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org/

GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 81, NO. 1 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2016); P. G1G11, 8 FIGS.

10.1190/GEO2014-0430.1

Edge enhancement of potential field data using spectral moments

Yanyun Sun1, Wencai Yang2, Xiangzhi Zeng2, and Zhiyong Zhang3

ABSTRACT

moment method using synthetic gravity data, EGM-2008

gravity data, and the total magnetic field reduced to the pole.
Compared with other edge-enhancing filters, such as the total
horizontal derivative (TDX), profile curvature, curvature of the
total horizontal gradient amplitude, enhancement of the TDX
using the tilt angle, theta map, and normalized standard
deviation, this spectral-moment method was more effective
in balancing the edges of different-amplitude anomalies,
and the detected lineaments were sharper and more continuous. In addition, the method was also less sensitive to noise
than were the other filters. Compared with geologic maps,
the edges extracted by the spectral-moment method from gravity and the magnetic data corresponded well with the geologic
structures.

Edge enhancement in potential-field data helps geologic

interpretation, where the lineaments on the potential-field frequently indicate subsurface faults, contacts, and other tectonic
features. Therefore, a variety of edge-enhancement methods
have been proposed for locating edges, most of which are
based on the horizontal or vertical derivatives of the field.
However, these methods have several limitations, including
thick detected boundaries, blurred response to low-amplitude
anomalies, and sensitivity to noise. We have developed the
spectral-moment method for detecting edges in potential-field
anomalies based on the second spectral moment and its statistically invariable quantities. We evaluated the spectral-

INTRODUCTION

lower amplitudes. As a result, the tilt angle was introduced by Miller

and Singh (1994) as the first balanced filter to enhance large- and
small-amplitude anomalies, and Rajagopalan and Milligan (1995)
apply automatic gain control filters to produce a balanced image.
In recent years, a variety of new methods for edge enhancement
have emerged. To enhance the lineaments and subtle details, Verduzco et al. (2004) suggest using the total horizontal derivative of
the tilt angle (THDT). Francisco et al. (2009) introduce an edge-detection method based on the enhancement of the total horizontal
derivative using the tilt angle (TAHG). Cooper and Cowan
(2006) also introduce some new forms of the tilt angle for detecting
edges. Wijins et al. (2005) use the theta map, which is a normalization of the horizontal gradient with the analytic signal amplitude
to highlight low-amplitude features. Hansen and de Ridder (2006)
present an approach for detecting lineaments based on the analysis
of the curvature of the total horizontal gradient amplitude (LFA) by
fitting local quadratic surfaces to a moving window of data. Another

Use of potential-field data to locate edges facilitates geologic interpretation because the edges on the potential-field often indicate
subsurface faults, contacts, and other tectonic features. However,
the horizontal boundaries of potential-field-anomaly sources cannot
be determined directly based on the potential-field data because of
the high frequency and low amplitude with respect to the source
boundaries. It is often necessary to enhance the horizontal edges
of the sources to assist structural interpretation, as well as environmental and engineering investigations. To date, several methods exist to emphasize geologic contacts and highlight source edges,
including methods based on horizontal and vertical derivatives
(e.g., Evjen, 1936; Nabighian, 1972; Cordell, 1979; Blakely and
Simpson, 1986; Mitova and Jarosalav, 1993; Hsu et al., 1996;
Fedi and Florio, 2001). However, these high-pass filters mainly detect the edges of high-amplitude sources but are not effective for

Manuscript received by the Editor 11 September 2014; revised manuscript received 10 June 2015; published online 13 October 2015.
1
Formerly China University of Geosciences, Institute of Geophysics and Information Technology, Beijing, China; presently China Aero Geophysical Survey
and Remote Sensing Center for Land and Resources, Beijing, China. E-mail: yysun2009@126.com.
2
Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences (CAGS), Institute of Geology, State Key Laboratory of Continental Tectonics and Dynamics, Beijing, China.
E-mail: yangwencai@cashq.ac.com; zeng.xz@163.com.
3
China University of Geosciences, Institute of Geophysics and Information Technology, Beijing, China. E-mail: zhangzhi.yong2008@163.com.
2015 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
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Sun et al.

