Acknowledgement

I am using this opportunity to express my gratitude to everyone who supported me throughout

the course of this project. I am thankful for their aspiring guidance, invaluably constructive
criticism and friendly advice during the project work. I am sincerely grateful to them for sharing
their truthful and illuminating views on a number of issues related to the project.

Implement Food Safety Procedures

Food safety is essential for increasing food security which exists when all people have
physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet the dietary needs
and food preferences for active and healthy living. Increasing the supply of safe and
wholesome food reduces the impact of foodborne diseases that cause both human suffering
and significant economic losses to countries in the Region.
The establishment of effective food safety systems is pivotal to ensuring the safety of national
food supplies as well as food products for regional and international trade. The development
of relevant and enforceable food safety policy and regulations is an essential component of an
effective food safety system.

Critical Control Points

Specific point, procedure, or step in food manufacturing at which control can be exercised to
reduce, eliminate, or prevent the possibility of a food safety hazard.

Aerobic vs Anaerobic Bacteria

There are two types of organisms and tiny single-celled bacteria called aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria in the human body. Aerobics are able to use oxygen, whereas anaerobic bacteria can
sustain itself without the presence of oxygen. Aerobic bacteria can detoxify oxygen, whereas
anaerobic bacteria cannot sufficiently break down food molecules as much as aerobic bacteria.
Aerobic bacteria get energy from food when compared to anaerobic, that can survive in places
where there is less oxygen, such as human guts. Some anaerobic bacteria also causes diseases in
those areas of the human body where there is less oxygen supplied. Aerobic bacteria cannot grow
without an ample supply of oxygen involved in a chemical reaction, whereas the anaerobic term
does not imply this.

Aerobic bacteria, when compared to anaerobic bacteria, uses O2 for cellular respiration.
Anaerobic respiration means an energy cycle with less efficiency to produce energy. Aerobic
respiration is energy given off by a complex process when O2 and glucose metabolize together
inside the cells mitochondria. Usually in runners, the body can go into an oxygen debt state
when he runs fast. This causes anaerobic respiration, which allows the production of lactic acid
crystals in the muscles. This causes the muscle to hurt, and is healed by massaging the area to
dissolve or flush away the crystals with the help of the blood stream.

Anaerobic bacteria versus aerobic bacteria occurs in fermentation. Aerobic bacteria uses the
oxygen present in the air for energy metabolism, versus anaerobic bacteria that does not need
oxygen from the air for energy metabolism

Bacteria can be classified into aerobes and anaerobes. The main difference between the two is the
fact that aerobic bacteria require oxygen to remain alive, while anaerobic bacteria do not rely on
oxygen for metabolic processes and survival. While aerobes are able to thrive in habitats that
have abundant oxygen, anaerobes may die in the presence of oxygen. This type of bacteria does
have a growth advantage in areas of the body unexposed to oxygen, and they may become
virulent pathogens. The difference in the capacity to utilize oxygen among aerobes and
anaerobes is important in the treatment of bodily infections.
The classification of bacteria can be based not just on whether or not they require oxygen, but
also on how they use it. Obligate aerobes are microorganisms that need oxygen to survive and
die in its absence. An example is the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Obligate anaerobes are
organisms that die when exposed to oxygen, such as Clostridium tetani and Clostridium
botulinum, which cause tetanus and botulism, respectively.

Bacteria Growth Phases

Bacterial growth is the asexual reproduction, or cell division, of a bacterium into two daughter
cells, in a process called binary fission. Providing no mutational event occurs the resulting
daughter cells are genetically identical to the original cell. Hence, "local doubling" of the
bacterial population occurs. Both daughter cells from the division do not necessarily survive.
However, if the number surviving exceeds unity on average, the bacterial population undergoes
exponential growth. The measurement of an exponential bacterial growth curve in batch culture
was traditionally a part of the training of all microbiologists; the basic means requires bacterial
enumeration (cell counting) by direct and individual (microscopic, flow cytometry), direct and
bulk (biomass), indirect and individual (colony counting), or indirect and bulk (most probable
number, turbidity, nutrient uptake) methods. Models reconcile theory with the measurements.
Four characteristic phases of the growth cycle are recognized.
1. Lag Phase. Immediately after inoculation of the cells into fresh medium, the population
remains temporarily unchanged. Although there is no apparent cell division occurring, the cells
may be growing in volume or mass, synthesizing enzymes, proteins, RNA, etc., and increasing in
metabolic activity.
The length of the lag phase is apparently dependent on a wide variety of factors including the
size of the inoculum; time necessary to recover from physical damage or shock in the transfer;
time required for synthesis of essential coenzymes or division factors; and time required for
synthesis of new (inducible) enzymes that are necessary to metabolize the substrates present in
the medium.

