeta

yadav

MS. Madhuri Sharma

Assistant. Professor
Department of Biotechnology
Biyani Girls College, Jaipur

M.Sc. Final
Department of Biotechnology
Biyani Girls College, Jaipur

Ms. Madhuri Sharma

Assistant Professor
Department
Biotechnology

of

Biyani Girls College, Jaipur

Certificate
This is to certify that Ms. Sangeeta Yadav a

student of Biyani
Girls College, Jaipur has carried out reports of Elective work,
entitled GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS under my
supervision.

She has submitted the Elective reports for partial fulfillment of

degree of M.Sc Biotechnology.

To the best of my knowledge this is an original piece of work.

Date:
Sharma

Ms. Madhuri

(Signature)

Acknowledgement
This piece of work will never be accomplished without our God
Almighty, with his blessings and His power that work within me and
also without the people behind my life for inspiring, guiding and
accompanying me through thick and thin.
I am deeply grateful and I owe my most sincere gratitude to ms
Madhuri for her able guidance, detailed and constructive comments
and useful suggestions and support to me throughout this work. His
wide knowledge and her logical way of thinking have been of great
value for me. His understanding encouraging and personal guidance
have provided a good basis for the present work.
I cannot end without thanking my family, on whose constant
encouragement and love I have relied throughput my time at the
institute. I am grateful to my parents for their silent support,
opportunities they provided me and blessings which encouraged me
during the work.
I am also thankful to those people who have rendered me with direct
or indirect help in completing this project.

(sangeeta yadav)

Index
1.

Introduction

2.

Global environmental issues

Green house effect

Climate change

3.

Global warming

4.

Ozone depletion

5.

Acid rain

6.

Case study on impact of climate change

7.

Future health impacts of global change

8.

Biotechnological approach for managment

9.

Summary

10.

Future prospects

11.

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION
Heavy consumption of natural resources and economic growth is responsible for global
environmental problems. Environmental pollution is one of the most serious problems facing
humanity and all other living things today. Some air pollutants have reduced the capacity of
the atmosphere to filter out the sun harmful ultraviolet radiation. A variety of environmental
problems affecting entire world are global warming, acid rain, and the destruction of ozone
layer. The global environmental problem is a growing concern, and needs to be attended to
immediately. Spreading awareness of environmental problems and responding to them
without delay is absolutely necessary to deal with the global problem effectively.
A powerful and complex web of interactions is contributing to unprecedented global trends in
environmental degradation. These forces include rapid globalization and urbanization,
pervasive poverty, unsustainable consumption patterns and population growth. Often serving
to compound the effects and intensity of the environmental problems described in the
previous section, global environmental challenges require concerted responses on the part of
the international community. Global climate change, the depletion of the ozone layer,
desertification, deforestation, the loss of the planets biological diversity and the
transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and chemicals are all environmental problems
that touch every nation and adversely affect the lives and health of their populations. As with
other environment-related challenges, children are disproportionately vulnerable to and suffer
most from the effects of these global trends.
Moreover, all of these global environmental trends have longterm effects on people and
societies and are either difficult or impossible to reverse over the period of one generation.
Environmental issues are negative aspects of human activity on the biophysical environment.
Environmentalism, a social and environmental movement that started in the 1960s, addresses
environmental issues through advocacy, education and activism.
A variety of environmental problems now affect our entire world. As globalization continues
and the earth's natural processes transform local problems into international issues, few
societies are being left untouched by major environmental problems.

Interrelationship of global environment issues

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Green house effect

Global Warming

Ozone Layer Depletion

Acid Rain

Deforestation

Loss of Biodiversity

Water Pollution

Waste disposal

Green house effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process by which some of the radient heat from the sun is
captured in the lower atmosphere of the earth and maintains the temperature of surface of the
earth. Some gases stay in the air for a long time and warm up the plane by trapping sunlight.
This is called the greenhouse effect because the gases act like the glass in a greenhouse.
Thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases,

and is re-radiated in all directions. The Greenhouse Effect is a natural process that warms the
Earth, and, in fact, is quite necessary for our survival.

Water vapour 3670%

carbon dioxide 926%

methane 49%

ozone 37%

nitrous oxide 5%

chlorofluorocarbons 15%

Global Warming

Greenhouse gases help to maintain the earths temperature at a level suitable to

support life

Human activities are increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,
which cause more heat to be trapped

Predicted effects of global warming include:

Higher sea levels

Higher temperatures

Variable climatic conditions

These changes are expected to cause a significant impact on agriculture and

ecosystems.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) light

The use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone depleating substances as

refrigerants, solvents and insulation is destroying the ozone layer

A hole is observed over Antarctica every autumn PLAY

Depleted ozone levels cause the following impacts:

Increased penetration of UV light to earth

Increased risks of skin cancer and eye diseases

Damage to agricultural crops
Disruption to marine food chains

Acid Rain

The burning of fossil fuels leads to atmospheric emissions of NOx and SO2

These gases react with water and oxygen to make sulfuric and nitric acids. Sunlight
increases the rate of these reactions

Rain, snow and fog can be polluted with these acidic compounds, which is then
deposited at the earths surface

The deposition of acids can:

Damage forests and soils
Causes acidification of lakes and other water bodies
Disturb wildlife
Cause the decay of building and other structures
Impact on human health

Deforestation:

The deforestation of tropical rainforests is a major global problem-each year millions

of hectares are lost

Deforestation rates in some countries continue to increase despite worldwide

pressures

Rainforests are destroyed for wood products, and to make way for agricultural
activities, mining and dams

The impacts of deforestation include:

Loss of livelihood for local inhabitants
Variable environmental conditions (susceptability to flood, aggravated droughts,
soil erosion etc)
Loss of biodiversity and disturbance to ecosystems
Loss of carbon sink

Loss of Biodiversity:

Biodiversity has three key components:

Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Ecological diversity

Approximately 2.1 million species are known to exist, but up to 50 million still to be
discovered

Biodiversity is important for food, drugs, maintaining ecological stability, aesthetic

and cultural benefits

Natural causes and human activity can threaten biodiversity

The loss of biodiversity means ecosystems are destabilised, vital resources are lost
and genetic variation is reduced.

Water Pollution

A change in water quality that impacts on living organisms

Types and effects of water pollution include:

Infectious agents, such as typhoid, cholera
Nutrients and eutrophication
Toxic materials, through mining
Organic chemicals
Sediments can disrupt aquatic ecosystems

Waste Disposal:

Waste disposal methods include:

Open dumping and landfill
Ocean dumping
Exporting waste
Waste to energy plants

Minimizing the waste stream:

3Rs: reduce, reuse, recycle
Composting
Waste to energy

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

INTRODUCTION
The greenhouse effect refers to circumstances where the short wavelengths of visible light
from the sun pass through a transparent medium and are absorbed, but the longer
wavelengths of the infrared re-radiation from the heated objects are unable to pass through
that medium. The trapping of the long wavelength radiation leads to more heating and a
higher resultant temperature. Besides the heating of an automobile by sunlight through the
windshield and the namesake example of heating the greenhouse by sunlight passing through
sealed, transparent windows, the greenhouse effect has been widely used to describe the
trapping of excess heat by the rising concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The
carbon dioxide strongly absorbs infrared and does not allow as much of it to escape into
space.
There are two meanings of the term "greenhouse effect".
There is a "natural" greenhouse effect that keeps the Earth's climate warm and habitable.
There is also the "man-made" greenhouse effect, which is the enhancement of Earth's natural
greenhouse effect by the addition of greenhouse gases from the burning of fossil fuels
(mainly petroleum, coal, and natural gas).
The term greenhouse is used in conjunction with the phenomenon known as the greenhouse
effect.

Energy from the sun drives the earths weather and climate, and heats the earths
surface;

In turn, the earth radiates energy back into space;

Some atmospheric gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases) trap some of
the outgoing energy, retaining heat somewhat like the glass panels of a greenhouse;

These gases are therefore known as greenhouse gases;

The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature on Earth as certain gases in the
atmosphere trap energy.