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G2

method that fits a special quadratic function to a window of data

points is introduced by Phillips et al. (2007) using the eigenvalues
and eigenvectors to locate the sources and to estimate their depths
and strikes.
For detecting more details, Cooper and Cowan (2006) develop
numerous excellent edge-detection methods. The normalized standard deviation (NSTD; Cooper and Cowan, 2008), based on ratios
of the windowed standard deviation of derivatives of the field, was
proposed and successfully applied to enhance low-amplitude
anomalies. Cooper (2009) suggests using the orthogonal Hilbert
transforms of analytic signal amplitudes to balance lineaments of
different-amplitude anomalies. To improve edge detection by applying the Laplacian derivative operator, Cooper and Cowan (2009)
propose to adopt the profile curvature instead. Later, they introduce
the generalized derivative operator, which is a linear combination of
the horizontal and vertical field derivatives, normalized by the totalgradient amplitude (Cooper and Cowan, 2011). Ma et al. (2012)
present enhanced balancing filters that combine different order
derivatives to detect the source boundaries and introduce a stable
algorithm of the high-order vertical derivatives. Based on the idea
of NSTD, Zhang et al. (2014) propose the normalized anisotropy
variance method (NAV-Edge) for detecting edges, which is less sensitive to noise.
These edge-detection methods are useful in enhancing lineaments. However, there are also some disadvantages, which fall into
approximately three categories. First, the detected edges are broad
or diffuse (e.g., total horizontal derivative (TDX), theta map, and
profile curvature), which limits locating the boundaries. Second,
the response in the low-amplitude parts is blurred (e.g., TDX
and profile curvature). Finally, most of the detectors are high-pass
filters and are therefore sensitive to noise (e.g., profile curvature,
theta map, and THDT).
In this paper, we introduce a new edge-enhancement method
based on spectral moments (the spectral-moment method), which
can balance the edges of different-amplitude anomalies well and
narrow the detected edges. In addition, the spectral-moment method
can be less sensitive to noise than are the other methods by enlarging the size of the moving window. We tested the method on synthetic and real data, and we also compared it with other standard
edge-enhanced filters (e.g., TDX, profile curvature, LFA, TAHG,
theta map, and NSTD).

EDGE ENHANCEMENT USING THE

SPECTRAL-MOMENT METHOD
Based on the theory of random process (Nayak, 1973; Thomas,
1982; Yang et al., 1992), the (p q)th order discrete spectral moment of a surface with a size of m n points is defined by (LonguetHiggins, 1957; Yang et al., 1992; Li et al., 2000)

mpq

n X
m
X

Gf u ; f v f pu f qv f u f v ;

(1)

v1 u1

where Gf u ; f v is the 2D power spectral density of the surface. The

values f u and f v are the discrete spatial frequencies in the x- and ydirections, respectively.
On the potential surface, a moving window (referred to as w1 )
with a size of M by N points is used to compute the spectral moments of the surface within it. Setting p q 2, the spatial expres-

sions of the three elements of the second-order spectral moment of

the potential surface in the small window is derived from equation 1,
which are calculated by the following convolution:

m20

N X
M
X

g2x xj ; yi ;

(2)

g2y xj ; yi ;

(3)

gx xj ; yi gy xj ; yi ;

(4)

i1 j1

m02

N X
M
X
i1 j1

m11

N X
M
X
i1 j1

where

gx x; y

gx; y;
x

gy x; y

gx; y;
y

(5)

where i 1;2; : : : ; N , j 1;2; : : : ; M , and gx; y is the potential field data within moving window w1. Here, m20 and m02 show
the variance of slopes of the small potential field surface within w1
in the x- and y-directions, respectively, whereas m11 denotes the
covariance of the slopes in x- and y-directions within w1 .
Note that the spectral moments change with the rotation of the
coordinates. Therefore, the statistically invariable quantities that are
independent of the system rotation are defined as (Longuet-Higgins,
1957; Huang, 1984, 1985; Yang et al., 1992; Li et al., 2000)

M2 m20 m02 ;

(6)

2 m20 m02 m211 .