2. Exponential (log) Phase. The exponential phase of growth is a pattern of balanced growth
wherein all the cells are dividing regularly by binary fission, and are growing by geometric
progression. The cells divide at a constant rate depending upon the composition of the growth
medium and the conditions of incubation. The rate of exponential growth of a bacterial culture is
expressed asgeneration time, also the doubling time of the bacterial population. Generation
time (G) is defined as the time (t) per generation (n = number of generations). Hence, G=t/n is
the equation from which calculations of generation time (below) derive.
3.Stationary Phase. Exponential growth cannot be continued forever in a batch culture (e.g. a
closed system such as a test tube or flask). Population growth is limited by one of three factors:
1. exhaustion of available nutrients; 2. accumulation of inhibitory metabolites or end products; 3.
exhaustion of space, in this case called a lack of "biological space".
During the stationary phase, if viable cells are being counted, it cannot be determined whether
some cells are dying and an equal number of cells are dividing, or the population of cells has
simply stopped growing and dividing. The stationary phase, like the lag phase, is not necessarily
a period of quiescence. Bacteria that produce secondary metabolites, such as antibiotics, do so
during the stationary phase of the growth cycle (Secondary metabolites are defined as
metabolites produced after the active stage of growth). It is during the stationary phase that
spore-forming bacteria have to induce or unmask the activity of dozens of genes that may be
involved in sporulation process.
4.Death Phase. If incubation continues after the population reaches stationary phase, a death
phase follows, in which the viable cell population declines. (Note, if counting by turbidimetric
measurements or microscopic counts, the death phase cannot be observed.). During the death

phase, the number of viable cells decreases geometrically (exponentially), essentially the reverse
of growth during the log phase.

Pathogens

Bacillus cereus or B. cereus is a type of bacteria that produces toxins. These toxins can cause
two types of illness: one type characterized by diarrhea and the other, called emetic toxin, by
nausea and vomiting.
These bacteria are present in foods and can multiply quickly at room temperature.
A variety of foods, particularly rice and leftovers, as well as sauces, soups, and other prepared
foods that have sat out too long at room temperature.
Symptoms- Diarrheal: Watery diarrhea and abdominal cramps
Emetic (vomiting): Nausea and vomiting
Staphylococcus aureus (or Staph aureus) is a type of bacteria commonly found on the skin and
hair as well as in the noses and throats of people and animals. These bacteria are present in up to
25 percent of healthy people and are even more common among those with skin, eye, nose, or
throat infections.
Staphylococcus can cause food poisoning when a food handler contaminates food and then the
food is not properly refrigerated. Other sources of food contamination include the equipment and
surfaces on which food is prepared. These bacteria multiply quickly at room temperature to
produce a toxin that causes illness. Staphylococcus is killed by cooking and pasteurization.
Foods that are made with hand contact and require no additional cooking, such as: Salads, such
as ham, egg, tuna, chicken, potato, and macaroni Bakery products, such as cream-filled pastries,
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cream pies, and chocolate clairs Sandwiches Other sources include milk and dairy products, as
well as meat, poultry, eggs, and related products.
Symptoms Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite, severe abdominal cramps, mild fever
WHAT IS BOTULISM?
Botulism is a rare but potentially life-threatening bacterial illness. Clostridium Botulinum
bacteria grows on food and produces toxins that, when ingested, cause paralysis. Botulism
poisoning is extremely rare, but so dangerous that each case is considered a public health
emergency. Studies have shown that there is a 35 to 65 percent chance of death for patients who
are not treated immediately and effectively with botulism antitoxin. Infant botulism is the most
common form of botulism. See below for symptoms specific to infant botulism. Most of the
botulism cases reported each year come from foods that are not canned properly at home.
Botulism from commercially canned food is rare, but commercial canned chili products were
identified as the source of a botulism outbreak in 2007.
SYMPTOMS OF BOTULISM
Botulism neurotoxins prevent neurotransmitters from functioning properly. This means that they
inhibit motor control. As botulism progresses, the patient experiences paralysis from top to
bottom, starting with the eyes and face and moving to the throat, chest, and extremities. When
paralysis reaches the chest, death from inability to breathe results unless the patient is ventilated.
Symptoms of botulism generally appear 12 to 72 hours after eating contaminated food. In
general, symptoms of botulism poisoning include the following: Nausea Vomiting Fatigue
Dizziness Double vision Dry skin, mouth and throat Body Aches

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Causes of foodborne illness

The causes of foodborne illness fall into the following 3 categories:

Biological hazards include bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Bacteria and viruses are
responsible for most foodborne illnesses. Biological hazards are the biggest threat to food
safety. This can be inherent in the product or due to mishandling (e.g. time/temperature
abuse).

Chemical hazards include natural toxins and chemical contaminants. Some natural
toxins are associated with the food itself (i.e. certain mushrooms, PSP in molluscan
shellfish), some are made by pathogens in the food when it is time/temperature abused
(i.e. histamine development in certain seafood species). Some additives, such as sulfites,
can be a hazard to certain individuals. Chemical contamination can also occur when
products, such as cleaners and sanitizers are not used correctly.
o Food allergens are also a chemical hazard. Some people are sensitive to proteins
in foods. Every food is different. Regulatory authorities have identified 8 food
allergens that cause 90% of the allergic reactions. These are milk, eggs, fish,
crustacean shellfish (lobster, crab, shrimp), wheat, soy, peanuts, and tree nuts.

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Bibliography
Websites
http://web.uri.edu/foodsafety/cause-and-prevention-of-foodborne-illness/
http://www.foodsafety.gov/poisoning/causes/bacteriaviruses/botulism/
Books
Bartos, J. (2011). Food safety. Detroit: Greenhaven Press.
Zweigenbaum, J. A. (2011). Mass spectrometry in food safety: Methods and protocols. New
York: Humana.

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