Six main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) (which is 20 times as
potent a greenhouse gas as carbon dioxide) and nitrous oxide (N 2O), plus three fluorinated
industrial gases: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6). Water vapor is also considered a greenhouse gas.

HISTORY
The greenhouse effect was discovered by French mathematician Joseph Fourier in 1824, first
reliably experimented on by Irish physicist John Tyndall in 1858, and first reported
quantitatively by Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius in 1896.
Greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon which prevents stark temperature fluctuations on
the Earth during day and night.
In this figure As the suns energy hits the Earth, some of that energy is absorbed by the
earths crust and by the oceans, warming the planet. The rest of the energy is radiated back
toward space as infrared energy. While some of this infrared energy does radiate back into
space, some portion is absorbed and re-emitted by water vapor and other greenhouse gases in

the atmosphere. This absorbed energy helps to warm the planets surface and atmosphere just
like a greenhouse.

GREEN HOUSE GASES

Those gas molecules in the Earth's atmosphere with three or more atoms are called
"greenhouse gases" because they can capture outgoing infrared energy from the Earth,
thereby warming the planet. The greenhouse gases include water vapor with three atoms
(H2O), ozone (O3), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4). Also, trace quantities of chlorofluoro-carbons (CFC's) can have a disproportionately large effect.
There are two common meanings of the term "greenhouse effect". There is a "natural"
greenhouse effect that keeps the Earth's climate warm and habitable. There is also the "manmade" greenhouse effect, which is the enhancement of Earth's natural greenhouse effect by
the addition of greenhouse gases from the burning of fossil fuels (mainly petroleum, coal, and
natural

gas).

In order to understand how the greenhouse effect operates, we need to first

understand "infrared radiation". Greenhouse gases reduce the rate at which the Earth's surface
loses infrared radiation to outer space. Because one way to increase the temperature of
anything is to reduce its rate of energy loss to its surroundings, this makes the Earth's surface
and lower atmosphere warmer than they would otherwise be.

You can think of greenhouse gases as sort of a "blanket" for infrared radiation -- they keep
the Earth's surface and lower layers of the atmosphere warmer, and the upper layers colder,
than

if

the

greenhouse

gases

were

not

there.

About 80-90% of the Earth's natural greenhouse effect is due to water vapor and clouds. Most
of the rest is due to carbon dioxide, methane, and a few other minor gases. While the
remaining gases in the atmosphere (e.g. nitrogen, oxygen) also absorb and emit a small
amount of infrared radiation, their radiative effect on temperature is so weak that they can be
neglected. While methane is a much more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, there is
far less of it in the atmosphere.

It is the carbon dioxide concentration that is increasing, due to the burning of fossil fuels (as
well as from some rainforest burning). Compared to a pre-industrial atmospheric
concentration of around 270 parts per million (ppm), the average concentration has increased
to close to 400 ppm in 2012. This causes the man-made portion of the greenhouse effect, and
it is believed by many scientists to be responsible for the global warming of the last 50 years
or

more.

Also, the concentration of methane, although extremely small (measured in parts per billion),
has also increased in recent decades contributing somewhat to the strengthening of the
greenhouse effect. The reasons for this increase, though, remain uncertain.Life on earth
depends on energy from the sun. About 30 percent of the sunlight that beams toward Earth is
deflected by the outer atmosphere and scattered back into space. The rest reaches the planet's
surface and is reflected upward again as a type of slow-moving energy called infrared
radiation.
The heat caused by infrared radiation is absorbed by "greenhouse gases"
Although greenhouse gases make up only about 1 percent of the Earth's atmosphere, they
regulate our climate by trapping heat and holding it in a kind of warm-air blanket that
surrounds the planet.
By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth the four major gases are

Water vapour 3670%

carbon dioxide 926%

methane 49%

ozone 37%

nitrous oxide 5%

chlorofluorocarbons 15%

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Source: Fossil fuel burning, deforestation
Anthropogenic increase: 30%
Average atmospheric residence time: 500 years
Methane (CH4)
Source: Rice cultivation, cattle & sheep ranching, decay from landfills, mining
Anthropogenic increase: 145%
Average atmospheric residence time: 7-10 years
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Source: Industry and agriculture (fertilizers)
Anthropogenic increase: 15%
Average atmospheric residence time: 140-190 years

CLIMATE CHANGE:
Climate change is a problem that is affecting people and the environment. Greater energy
efficiency and new technologies hold promise for reducing greenhouse gases and solving this
global challenge.
Climate change refers to the variation at a global or regional level over time. It describes the
variability or average state of the atmosphere or average weather over time scales ranging

from decades to millions of years. These variations may come from processes internal to the
Earth, be driven by external forces (e.g. variations in sunlight intensity) or, most recently, be
caused by human activities.
Just as weather patterns change from day to day, the climate changes too. This occurs
naturally, driven by internal and external factors. However not all changes are due to natural
processes, as we humans have also exerted our influence, which is called anthropogenic
climate change.
Climatic changes over recent decades have already affected some health outcomes. The
World Health Organisation estimated, in its "World Health Report 2002", that climate change
was estimated to be responsible in 2000 for approximately 2.4% of worldwide diarrhoea, and
6% of malaria in some middle-income countries. Epidemics of weather and climate-sensitive
infectious diseases such as malaria and meningitis will have a devastating effect on human
health and socio-economic development and severely overburden health systems in many
parts of the world.
Impacts on environment
Ice and snow
Changes in ice covered areas
Melting of parmafrost
Ocean and coasts
Chances in winds and currents
Worse tropical storms
Damaged coastal eco system

The Hydrological System

Changes in precipitation and soil moisture

Ecosystem and vegetation
Changes in vegetation zones and species mix
Reduction in biodiversity
Impacts on society
Water resources
Winter floods and summer droughts

 Food and agriculture

Changes to growing seasons, yields, pest distribution and cultivable lend forestry and
fisheries
Coastal dwellers
Coastal flooding
The need for coastal defences
Damage to tourism
Economic activity
Changes in energy requirements
Effects on transport and industry
Human settlements and health
Effects on infrastructure
Increase in environmental refugees
Changes in disease pattern

MECHANISM OF GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

The Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form UV, visible, and near IR radiation, most
of which passes through the atmosphere without being absorbed. Of the total amount of
energy available at the top of the atmosphere (TOA), about 50% is absorbed at the Earth's
surface. Because it is warm, the surface radiates far IR thermal radiation that consists of
wavelengths that are predominantly much longer than the wavelengths that were absorbed.
Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and re-radiated both upwards
and downwards; that radiated downwards is absorbed by the Earth's surface. This trapping of
long-wavelength thermal radiation leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than if the
atmosphere were absent.
This highly simplified picture of the basic mechanism needs to be qualified in a number of
ways, none of which affect the fundamental process.

The incoming radiation from the Sun is mostly in the form of visible light and nearby
wavelengths, largely in the range 0.24 m, corresponding to the Sun's radiative
temperature of 6,000 K. Almost half the radiation is in the form of "visible" light, which
our eyes are adapted to use.

About 50% of the Sun's energy is absorbed at the Earth's surface and the rest is
reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere. The reflection of light back into spacelargely
by cloudsdoes not much affect the basic mechanism; this light, effectively, is lost to the
system.

The absorbed energy warms the surface. Simple presentations of the greenhouse
effect, such as the idealized greenhouse model, show this heat being lost as thermal
radiation. The reality is more complex: the atmosphere near the surface is largely opaque
to thermal radiation (with important exceptions for "window" bands), and most heat loss
from the surface is by sensible heat and latent heat transport. Radiative energy losses
become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere largely because of the decreasing
concentration of water vapour, an important greenhouse gas. It is more realistic to think
of the greenhouse effect as applying to a "surface" in the mid-troposphere, which is
effectively coupled to the surface by a lapse rate.