(7)

Here, the statistically invariable quantity M2 is the variance of the

2D slope of the potential field surface within w1 , which shows the
magnitude of the edges. The statistically invariable parameter 2
represents the anisotropy of the potential field surface within w1 .
We calculate the statistically invariable quantity M2 for each moving window over the grid, we assign that value to the grid point at
the center of the window, and then the image of M2 can be obtained.
To bring out the detail in smaller amplitude anomalies, further
enhanced processing can be conducted on the surface of M2 . Taking
consideration of information on anisotropy and amplitudes synthetically, we introduce an enhanced parameter called the edge coefficient (Sun and Yang, 2014; Yang et al., 2015):

M Ma Mb .

(8)

This definition decomposes the edge coefficient M into two new

parameters Ma and Mb . Parameter Ma is calculated by

p
n20 n02 n211
Ma sgnM2
;
n20 n02
2

(9)

where n20 , n02 , and n11 are the three elements of the spectral moments on the surface of M2 within the moving window (referred to
as w2 ) with size of M by N points, and represents the Laplacian
operator. The opposite sign of M2 is set to separate the ridge and
valley lines because it is the ridge lines that we are interested in.

Edge enhancement using spectral moments

However, when it refers to the situation that data change little

along the boundarys strike, parameter Ma is ineffective. Then,
an extra term must be added using the relative distance between
the origin and the distribution center of partial derivatives of data
with respect to the x- and y-directions in w2 . This extra term is Mb ,

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In equation 9, the edge coefficient component Ma is proportional to the square root of 2 , showing the anisotropy of the surface
topography, which contributes to narrow the edges. Additionally, it
is also inversely proportional to M2 , enhancing the recognition ability to weak edges on the surface.

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Figure 1. Comparison of several edge-detection methods. (a) Synthetic gravity data set. A, B, and C are the source bodies whose outlines are
shown in solid lines. The depths of prisms A, B, and C are 5, 5, and 2 km, respectively; the density of prisms A, B, and C are 0.03, 0.5, and
0.02 gcm3 , respectively; (b) TDX; (c) profile curvature with zero contours overlaid; (d) LFA; (e) TAHG; (f) theta map; (g) NSTD; and
(h) edge coefficient computed using equation 8.

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Sun et al.

which is another component of the edge coefficient in equation 8

given by

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Mb sgnM 2




2

Epro

arctan
; (10)

2
Spro

Wx
W x xj ; yi
proxj ; yi q
Wx2 Wy2
Wy
q W y xj ; yi ;
Wx2 Wy2

(11)

where

Figure 2. Edge detection by existing methods. (a) Synthetic gravity anomalies, adding random noise with an amplitude of 0.1% of the anomalous maximum to the data in Figure 1a; A, B, and C are the source bodies whose outlines are shown in solid lines; (b) TDX; (c) profile
curvature; (d) LFA; (e) TAHG; (f) theta map; (g) NSTD; and (h) edge coefficient computed using equation 8.

Edge enhancement using spectral moments

N

1 X
proxj ; yi ;
N M i1 j1
v
u
N M
u 1 X
X
proxj ; yi Epro2 .
Spro t
N M i1 j1

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Epro

(12)

1 X
Wx
W x ; y ;
N M i1 j1 x j i

Wy

1 X
W x ; y
N M i1 j1 y j i

(13)

and

Wx; y

p
M2 x; y;

Wx; y;
x

W y x; y Wx; y.
y
W x x; y

In equations 1214, j 1;2; : : : ; M and i 1;2; : : : ; N .

The key parameter of the spectral-moment method is the edge

coefficient M. When the data of M2 change little (common in synthetic data) along the boundarys strike, edge detection may be applied by the parameters Ma and Mb . But if the gradient of data of
M2 is not equal to zero (common in field data) in the direction of the
boundarys strike, parameter Ma is enough to depict the faults
or edges.

TESTS ON SYNTHETIC DATA

More parameters included in equation 12 are expressed as

N

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(14)

The spectral-moment method is tested using a synthetic

model consisting of three prisms. Figure 1a shows the synthetic
gravity anomalies from the three bodies, and their outlines superimposed on the anomaly data. Prism A has dimensions of
320 20 5 km and is buried at a depth of 5 km, prism B has
dimensions of 320 60 5 km and is buried at a depth of
5 km, and prism C has dimensions of 50 15 2 km and is buried
at a depth of 2 km. The density contrasts of the three bodies (A, B,
and C) are 0.03, 0.5, and 0.02 gcm3 , respectively. The data set is
computed on a grid of 421 801 points with 0.5-km spacing. For
comparison, we present edge-detection results using TDX, profile
curvature, LFA, TAHG, theta maps, and the NSTD, respectively
(Figure 1b1g). As shown in Figure 1b, the outlines of sources
A, B, and C have been detected by the TDX method, whereas
the edges of sources A and C are fairly faint. Figure 1c shows
the profile curvature with zero contours overlain. The zero contours
can delineate the boundaries of bodies A and B well, but boundary
c1 (indicated in Figure 1c) has not been detected because of the
effect of body B, whose center is 2.5 km north (positive direction

Figure 3. Edge detection using the spectral-moment method with different window sizes. (a) Edge coefficient of the noise-corrupted synthetic
gravity anomalies in Figure 2a using a radius of three and three points for w1 and w2 , respectively. (b and c) Edge coefficient of the noisecorrupted synthetic gravity anomalies using a w2 radius of three points and a w1 of eight and 14 points, respectively. (d) Edge detection using a
w1 and w2 radius of eight and eight points, respectively.

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Sun et al.

of the y-axis) of source body C when projected onto the plane surface. Similar to the results in Figure 1b, detection by LFA (in Figure 1d) is also dominated by the response from larger amplitude
anomalies, although the outlines of smaller amplitude anomalies
(source C) can be delineated slightly better. TAHG (in Figure 1e)
is an effective method to balance the amplitudes of large- and smallamplitude anomalies. The edges of bodies A and B are successfully
delineated by the theta map method (Figure 1f), but it is less effective for body C, which has the lowest amplitude. In addition, the
edges recognized by this method appear very broad, which is
not conducive to locating source boundaries. Figure 1g shows
the NSTD using a window of 3 3 points. The amplitudes of
the different anomalies are balanced well, and it clearly delineates
the edges of the three source bodies, whereas the delineated outlines
are a little discontinuous. Figure lh shows the results of the spectralmoment method using the edge coefficient component M. As
mentioned above, two moving window sizes should be selected
to calculate the image of M; one (w1 ) of which is for computing
the image of M2 , whereas the other one (w2 ) is for calculating the
image of M. In this case, the radius of both Gaussian moving windows (w1 and w2 ) is three points. It is clear that the edge in this
figure appears the narrowest among all the above methods. In addition, the amplitudes of detected edges from different sources are
not only significantly balanced but are also continuous.

To test the relative sensitivity of the edge-detection methods discussed above to noise, a small amount of uniformly distributed random noise with amplitude of 0.1% of the maximum data magnitude
was added to the data in Figure 1a. Figure 2a shows the noise-corrupted anomalies, and the outlines of the sources are shown in solid
lines. The TDX method appears to be affected least by the noise.
Although the profile curvature (Figure 2c), LFA (Figure 2d), TAHG
(Figure 2e), and theta map (Figure 2f) methods can still locate the
source edges, the detected edges, especially the edges of smaller
amplitude anomalies, are blurred because of the added noise. Figure 2g is the NSTD of the data in Figure 2a using a larger window
size with 7 7 points. The edges of the smaller amplitude anomaly
(e.g., body C) are faint. Figure 2h is the image of the edge coefficient M of the data, which is calculated using w1 8 and w2 3.
Although several spurious edges, present in all the images, are
inevitably detected, it provides a better result than the other methods. The reason why the spectral-moment method is less sensitive to
noise than are the others is that the M2 of each grid point is computed using its surrounding data contained within w1 .
We also show how the Gaussian window size affects the resulting
images (Figure 3). We chose a w2 radius of three for w1 radius sizes
of three, eight, and 14 to calculate the edge coefficient from data in
Figure 2a, and the results are shown in Figure 3a3c, respectively.
When the radius of w1 equaled three (Figure 3a), the noise severely

Figure 4. Geologic sketch map of China. The areas covered by Figures 5a and 7a are shown. The pink color indicates platforms or massifs and
the blue color indicates orogenic or tectonic belts.