Within the region where radiative effects are important the description given by the
idealized greenhouse model becomes realistic: The surface of the Earth, warmed to a
temperature around 255 K, radiates long-wavelength, infrared heat in the range 4

100 m. At these wavelengths, greenhouse gases that were largely transparent to

incoming solar radiation are more absorbent. Each layer of atmosphere with greenhouses
gases absorbs some of the heat being radiated upwards from lower layers. To maintain its
own equilibrium, it re-radiates the absorbed heat in all directions, both upwards and
downwards. This results in more warmth below, while still radiating enough heat back out
into deep space from the upper layers to maintain overall thermal equilibrium. Increasing
the concentration of the gases increases the amount of absorption and re-radiation, and
thereby further warms the layers and ultimately the surface below.

Greenhouse gasesincluding most diatomic gases with two different atoms (such as
carbon monoxide, CO) and all gases with three or more atomsare able to absorb and
emit infrared radiation. Though more than 99% of the dry atmosphere is IR transparent
(because the main constituentsN2, O2, and Arare not able to directly absorb or emit
infrared radiation), intermolecular collisions cause the energy absorbed and emitted by
the greenhouse gases to be shared with the other, non-IR-active, gases.

The simple picture assumes equilibrium. In the real world there is the diurnal cycle as
well as seasonal cycles and weather. Solar heating only applies during daytime. During
the night, the atmosphere cools somewhat, but not greatly, because its emissivity is low,
and during the day the atmosphere warms. Diurnal temperature changes decrease with
height in the atmosphere.

GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming and climate change refer to an increase in average global temperatures.
Natural events and human activities are believed to be contributing to an increase in average
global temperatures. This is caused primarily by increases in greenhouse gases such as
Carbon Dioxide (CO2).
A warming planet thus leads to a change in climate which can affect weather in various ways,
as discussed further below.
What Are The Main Indicators Of Climate Change?

Global warming is when the earth heats up (the temperature rise). It happens when green
house gases (carbon dioxide, water vapour, nitrous oxide and methane) trap heat and light
from the sun in the earths atmosphere, which increases the temperature. This hurts many
people, animals and plants. Many cannot take the changes, so they die.
Global warming refers to the rising average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans
and its projected continuation. In the last 100 years, Earth's average surface temperature
increased by about 0.8 C (1.4 F) with about two thirds of the increase occurring over just
the last three decades. Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are more

than 90% certain most of it is caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse

gases produced by human activities such as deforestation and burning fossil fuels. These
findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized
countries.
Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with
continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects of the warming
include more frequent occurrence of extreme weather events including heat waves, droughts
and heavy rainfall events, species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes, and
changes in agricultural yields. Warming and related changes will vary from region to region
around the globe, with projections being more robust in some areas than others.
Cause of global warming: Global warming is caused by several things, which include man-made or anthropogenic
causes, and global warming is also caused by natural causes.

Natural causes

One natural cause is a release of methane gas from arctic tundra and wetlands. Methane is a
greenhouse gas and a very dangerous gas to our environment. A greenhouse gas is a gas that
traps heat in the earth's atmosphere. Another natural cause is that the earth goes through a
cycle of climate change. This climate change usually lasts about 40,000 years.

Man-made Causes

Man-made causes probably do the most damage to our planet. There are many manmade causes of global warming. Pollution is one of the biggest man-made problems.
Pollution comes in many shapes and sizes. Burning fossil fuels is one thing that
causes pollution. Another major man-made cause of Global Warming is
population. CO2 contributes to global warming; the increase in population makes
the problem.
Consequence of global warming:

Global Warming Impacts and Effects:

For decades, greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide have been increasing in the
atmosphere. But why does that matter? Wont warmer weather be nicer for everyone?
Rapid Changes In Global Temperature
Increased greenhouse gases and the greenhouse effect has contributed to an overall warming
of the Earths climate, leading to a global warming (even though some regions may
experience cooling, or wetter weather, while the temperature of the planet on average would
rise).
Extreme Weather Patterns
Most scientists believe that the warming of the climate will lead to more extreme weather
patterns such as:

More hurricanes and drought;

Longer spells of dry heat or intense rain (depending on where you are in the world);

Scientists

have

pointed

out

that Northern

Europe

could

be

severely

affected with colder weather if climate change continues, as the arctic begins to melt
and send fresher waters further south. It would effectively cut off the Gulf Stream that

brings warmth from the Gulf of Mexico, keeping countries such as Britain warmer than
expected;

In South Asia, the Himalayan glaciers could retreat causing water scarcity in the long
run.

While many environmental groups have been warning about extreme weather conditions for a
few years, the World Meteorological Organization announced in July 2003 that Recent
scientific assessments indicate that, as the global temperatures continue to warm due to
climate change, the number and intensity of extreme events might increase.
The WMO also notes that New record extreme events occur every year somewhere in the
globe, but in recent years the number of such extremes have been increasing. (The WMO
limits the definition of extreme events to high temperatures, low temperatures and high
rainfall amounts and droughts.) The U.Ks Independent newspaper described the WMOs
announcement as unprecedented and astonishing because it came from a respected
United Nations organization not an environmental group.
Ecosystem Impacts
With global warming on the increase and species habitats on the decrease, the chances for
various ecosystems to adapt naturally are diminishing.
Many studies have pointed out that the rates of extinction of animal and plant species, and the
temperature changes around the world since the industrial revolution, have been significantly
different to normal expectations.
An analysis of population trends, climate change, increasing pollution and emerging diseases
found that 40 percent of deaths in the world could be attributed to environmental factors.

The Common Murre has advanced breeding by 24 days per decade over the past 50
years in response to higher temperatures.

The Baltimore oriole is shifting northward and may soon disappear entirely from the
Baltimore area.

Polar bear populations are coming under threat as food becomes harder to hunt.

Effects of global warming already being felt on plants and animals worldwide
Global warming is having a significant impact on hundreds of plant and animal species
around the world -- although the most dramatic effects may not be felt for decades,
according to a new study in the journal Nature.
"Birds are laying eggs earlier than usual, plants are flowering earlier and mammals are
breaking hibernation sooner,"
"Clearly, if such ecological changes are now being detected when the globe has warmed by
an estimated average of only 1 degree F (0.6 C) over the past 100 years, then many more
far-reaching effects on species and ecosystems will probably occur by 2100, when
temperatures could increase as much as 11 F (6 C)."

Global Warming Effects that will happen in the future:

Global warming will have serious impacts on the environment and on society. Higher
temperatures will cause a melting of ice in Greenland and Antarctica. This will accelerate
the rise of sea level. The speed at which global warming is expected to occur in the 21st
century is faster than most plant and animal species will be able to cope with. Some will
adapt but others will suffer and may become extinct.
Global warming will affect agriculture. New crops will be able to be grown in areas that
are currently too cold to support them. However, more pests and diseases may offset any
benefits higher temperatures may have. Water resources will also be affected. Some
reservoirs may dry up if temperature increases, especially if rainfall also decreases. Rising
sea levels may pollute fresh groundwater supplies with salt water.
Global warming will also affect human health. There may be more heat-related illnesses in
hotter summers, and increased breathing problems as higher temperatures increase air
pollution in cities, reducing air quality. The malaria mosquito may also be able to spread to
other regions of the world where it is currently too cold to survive and breed.
More extreme weather, for example storms, floods and droughts will have severe impacts
on the environment and on society. The poorest people in society will unfortunately be
those least able to cope with the impacts of global warming.

OZONE DEPLETION
INTRODUCTION
The ozone layer is a layer in Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high
concentrations of ozone (O3). This layer absorbs 9799% of the Sun's high
frequency ultraviolet light, which is potentially damaging to the life forms on
Earth. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from
approximately 20 to 30 kilometres (12 to 19 mi) above Earth.
Ozone (O3) is a highly-reactive from of oxygen.
Unlike oxygen (O2), ozone has a strong scent and is blue in color.
Ozone exists within both the tropospheric and stratospheric zones of the Earths atmosphere
In the troposphere, ground level ozone is a major air pollutant and primary constituent of
photochemical smog
In the stratosphere, the ozone layer is an essential protector of life on earth as it absorbs
harmful UV radiation before it reaches the earth.
The details of polar ozone whole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning, but the
most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens. The
main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photo dissociation of manmade halocarbon refrigerants (CFCs, freons, halons). These compounds are transported into
the stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. Both types of ozone depletion were
observed to increase as emissions of halo-carbons increased.
CFCs

and

other

contributory

substances

are

referred

to

as ozone-depleting

substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280
315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed
and projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading to adoption of
the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting
chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of
biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and
reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from the increased
UV exposure due to ozone depletion.
THE OZONE LAYER

Ozone is a triatomic form of oxygen (O3) found in Earths upper and lower
atmosphere.

The ozone layer, situated in the stratosphere about 15 to 30 km above the earth's
surface.

Ozone protects living organisms by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation (UVB)

from the sun.

The ozone layer is being destroyed by CFCs and other substances.

Ozone depletion progressing globally except in the tropical zone.

Ozone is an unstable gas

It rapidly breaks down

The ozone layer is only a few cm thick

If the rate of breakdown is faster than the rate of formation the ozone layer thins

This could develop into hole.

HISTORY
An ozone hole was first observed over the Antarctic in 1985. It was in 1956 at Halley Bay,
Antarctica that the concern of ozone measurements began. However, it wasnt until the early
1970s that accurate satellite measurements of ozone could be taken.
In 1974 M.J.Molina and F.S.Rowland published a laboratory study demonstrating the ability
of CFC's to breakdown Ozone with the help of high frequency UV light.
Since the issue of ozone depletion was relatively new, the cause as well as the existence of
the Antarctic ozone hole was still indefinite. However, on September 1987, the Montreal
Protocol

THE FORMATION OF THE OZONE LAYER

Ozone is created in a section of the atmosphere, known as the stratosphere, when highly
energetic solar rays strike molecules of oxygen (O2) and cause the two oxygen atoms to split
apart. If a freed oxygen atom bumps into another O2, it joins up, forming ozone (O 3). Ozone
is also naturally broken down in the stratosphere by sunlight and by a chemical reaction with
various compounds containing nitrogen, hydrogen and chlorine. These chemicals all occur
naturally in the atmosphere in very small amounts. In an unpolluted atmosphere there is a
balance between the amount of ozone being produced and the amount of ozone being
destroyed. As a result, the total concentration of ozone in the atmosphere remains relatively
constant

THE OZONE DEPLETION PROCESS

Ozone depletion is mainly caused by O.D.Ss (Ozone Depleting Substances ) that climb up
and destroy the ozone. The most popular one is C.O.Cs (Cloro Ozone Carbons) that can be
found in perfumes, sprays, refrigerators, foams in installation etc.. . etc ) Their effects and
durability is very long lasting.

PRINCIPLE STEPS IN OZONE DEPELETION IN STRATOSPHERIC OZONE

LAYER

CAUSES OF OZONE DEPLETION

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

The most widely used ODS, accounting for over 80% of total stratospheric ozone
depletion.
Used as coolants in refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners in buildings and cars
manufactured before 1995.
Found in industrial solvents, dry-cleaning agents and hospital sterilants.
Also used in foam products such as soft-foam padding (e.g. cushions and mattresses)
and rigid foam (e.g. home insulation).

Halons

Used in some fire extinguishers, in cases where materials and equipment would be
destroyed by water or other fire extinguisher chemicals. In B.C., halons cause greater
damage to the ozone layer than do CFCs from automobile air conditioners.

Methyl Chloroform

Used mainly in industry for vapour degreasing, some aerosols, cold cleaning,
adhesives and chemical processing.

Carbon Tetrachloride

Used in solvents and some fire extinguishers.

Hydro fluorocarbons (HCFCs)

HCFCs have become major, transitional substitutes for CFCs. They are much less
harmful to stratospheric ozone than CFCs are. But HCFCs they still cause some ozone
destruction and are potent greenhouse gases.

MECHANISM OF OZONE DEPLETION

Meteorological mechanism
Movement of air from one place to another in the upper stratosphere

 Cold temperature in the upper atmosphere causes nitric acid to freeze into
crystals forming wispy pink clouds
Forms a vortex of tightly twisted winds thus forming a hole in the upper
atmosphere

Chemical Mechanism

Different chemicals are responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer
Topping the list :

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Man-made, non-toxic and inert in the troposphere

In the stratosphere are photolysis, releasing reactive chlorine atoms that

catalytically destroy ozone
CFCl3 + UV Light ==> CFCl2 + Cl
Cl + O3 ==> ClO + O2
ClO + O ==> Cl + O2

The free chlorine atom is then free to attack another ozone molecule
Cl + O3 ==> ClO + O2
ClO + O ==> Cl + O2
and again ...
Cl + O3 ==> ClO + O2
ClO + O ==> Cl + O2

and again... for thousands of times.

EFFECTS OF OZONE DEPLETION

Effects on Human Health
Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that UVB causes non melanoma skin
cancer and plays a major role in malignant melanoma development. In addition, UVB has
been linked to cataracts. All sunlight contains some UVB, even with normal ozone levels. It
is always important to limit exposure to the sun. However, ozone depletion will increase the
amount of UVB and the risk of health effects.

Effects on Plants
Physiological and developmental processes of plants are affected by UVB radiation, even by
the amount of UVB in present-day sunlight. Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair these
effects and a limited ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB, plant growth can be directly
affected by UVB radiation.
Indirect changes caused by UVB (such as changes in plant form, how nutrients are distributed
within the plant, timing of developmental phases and secondary metabolism) may be equally,
or sometimes more, important than damaging effects of UVB. These changes can have
important implications for plant competitive balance, herbivory, plant diseases, and
biogeochemical cycles.
Effect on Animals

In domestic animals, UV over exposure may cause eye and skin cancers.

Materials: Wood, plastic, rubber, fabrics and many construction materials are degraded by
UV radiation.

The economic impact of replacing and/or protecting materials could be significant.

Effects on Marine Ecosystems

Phytoplankton forms the foundation of aquatic food webs. Phytoplankton productivity is

limited to the euphotic zone, the upper layer of the water column in which there is sufficient
sunlight to support net productivity. The position of the organisms in the euphotic zone is
influenced by the action of wind and waves. In addition, many phytoplanktons are capable of
active movements that enhance their productivity and, therefore, their survival. Exposure to
solar UVB radiation has been shown to affect both orientation mechanisms and motility in
phytoplankton, resulting in reduced survival rates for these organisms. Scientists have
demonstrated a direct reduction in phytoplankton production due to ozone depletion-related
increases in UVB. One study has indicated a 6-12% reduction in the marginal ice zone.
Solar UVB radiation has been found to cause damage to early developmental stages of fish,
shrimp, crab, amphibians and other animals. The most severe effects are decreased
reproductive capacity and impaired larval development. Even at current levels, solar UVB
radiation is a limiting factor, and small increases in UVB exposure could result in significant
reduction in the size of the population of animals that eat these smaller creatures.
Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles
Increases in solar UV radiation could affect terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical cycles,
thus altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and chemically-important trace gases e.g.,
carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbonyl sulphide (COS) and possibly other
gases, including ozone. These potential changes would contribute to biosphere-atmosphere
feedbacks that attenuate or reinforce the atmospheric build up of these gases.
Effects on Materials
Synthetic polymers, naturally occurring biopolymers, as well as some other materials of
commercial interest are adversely affected by solar UV radiation. Today's materials are
somewhat protected from UVB by special additives. Therefore, any increase in solar UVB
levels will therefore accelerate their breakdown, limiting the length of time for which they are
useful outdoors.
FUTURE EVOLUTION OF OZONE

Remains unclear
Current models are unable to reproduce ozone variability accurately
Rates of future increases in greenhouse gases are not yet established

Interactions between ozone depletion and climate change not yet fully understood

Continued monitoring of ozone and ozone-depleting substances is essential

Ozone layer recovery expected by 2050
Hinges on the complete elimination of atmospheric ozone-depleting substances
Replacements for HCFCs, methyl bromide, and halons are still being sought, and studies
of the new compounds must continue.
THE CURRENT SITUATION

The holes developing over the pole suggest that they may be show an
improvement

BUT CFC molecules take 30 years to rise up to the stratosphere

The chlorine radicals last a long time

The peak ozone damage was supposed to be in 2000

Damage could go on another 50 years

The ozone hole is the region over Antarctica with total ozone of 220 Dobson Units or
lower. This map shows the ozone hole on October 4, 2004. The data were acquired by
the Ozone Monitoring Instrument on NASAs Aura satellite.