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Edge enhancement using spectral moments

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Figure 5. Test cases of edge-detection methods based on the satellite gravity anomaly from a small section of northern China. The location is
shown in Figure 4. (a) Satellite gravity anomaly over a section of northern China; (b) TDX; (c) profile curvature; (d) LFA; (e) TAHG; (f) theta
map; (g) NSTD; and (h) edge coefficient computed using equation 8; the black ellipses indicate examples that edges detected by the spectralmoment method are clearer than by the other methods.
Figure 6. Map of the edge coefficient with the
simplified geologic map of the study area superimposed. Solid lines indicate the fault and dotted
lines indicate the buried faults. Dashed ellipses
indicate examples that edges are detected by
the geophysical method but not identified in
the geophysical map.

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Sun et al.

affected the detected boundaries, in particular, of body A. Comparing the map of Figure 3b and 3c, one can see that the larger sizes of
w1 can be less sensitive to the noise than are the smaller ones, but
the edges of the small-scale anomaly are also smeared out (Fig-

ure 3c). The width of the detected edges is mainly controlled by

the size of w2 . A smaller w2 (Figure 3c) produces narrower lineaments than the large ones (Figure 3d).

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APPLICATION TO FIELD DATA

Figure 7. Test cases of the edge-detection methods on magnetic

data. (a) Magnetic data from Donghai Village of the Jiangsu Province in south China. The location is shown in Figure 4; (b) TDX;
(c) profile curvature with zero contours overlaid; (d) LFA; (e) enhanced horizontal derivative; (f) theta map; (g) NSTD; and (h) edge
coefficient computed using equation 8; solid ellipse indicates the
example that edges detected by the edge coefficient are stronger
than by the other methods; the dashed ellipse indicates the position
of the mica-eclogite in the geologic map.

To test the performance of the spectral-moment method, we apply

it together with the other six commonly used filters to a gravity
anomaly over a small part of South China outlined in red in Figure 4.
The study area is located in the composite area of tectonic structures
of the Paleo-Asian Ocean and subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate.
In addition to the intensive activity of magma, this region has experienced tectonic movements, such as pushing rotation and shear
(Zhu et al., 2005). The gravity data were computed using free-air
anomalies from EGM2008 gravity model (Pavlis et al., 2012),
which is derived from ground, airborne, and satellite data. The gravity data from EGM2008 gravity model have a grid cell size of
1 0 1 0 and an accuracy of 24 mgal. Figure 5a shows the complete
Bouguer anomaly after applying stone slab and terrain corrections
to the EGM2008 free-air anomalies, covering approximately
900 450 km. As is seen from this figure, several northeast-trending anomaly belts occur, which is mainly caused by the subduction
of the paleo-Pacific plate from the southeast to the northwest direction. For comparison, we carry out the six-edge-enhancement
method on this data. The results of TDX, profile curvature, and
LFA, shown in Figure 5b5d, respectively, can delineate the lineaments, but the images mainly depict the lineaments from the highamplitude anomalies. Although the image of TAHG in
Figure 5e is effective in balancing the amplitudes of causative
sources with different amplitudes, the detected edges appear broad.
The theta map of the data is shown in Figure 5f. Most of the amplitudes of different anomalies are well balanced; however, some
edges of the low-amplitude anomalies are still diffuse. In contrast,
the result using NSTD (Figure 5g) with a window of 3 3 points
shows more details and structures. However, the amplitudes on the
NSTD method image are visibly less continuous than in the other
images. The spectral-moment method has enhanced these smallamplitude anomalies well to show more subtle details. For example,
the detected edges highlighted by black circles in Figure 5h are
clearer than in the other images, some of which are shown to be
minor faults (Figure 6). Another superior aspect of the spectral-moment method over the other filters is that the detecting boundaries
are the sharpest of all the figures. We have also compared the lineaments detected by the spectral-moment method with the geologic
structures. Figure 6 shows the map of edge coefficient, which is
superimposed over a simplified geologic map (Li et al., 2014) of
the study area. The map shows good correlation with the geologic
structures. However, several structures can only be inferred through
geophysical mapping. For example, the edges enclosed by dashed
ellipses that have been detected by most of the methods are not
identified in the geologic map. This result illustrates the usefulness
of the enhancement method for the interpretation of potential
field data.
We also applied these filters to magnetic data from a small village
in the Jiangsu Province in South China, which is outlined in blue in
Figure 4. The study area is located at the eastern part of the Qingling-Dabie-Sulu orogenic belt, where there are many outcrops of
ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks (Yang et al., 2005). Figure 7a
depicts the magnetic anomaly data reduced to the pole. The data
were gridded from ground observations with an interval of