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
Introduction
Ultraviolet (UV) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that
of visible light, but longer than X-rays, in the range 10 nm to 400 nm, and energies from
3 eV to 124 eV. It is named because the spectrum consists of electromagnetic waves with
frequencies higher than those that humans identify as the colour violet.
Although ultraviolet radiation is invisible to the human eye, most people are aware of the
effects of UV through sunburn, and in tanning beds. The UV spectrum has many other
effects, both beneficial and damaging, to human health.
UV light is found in sunlight and is emitted by electric arcs and specialized lights such
as black lights. It can cause chemical reactions, and causes many substances to glow
or fluoresce. Most ultraviolet is classified as non-ionizing radiation. The higher energies of
the ultraviolet spectrum from about 150 nm ('vacuum' ultraviolet) are ionizing, but this type
of ultraviolet is not very penetrating and is blocked by air.
History
The discovery of UV radiation was associated with the observation that silver salts darken
when exposed to sunlight. In 1801, the German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter made the
hallmark observation that invisible rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum
were especially effective at lightening silver chloride-soaked paper. He called them
"oxidizing rays" to emphasize chemical reactivity and to distinguish them from "heat rays" at
the other end of the visible spectrum. The simpler term "chemical rays" was adopted shortly
thereafter, and it remained popular throughout the 19th century. The terms chemical and heat
rays were eventually dropped in favour of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, respectively.
The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet because it
is strongly absorbed by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann.
Factors affecting UV exposure

Clouds cover - partly cloudy days do little to reduce UV exposure but rainy or
substantially overcast days reduce UV exposures

The time of day peak exposure time is 12:00 noon - 1:00 p.m. UV intensity is
reduced by about half at three hours before and three hours after the peak exposure
time.

The time of year - more UV is received in the late spring and early summer and
much less is received in the late fall and early winter.

Life style determines a persons risk to UV exposure. Skiing, sunbathing, or

swimming can lead to extremely high exposures. Use of tanning parlors also increases
risk.

UV light and life

UV light is high energy light

When it strikes molecules it can cause them to break into ions or free radicals

The free radicals in turn damage large molecules such as proteins and DNA

Damage to DNA causes mutations

It is a mutagen

Mutations can lead to cancer

UV light can have beneficial effects too

It stimulates the transformation dietary steroids into Vit D (calciferol)

UV light is used to sterilise foods and medical equipment

Some animals can see UV light

Insects use it to guide them to nectar sources in flowers

UV-B has a direct effect on DNA

DNA absorbs UV light of 260nm

The action of UV forms thymine dimmers

This can cause a gene mutation when the DNA replicates

EFFECTS OF UV RAYS
On Aquatic Ecosystems
Decreasing the abundance of phytoplankton affects the food stock for fishes and the
absorption of CO2
Decreasing the diversity of aquatic organisms reduces food stock and also destroys
several fish and amphibians.

Figure: Effects of enhanced solar UV-B on phytoplankton

On Terrestrial Ecosystems

Damage to plant cell DNA molecules - makes plants more susceptible to

pathogens and pests

Reductions in photosynthetic capacity in the plant - results in slower growth and

smaller leaves

Causes mutations in mammalian cells and destroys membranes.

Figure: effects of UV-B radiation on plant

processes
Harmful effects of UV rays on people
Effects on the skin:
UV radiations (UVR) between 290 and 320 nm are called B (UVB). UVB radiations are the
responsible of the most important biological effects on human beings. As for the skin, they
cause it harmful effects in the short and in the long term. The reddening of the skin, from
slight to large burning, is the main harmful effect in the short term. The effects in the long
term are usually forgotten due to the extensive period time, which takes to show skin
abnormalities. Moreover, there are no signs that warn people about their inadequate exposure
to the sunlight. The most common consequences are skin cancers and premature ageing of the
skin.
However, UV radiation is only a risk for the health when human beings keep on exposing
themselves for years, ignoring their type of skin.
The risk caused by UV radiation goes down in proportion to the grade of natural
pigmentation on human beings skin, which is maximum on very white skins and minimum on
people of black skin.

Effects on the eyes:

About the effects of the UV radiation on the eyes, we can say that although nothing has been
proved about the effects that UVB radiation can cause in the eye, there are many scientific
evidences about the damage that UVB radiation can cause on the delicate ocular structure.
The most common disease in the developed world is cataract. This disease is able to cause
blindness. Moreover, there is no doubt about the influence of this type of radiation in its
development.
Together with this, 10% of the population older than 65 in our same environment suffer an
injury in the area of maximum vision denominated Maculate Degeneration, which is also
linked to age. Furthermore, the ultraviolet radiation also intervenes in the degeneration.
To conclude, one of the most common ocular cancers, the so-called uvea melanoma, is
dramatically increasing. Moreover, it is supposed that this fact is directly related to solar
light.

ACID RAIN
INTRODUCTION
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it
possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants,
aquatic animals, and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of carbon
dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which react with the water molecules in the
atmosphere to produce acids. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the
release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also
be

produced

naturally

by lightning strikes

and

sulfur

dioxide

is

produced

by volcanic eruptions. The chemicals in acid rain can cause paint to peel, corrosion of steel
structures such as bridges, and erosion of stone statues.
"Acid rain" is a popular term referring to the deposition of wet (rain, snow, sleet, fog, cloud
water, and dew) and dry (acidifying particles and gases) acidic components. Distilled water,
once carbon dioxide is removed, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are
acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline. Clean or unpolluted rain has a
slightly acidic pH of over 5.7, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to
form carbonic acid, but unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals. A common example
is nitric acid produced by electric discharge in the atmosphere such as lightning. Carbonic
acid is formed by the reaction
H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

H2CO3 (aq)

Carbonic acid then can ionize

of hydronium and carbonate ions:
H2O (l) + H2CO3 (aq)

in

water

forming

low

concentrations

HCO3 (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

Acid deposition as an environmental issue would include additional acids to H2CO3.

ACID DEPOSITION

Wet deposition
Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow, and so on.)
removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can result from
the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by
the precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below clouds. Wet removal of both
gases and aerosols are both of importance for wet deposition.
Dry deposition
Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This can be
responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition. This occurs when particles and
gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces.

Figure: Acid Deposition

CHEMICAL PROCESS
Combustion of fuels produces sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides. They are converted into
sulphuric acid and nitric acid.

Gas phase chemistry

In the gas phase sulphur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the hydroxyl radical via
an intermolecular reaction:
SO2 + OH HOSO2
which is followed by:
HOSO2 + O2 HO2 + SO3
In the presence of water, sulfur trioxide (SO3) is converted rapidly to sulfuric acid:
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (l)
Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH to form nitric acid:
NO2 + OH HNO3

Chemistry in cloud droplets

When clouds are present, the loss rate of SO2 is faster than can be explained by gas phase
chemistry alone. This is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets.
Hydrolysis
Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide, hydrolyses in a series
of equilibrium reactions:
SO2 (g) + H2O
SO2H2O
HSO3
Oxidation

SO2H2O

H+ + HSO3
H+ + SO32

There are a large number of aqueous reactions that oxidize sulphur from S (IV) to S(VI),
leading to the formation of sulphuric acid. The most important oxidation reactions are
with ozone, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen (reactions
by iron and manganese in the cloud droplets).

with

oxygen

are

catalyzed

CAUSE OF ACID RAIN

Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins when compounds like sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides are released into the air. These substances can rise very high into the
atmosphere, where they mix and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form more
acidic pollutants, known as acid rain. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides dissolve very easily
in water and can be carried very far by the wind. As a result, the two compounds can travel
long distances where they become part of the rain, snow, and fog. Human activities are the
main cause of acid rain. Over the past few decades, humans have released so many different
chemicals into the air that they have changed the mix of gases in the atmosphere. Power
plants release the majority of sulfur dioxide and much of the nitrogen oxides when they burn
fossil fuels, such as coal, to produce electricity. In addition, the exhaust from cars, trucks, and
buses releases nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide into the air. These pollutants cause acid
rain.

Acid tolerance ranges of common freshwater organisms

Aquatic species have varying levels of tolerance for acidification, but few survive below pH
values of about 5.0.

SOURCES & EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN

Acid rain can affect the earth in many different ways. Below you can see how soil, trees,
lakes, buildings and people are affected when acid rain falls on the earth.
Acid rain has the following harmful effects:
It damages the nutrition level of leaves of the plants.
Acid rain promotes corrosion.
It damages the structures made of marble, cement and / or lime viz., historical monuments,
buildings, statues, & cars. The chemicals found in acid rain can cause paint to peel and stone
statues to begin to appear old and worn down, which reduces their value and beauty.
Acid rain harms the aquatic life viz., it kills fish etc.
Acid rain leads to the loss of soil fertility.
Causes respiratory diseases like asthma or chronic bronchitis. The pollution that causes acid
rain can also create tiny particles. When these particles get into peoples lungs, they can cause
health problems.

Soil

Acid rain can damage soil by destroying many vital substances and washing away the
nutrients. Soils naturally contain small amounts of poisonous minerals such as mercury and
aluminium. Normally these minerals do not cause serious problems, but when acid rain falls
on the ground and the acidity of the soil increases, chemical reactions occur allowing the
poisonous minerals to be taken up by the plant roots. The trees and plants are then damaged
and any animals eating them will absorb the poisons, which will stay in their bodies.
Trees
The acid takes important minerals away from the leaves and the soil. Without these minerals,
trees and plants cannot grow properly. Damaged trees lose their leaves, have stunted growth
and damaged bark. This makes it easier for fungi and insects to attack the tree, and as a result
the tree may die.
Acid rain not only damages soil but can also affect the trees directly. Pollutants can block or
damage the little pores on the leaves through which the plant takes in the air it needs to
survive.

The tree on the right is normal, while the tree on the left is less dense. This is an effect of acid
rain.

LAKES AND WATER

As the lake becomes more acidic the fish find it more difficult to reproduce successfully. It is
not only the acid in the water that kills them, but also poisonous minerals like aluminium that
are washed out of the surrounding ground into the water. The birds that eat the fish also begin
to suffer as the harmful minerals build up inside their bodies.

BUILDING
When sulphur pollutants fall on to buildings made from limestone and sandstone they react
with minerals in the stone to form a powdery substance that can be washed away by rain.
Famous buildings like the Statue of Liberty in New York, the Taj Mahal in India and St.
Paul's Cathedral in London have all been damaged by this sort of air pollution.

Taj Mahal in India

MATERIALS

Acid rain contributes to the corrosion of metals and the deterioration of paint and
stone. These effects reduce the value of buildings, bridges, cultural objects (such as
statues, monuments, and tombstones), and cars.

On Rocks
Acid rain leads to deterioration of rocks such as the limestone and marble. It can eventually
destroy the value of the buildings and various other things made up of rocks. Rainwater is
known to have carbonic acid which reacts with these rocks especially the carbonates and
dissolves them slowly. Thus acid rain may destroy these rocks after a certain time period.
Acid rain is known to affect the rocks but in case it is in small amounts that can be controlled
or maintained up to an extent but if it is continued for a longer period of time, then these
rocks or building made out of them cannot be saved at any cost.

On statues:
Acid rain is as harmful to non living things as it is to the living beings. It is quite shocking to
know that it can damage statues as well. Acid rain can bring about a lot of destruction to all
species that exist in this environment but is rather hard to believe that it can damage the non
living things such as statues as well but it is a fact. This fact has also been proven as acid rain
has affected several statues throughout the world till now.

AFFECTS ON AQUATIC SYSTEMS

Mollusks
Snails and clams.
These invertebrates are highly sensitive to acidification because of their shells which are
either calcite or aragonite (both forms a CaCO3) which they must take from the water.
In Norway, no snails are found in lakes with a pH of less than 5.
Of 20 species of fingernail clams, only 6 were found in lakes with pH of less than 5.
Arthropods

Crustaceans are not found in water with a pH less than 5.

Crayfish are also uncommon in water where the pH is less than 5. This is an important
consideration because crayfish are an important food source for many species of fish.

Many insects also become rare in waters with a pH less than 5.

Amphibians
As you may know, many species of amphibians are declining. To what extent acid rain is
contributing to this decline is not exactly known. However, one problem is that in places like
north-eastern North America amphibians breed in temporary pools which are fed by acidified
spring melt water. In general, eggs and juveniles are more sensitive to the affects of acidity.
Zooplankton in lakes
Changes in diversity among zooplankton have been noted in studies carried out in lakes in
Ontario, Canada. These studies found that in lakes where the pH was greater than 5 the

zooplankton communities exhibited diversities of 9 - 16 species with 3 - 4 being dominant. In

lakes where the pH was less than 5, diversity had dropped to 1 - 7 species, with only 1 or 2
dominants.
Periphytic algae
Many acidified lakes exhibit a large increase in the abundance of periphytic algae (those that
coat rocks, plants and other submerged objects). This increase has been attributed to the loss
of heterotrophic activity in the lake (i.e., the loss of both microbial and invertebrate
herbivores in the lake).
Fish
As a result of acidification, fish communities have suffered significant changes in community
composition attributed to high mortality, reproductive failure, reduced growth rate, skeletal
deformities, and increased uptake of heavy metals.

Mortality
Effects on embryos and juveniles:
Atlantic salmon fry have been observed to die when water with pH <>
In fish embryos, death appears to be due to corrosion of epidermal cells by the acid. Acidity
also interferes with respiration and osmoregulation. In all fish at a pH of 4 to 5 the normal ion
and acid/base balance is disturbed. Na+ uptake is inhibited in low pH waters with low
salinity. Small fish are especially affected in this way because due to their greater ratio of
body and gill surface area to overall body weight, the detrimental ion flux proceeds faster.
In all fish low pH water causes extensive gill damage. Gill laminae erode, gill filaments
swell, and edemas develop between the outer gill lamellar cells and the remaining tissue.

Reproductive Failure
Reproductive failure has been suggested as the main reason for fish extinction due to acidity.
In Ontario, Canada it was observed that in acidified lakes female fish did not release ova

during mating season. When examined, the fish were found to have abnormally low serum
calcium levels which appear to have disrupted their normal reproductive physiology.
Growth
Growth may increase or decrease depending on resistance of a species to acidity. For resistant
species, growth can increase due to the loss of competing non-resistant species. On the other
hand, growth can decrease due to increase in metabolic rate caused by sub lethal acid stress.
In this case the organism's rate of oxygen consumption goes up because the excess CO 2 in the
water increases the blood CO2 level which decreases the oxygen carrying capacity of the
haemoglobin.