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Edge enhancement using spectral moments

10 m. It is difficult to distinguish the edges directly from this map.
The TDX (Figure 7b) and LFA (Figure 7d) methods do enhance the
edges, but most edges of the smaller amplitude anomalies are faint
or even invisible. Figure 7c shows the profile curvature with zero
contours overlaid. The contour resolves structures better than
TDX and LFA. More details can be detected in the TAHG
(Figure 7e) and the theta map (Figure 7f) images, but their responses
to small-amplitude bodies are still weaker and diffuse (e.g., the portion enclosed by the black circle). NSTD (Figure 7g) is an excellent
filter balancing the different-amplitude anomalies, but the edges are
discontinuous. Figure 7h shows the results from the spectralmoment method. Here, we adopt the parameter M to delineate
the edges. Its response to low-amplitude anomalies is stronger compared with Figure 7b7f and similar to the NSTD filter (e.g., edges
enclosed in the black circle in Figure 7f). As is shown in the magnetic susceptibility histogram of the main rocks in this study area

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(Figure 8a), the magnetic anomalies in this region are mainly caused
by serpentinites and eclogites. In this case, we have also compared
the detected results by the spectral-moment method with the simplified geologic structures. Figure 8b shows the map of edge coefficient with the simplified geologic map (Yang et al., 2005; Xu
et al., 2009) of this study area superimposed. The edges in the
dashed ellipse in Figure 7h correspond to the largest Mica-Eclogite
of the simplified geologic map. In addition, these small features enhanced by the spectral-moment method should be the edges of the
small magnetic objects, such as serpentinites or ultrabasic intrusion.

DISCUSSION
The most impressive advantages of this spectral-moment method
are its ability to balance the edges of large- and small-amplitude
anomalies and narrow the detected edges. In fact, the parameter

Figure 8. The magnetic susceptibility histogram

of the main rocks and the map of edge coefficient
with simplified geologic map of Donghai Village
superimposed. (a) Magnetic susceptibility histogram of the main rocks in Donghai village.
(b) Edge coefficient with simplified geologic
map of the study area superimposed.

Sun et al.

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G10

(in equation 10) can measure the ridge strength of the surface in
the moving window (Li et al., 2000). The edge coefficient has better
balancing ability because it is computed based on the ridge strength
that is independent of the magnitude of the edges. Furthermore, calculating parameter on the surface M2 is equivalent to extracting
the ridges of the edges detected by the parameter M2, which contributes to narrowing the extracted edges.
Another advantage of the spectral-moment method is that when
comparing with the other edge-enhancement methods mentioned in
this paper, it shows that it is less sensitive to the noise than are the
others when balancing the edges of different-amplitude anomalies.
Although the proposed method is not aimed at suppressing noise,
the moving window computation can make it is less sensitive to the
noise when enlarging the moving window. However, although the
results depend on the sizes of the moving windows, there is a lack of
standards for the selection of window sizes. One has to carry out
some tests before selecting appropriate window sizes.
Because the spectral-moment method picks out all edges, it is
usually difficult to interpret on its own. Interpretation efforts should
combine as many processed images as are deemed appropriate.

CONCLUSION
We have presented a new edge-detection method for the enhancement of potential anomalies in which the edges are identified by the
edge coefficient. The spectral-moment method was demonstrated
using synthetic and real data. For synthetic data, the method shows
better capabilities of balancing the edges of different amplitude
anomalies and narrowing the detected edges. In addition, larger
windows (w1 ) are less sensitive to noise than are small ones; however, the edges, smaller than the window size of the small-scale
anomaly, are also smeared out. Furthermore, the size of the moving
window w2 mainly controls the width of the detected edges. Using
field gravity and magnetic data reduced to the pole as examples, the
edge coefficient map provides more details, and the lineaments generated by the proposed method are consistent with geologic
structures.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from
the National Science Foundation of China under grant number
41574111 and the Chinese Geological Survey with the project number 12120113099000. The authors thank assistant editor V. Socco,
the associate editor, and three reviewers for their constructive comments that greatly improved the original manuscript. We also thank
Y. Wang for providing the simplified geologic map.

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