Skeletal Deformity
This occurs in some fish as a response to the lowered blood pH caused by increase in
CO2 described above. Bones decalcify in response to a build-up of H 2CO3 in the blood as the
body attempts to maintain its normal serum osmotic concentration (i.e., the body attempts to
return to a normal blood pH level).
Acid rain affects a food web
Acid rain can cause serious problems for many different animals and plants. As a result, the
entire food web is affected. For example, acid rain can cause phytoplankton in lakes to die.
Insects, which rely on phytoplankton for food, now have less food to eat, and they begin to
die as a result. These insects are a source of food for many other animals, such as fish, birds,
frogs, and salamanders. As the insects die, there is now less food for these animals. This
process continues up the entire food web. So, although acid rain may not directly affect a
certain species of plant or animal, it can affect the entire food web by limiting the amount of
food available.

Acid Rain: An International problem

The pollutants that cause acid rain are carried by wind (travelling 1000-2000km within the
atmosphere in 3-5days). They are therefore easily transported across international boundaries.
This means that a country suffering the effects of acid rain is not necessarily responsible for
its creation. Many forests and lakes in Scandinavia for example have been damaged by
pollution which has travelled from Britain. Therefore international co-operation is essential
to solve the problems caused by acid rain. Examples of these (from Flinders, 2001) include:1980s - joint study between UK electricity generators /coal producers and Norway and
Sweden to research the processes resulting in acid rain.
UN proposal signed / agreed by a few countries (not the UK) achieved a 30% reduction in
sulphur dioxide emissions.
Prevention is obviously the ideal solution, however to achieve this sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide emissions must be reduced, examples of how this can be achieved include:
Burning non-fossil fuels (i.e. nuclear or renewable fuels)
Burning low-sulphur coal (can reduce sulphur emissions by up to 15%)
Producing energy-efficient car engines
Fitting power stations with filters and low temperature burners (this is however
expensive and to this nationwide, the costs may run into billions.
'Scrubbers' - equipment used to remove up to to 90% of sulphur dioxide emissions in coalburning plants (but very expensive)
Using lead-free petrol - major factor in reducing exhaust emissions in the UK.

CAUSES/WHAT CAN WE DO?

CASE STUDY ON IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Impact on Agriculture
Effect on apple cultivation

Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh

Experienced a number of crop failures in the last 15 years

Apple belt has moved 30 kilometers [northwards] over the last 50 years

Apple growers, says attributed poor production to reduced snowfall and its changed
timing.

Shift in Agriculture

Apple cultivation is affected in Kullu Valley

Apple belt has moved 30 KM northwards

Forest resources were removed

Ganga under threat from warming:

Himalayan source of the Ganga is drying up at a rate of 40 yards a year, nearly twice
as fast as two decades ago, and that some of these glaciers might disappear by 2030.

In the dry summer months, the Gangotri glacier provides up to 70 percent of the water
of the Ganga.

According to a UN climate report, the shrinking glaciers also threaten Asias supply of
fresh water.

Impact on Coastal Orissa:

The Satavaya region, once a cluster of seven villages.

Only two out of the seven villages exists the other five villages have been submerged.

The Coastal villages have been affected by cyclone and floods killing more than
30,000 people.

The sea has ingressed to about 1.5 km into Satavaya and 2.5 km into Kanakpur.
Satavaya has also lost 56% of its mangrove vegetation.
Indias Initiatives

Signed UNFCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) on 10 th

June 1992

India ratified the Kyoto protocol

India has a National Action Plan on Climate Change

National Solar Mission

National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency

National Mission on Sustainable Habitat

National Water Mission

National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem

National Mission for a Green India

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture

National Mission on Strategic Mission on Climate Change

India has a well developed policy, legislative regulatory & programmatic regime

For promotion of Energy efficiency, renewable energy, nuclear power, fuel switching,
energy pricing reform addressing GHG emission

ASSESSMENT OF POTENTIAL FUTURE HEALTH IMPACTS OF GLOBAL

CHANGE
There are three main approaches to scenario-based health risk assessment9:
(i) Extrapolation, based on specific (historical) analogue situations for some aspects of global
change;
(ii) Formal integrated mathematical modeling; and
(iii) Generalized assessments that draw on expert judgment.
Analogues of global change:
Analogue situations are most likely to come from current or recent times. For example, there
have been several recent studies of the regional health consequences of unusual climatic
episodes and trends.
The El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) allows analogue studies of the likely health
impacts of anticipated future increases in climate variability. ENSO - which comprises quasiperiodic reversals in the massive flow of warm surface water and air across the Pacific - is a
major determinant of interannual climate variability around the low-mid latitude world14.
However, the analogy is limited in that ENSO-related climatic changes occur more rapidly
and with greater fluctuations than would occur under the projected conditions of global
climate change. ENSO-related temperature and rainfall fluctuations have been shown to
affect substantially the occurrence of malaria outbreaks in north-east Pakistan and Sri
Lanka15'16. Approximately quinquennial cycles of malaria in Colombia correlate with ENSO
fluctuations17.
Integrated mathematical modeling:
Integrated mathematical modelling is increasingly being used to estimate the future health
impacts of global environmental changes. Such modelling requires that each
component of the chain of causation can be represented mathematically. Linkage
of these sequential components is referred to as 'vertical' integration. Horizontal
integration incorporates other co-existent global changes, other social- emographic
trends, and societal responses. The several well-recognised difficulties in
integrated mathematical modelling include: model development, calibration and
validation; scaling; and dealing with an unusual spectrum of uncertainty.

Various mathematical models have been used to assess the impact of climate change
scenarios on transmission potential of vector-borne diseases - especially malaria,
dengue and schistosomiasis. Other such models have been used to forecast future
water or food supplies under conditions of global change.
Vulnerability of populations:
Populations can differ substantially in their vulnerability. A given disease system may be
particularly sensitive to the effects of, for example, climate change based on biological or
physiological characteristics. However, the ultimate vulnerability of a given population to
that disease may be considerably modulated by constitutional characteristics and by the
capacity for adaptive responses.
Populations characterised by poverty, isolation, coastal location, food-insecurity, local
environmental destruction and political rigidity will be vulnerable to various global
change impacts. Food security indices have recently been developed based on criteria such as
current and future land-use, water supply, population and climate, and groups in Zimbabwe
that are vulnerable to downturns in food supply have thus been identified using regional and
national surveys. Populations most vulnerable to the spread of vector-borne diseases are those
adjacent to endemic regions where transmission is currently limited by temperature.

BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPROACH FOR MANAGMENT OF GLOBAL

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM
An organizational evolution perspective to analyze the case of the German biotech sector was
applied and its response to the hostile financing environment in the years 2002-2004, which
followed the burst of the high-tech bubble at the stock markets. Population ecology and data
from biotech reports to investigate the pattern of external adaptation processes at the industry
level were used. The evolutionary economics perspective, multiple case studies of bio
ventures, and biotech reports to study internal adaptation processes at the firm level was
employed.
The educational objective of the biotechnology program is to create an interactive laboratory
learning environment and immerse undergraduate students within action-based research. The
curriculum was developed to address identified goals for laboratory experiences (Singer,
Hilton, & Scweingruber, 2005):

Enhancing mastery of subject matter

Developing scientific reasoning

Understanding the complexity and ambiguity of empirical work

Developing practical skills

Understanding of the nature of science

Cultivating interest in science and interest in learning science

Developing teamwork abilities.

In a recently completed research, American scientists have discovered a more efficient variant
of the key enzyme involved in CO2 sequestration by plants during photosynthesis, the
ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO). The main aim of the study was
to direct the evolution of RuBisCO variants with improved kinetic and biophysical properties
that could enable plants to use and convert CO2 more efficiently.
Previous scientific attempts of engineering more efficient RuBisCo enzymes were primarily
focused on mutating specific amino acids within RuBisCo and then seeing if the change
affected CO2 conversion.
In this study, the researchers used a different approach which consisted in inserting randomly
mutating RuBisCO genes into bacteria (in this case Escherichia coli) and screening for the
most efficient resulting RuBisCO enzymes.

In nature, E. coli bacteria do not carry the RuBisCO enzyme and they do not effectuate
photosynthesis nor do they contribute to the carbon sequestration from the atmosphere. The
researchers thus isolated genes encoding RuBisCO and a helper enzyme from photosynthetic
bacteria and added them to E. coli. Such genetically modified E. coli were able to fix and
convert CO2 into consumable energy when the other nutrients were withhold and the bacteria
relied on RuBisCO and carbon dioxide to survive under these stringent conditions.
Subsequently the RuBisCO gene was randomly mutated, and these mutant genes were
inserted to E. coli. The fastest growing strains carried mutated RuBisCO genes that produced
a larger quantity of the enzyme, leading to faster assimilation of carbon dioxide gas. The
RuBisCO variants that evolved during three rounds of such random mutagenesis and
selection were over-expressed and exhibited 5-fold improvement in specific activity relative
to the wild-type enzyme.
According to the scientists, such large changes in RuBisCO efficiency could potentially lead
to a faster plant growth, quicker sequestration of the CO2 from the air and more efficient
plant removal of greenhouse gasses from the atmosphere.

SUMMARY

The global environmental problem is a growing concern, and needs to be attended to

immediately. Spreading awareness of environmental problems and responding to them
without delay is absolutely necessary to deal with the global problem effectively.
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Green house effect
The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is
absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions.
Global warming
Global warming refers to the rising average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans
and its projected continuation.
Ozone Layer Depletion
The use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone depleating substances as refrigerants,
solvents and insulation is destroying the ozone layer.
Acid Rain
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it
possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants,
aquatic animals, and infrastructure.
CASE STUDY ON IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Impact on Agriculture
Effect on apple cultivation

Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh

Experienced a number of crop failures in the last 15 years

Apple belt has moved 30 kilometers [northwards] over the last 50 years

Ganga under threat from warming

Himalayan source of the Ganga is drying up at a rate of 40 yards a year, nearly twice as fast
as two decades ago, and that some of these glaciers might disappear by 2030.
Impact on Coastal Orissa

The Coastal villages have been affected by cyclone and floods killing more than
30,000 people.

FUTURE HEALTH IMPACTS OF GLOBAL CHANGE

There are three main approaches to scenario-based health risk assessment9:
(i) Extrapolation, based on specific (historical) analogue situations for some aspects of global
change;
(ii) Formal integrated mathematical modeling; and
(iii) Generalized assessments that draw on expert judgment.

FUTURE PROSPECTS
Forecasts by most international agencies foresee future food production matching increased
population and rising demand at the global level over the next 2-3 decades42. At the regional
level, however, they foresee worsening food security in sub-Saharan Africa and only marginal
improvement in South Asia. The rate of recruitment of new land has slowed; there is little
good land not already in use (with some exceptions in South America). Irrigation continues,
to be extended - despite the ecological and social costs and the likelihood of water logging
and salination.
Future gains in yield will need to leave the natural resource base intact, while also
Making access to food more equitable. Higher priority must be given to sustainable methods,
including biological methods of pest and weed control, adequate crop rotation, and mixing of
crops with forestry and livestock. Meanwhile, perhaps genetic engineering will deliver plant
varieties that are higher-yielding and more resistant to drought, salinity, diseases, and pests.
By 2050 over half the global population, in rich as well as poor countries, is expected to face
serious fresh water shortages.
If the focus is directed on Chinas economic growth only, there are ample grounds for
optimism regarding the countrys future image. The GDP growth, though on a gradual
decline from 10% or less during the 1990s, is still estimated at 6~9% from 2000 to 2010,
5~7% from 2010 to 2020 and 4~6% from 2020 to 2030.
The amount and speed of future climate change will ultimately depend on:

Whether greenhouse gases and aerosol concentrations increase, stay the same or
decrease.

How strongly features of the climate (e.g. temperature, precipitation and sea level)
respond to changes in greenhouse gas and aerosol concentrations.

How much the climate varies as a result of natural influences (e.g. from volcanic
activity and changes in the suns intensity) and its internal variability (referring to
random changes in the circulation of the atmosphere and oceans).

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Robine JM et al. Death toll exceeded 70,000 in Europe during the summer of 2003. Les
Comptes Rendus/Srie Biologies, 2008, 331:17178.
Climate change 2007. Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Geneva, Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, 2007 (Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change).
Bornman, J.F. and A.H. Teramura, Effects of ultraviolet-B radiation on terrestrial plants,
pp. 427-471 in Environmental UV-photobiology, A.R., Young, L.O. Bjrn, J. Moan and
W. Nultsch (eds.), Plenum Press, New York, 1993.
Caldwell, M.M., Solar ultraviolet radiation and the growth and development of higher
plants, pp. 131-177 in Photophysiology. Volume 6, A.C., Giese (eds.), Academic Press,
New York, 1971.
Krupa, S.V. and R.N. Kickert, The Greenhouse Effect -Impacts of Ultraviolet-B (UV-B)
Radiation, Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and Ozone (O-3) on Vegetation, Environmental
Pollution 61:263-393, 1989.
Smith,

R.C.,

Ozone,

middle

ultraviolet

radiation

and

the

aquatic

environment, Photochem. Photobiol., 50, 459-468, 1989.

Smith, R.C. and K.S. Baker, Stratospheric ozone, middle ultraviolet radiation and
phytoplankton productivity, Oceanography 2, 4-10, 1989.
Worrest, R. C. and D.-P. Hder, Effects of stratospheric ozone depletion on marine
organisms, Environmental Conservation, 16, 261-263, 1989.
Holger Patzelt, David B. Audretsch, (2008) "The evolution of biotechnology in hostile
financing environments", Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 21 Iss: 6,
pp.773 785.

Brune, W.H., Anderson, J.G., Toohey, D.W., Fahey, D.W., Kawa, S.R., Jones, R.L.,
McKenna, D.S. and Poole, L.R. (1991) The potential for ozone depletion in the Arctic
polar stratosphere, Science, 252, 1260-66.
Galloway, J. N., Zhao Dianwu, Xiong Jiling and G. E. Likens. 1987. Acid rain: a
comparison of China, United States and a remote area. Science 236:15591562.
Farman, J.C., Gardiner, B.G. and Shanklin, J.D. (1985) Large losses of total ozone in
Antarctica reveal seasonal CLOx/NOx interaction, Nature, 315, 207-10.
Holdgate, M., Kassas, M. and White G. (1982) The State of the Environment 19721982, Tycooly Press, Dublin.
Likens, G. E., W. C. Keene, J. M. Miller and J. N. Galloway. 1987. Chemistry of
precipitation from a remote, terrestrial site in Australia. J. Geophys. Res. 92(D11):13,29913,314.
Prather, M. J. and Watson, R.T. (1990) Stratospheric ozone depletion and future levels of
atmospheric chlorine and bromine. Nature, 344, No. 6268, pp 729-34.
Teramura, A. H., M. Tevini, J. F. Bornman, M. M. Caldwell, G. Kulandaivelu, and L. O.
Bjorn. 1991. Terrestrial plants. Chapter 3 in Environmental effects of ozone depletion,
1991 update. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme.
Bruce, J.P.; Lee, H.; and Haites, E.F., ed., Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social
Dimensions of Climate Change, Contribution of Working Group III to the Second
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 0-521-56051-9 (pb: 0-521-56854-4) pdf.
Bloom, Paul R. Environmental Encyclopedia. Acid Rain. Detroit: Gale Research
InternationalLimited,1994.
Miller, G. Tyler Jr. Living in the Environment. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing
Company, 1987.

"Stratospheric Ozone Depletion by Chlorofluorocarbons (Nobel Lecture)Encyclopedia

of Earth". Eoearth.org. Retrieved 2011-03-28.