Vertebral

column

Agnathan
s
Only
skeletal
element:
lateral
neural
cartilages

Chondrichthyan
s
Notochord
constricted
within the
centrum
Vertebral canal:
paired dorsal
plates
constituting the
neural arch,
paired
intercalary
plates
*Supradorsal
cartilages found
in some species
Hemal arches:
paired ventral
plates, ventral
intercalary
arches
Extinct
Holocephalans
-rings of
calcified

Osteichthyans

Amphibians

Reptiles

Birds

Mammals

Well-ossified

Anurans shortest column

Snake longest
column

Only caudal
& cervical
are flexible
(due to the
synsacrum)

Cervical:
commonly 7

Presence of
an atlas &
axis

Spindy
hedgehogs:
presence of
proatlas

*Dipnoans,
Chondrostei, &
Latimeria
(coelacanth)
- no centra
-unconstricted
notochord
-fibrous sheath
contains little
cartilage/bone

First cervical
vertebra lack
processes

Turtles only caudal

&
cervical(8)
are flexible
(due to the
carapace)
Presence of
an atlas &
axis
Sphenodon
&
Crocodilians
: presence of
proatlas

Swans largest no. of

cervical
vertebra in
tetrapods

Presence of an
atlas & axis

Centrum

cartilage
deposited on
notochord
sheath
Amphicelous

Amphicelous

Opisthocelous
(Salamander)
Procelous
(Anurans)
Amphicelous
(Urodeles,
Apodans, &
Sphenodon)

Procelous
Amphicelous
(basal
lizards)
intercentrum

Urodeles &
Apodans lack
pleurocentra &
hypocentra
intercentrum
Neurocraniu
m

Notochor Chondrocranium Chondrosteans,

d not
basal
fused with Cartilaginous
neopterygians,
the basal
roof
gars, dipnoans plate
cartilaginous
No dermal
neurocranium
Fibrous
bones
brain roof
Bony fishes Endolymphatic
endochondral

Flattened
(platybasic)
Dorsally
incomplete
neurocranium
Mostly
cartilaginous

Parietal
foramen
house
median eye
Has a
temporal
fossa

Heterocelou
s

Acelous
Presence of
intervertebrateria
l disc with a
pulpy nucleus
(remnant of
notochord)

fossa:
Endolymphatic
& perilymphatic
ducts

bone
Basal
actinopterygian
s almost
completely
cartilaginous
Basal
neopterygians:
Amia highly
cartilaginous
Gars bony
Teleosts
Posttemporal
dorsalmost
segment of
pectoral girdle
Dipnoans:
Dermal bones
increased in
number but
decreased in
size

Occipital
condyle

except in
apodans
Sphenethmoid,
2 prootics, 2
exooccipitals
replacement
bones in
anurans &
urodeles
Columella
(stapes)
Incomplete
dermatocraniu
m
Lacrimals &
prefrontals
present in basal
urodeles

Synapsid:
single
temporal
fossa
Diapsid: 2
fossae
Euryapsid:
extinct
Anapsid: no
temporal
arches
Cranial
kinesis:
movement of
one portion
of the skull
independent
from others

Premaxilla &
maxilla are
present
2

Neurocranium (endocranium)
Primary braincase
Cartilaginous stage
o Parachordal cartilages - Parallel to the anterior end of notochord beneath the midbrain & hindbrain
o Prechordal cartilages (trabeculae cranii) - Anterior to the notochord underneath the forebrain
o Basal plate - consists of the notochord & parachordal cartilage; unites with the otic capsule
o Ethmoid plate - consist of the prechordal cartilage; unites with the olfactory capsule
o Olfactory (nasal) capsule - surrounding the olfactory epithelium; incomplete anteriorly
o Otic capsule - surrounding the otocyst (developing inner ear)
o Optic capsule - sclerotic coat of the eyeball; does not fuse with the rest of the neurocranium
o Hypophyseal fenestra - midline between the 2 plates
o Tectum - cartilaginous roof
o Sella turcica - cradles the hypophysis in a cartilaginous pocket
Neurocranial ossification center
o Occipital center
Basioccipital (underlying the hindbrain)
Exooccipital (paired)
Supraoccipital
o Sphenoid center
Basisphenoid
Presphenoid (mammals)
Laterosphenoid (crocodiles & dinosaurs)

 Orbitosphenoid (interorbital septum in archosaurs)

Alisphenoid (derived from palatoquadrate cartilage)
o Ethmoid center
Ethmoid plate
Olfactory capsules
Cartilaginous in tetrapods
Mesethmoid
Turbinal bones (conchae)
Cribiform plate (mammals)
o Otic centers
Prootic
Opisthotic
Epiotic
Petrosal bone (composed of prootic, opisthotic, & epiotic in birds & mammals)
Dermatocranium
Derived from the dermal armor of earliest vertebrates
Roofing bones
o Nasals
o Frontals
o Parietals
o Postparietals
o Lacrimal
o Prefrontal
o Postfronatl
o Jugal
o Intertemporal
o Supratemporal
o Tabular

o Squamosal
o Quadratojugal
Dermal bones of upper jaw
o Premaxilla
o Maxilla
Primary palatal bones
o Parasphenoid
o Vomers
o Palatines
o Ectopterygoids
o Pterygoids
Opercular bones
o Opercualr
o Preopercular
o Subopercular
o Interopercular
o Gular
o Branchiostegal rays (located in branchiostegal membranes)

Integument
Vertebral column
Centrum
Neural arch
Apophyses
Vertebraterial canal (neural canal)
Hemal arches (chevron bones in amniotes)
Diapophyses (transverse process)
o Zygapophyses (paired: pre & post; chiefly tetrapods)

o Parapophyses (lateral projection; articulation site for capitulum)

o Hypapophyses (midventral projections)

Conjunctiva - transparent covering or eyeball

Epidermis - derived from ectoderm
Dermis - derived from mesoderm
Amphioxus - one cell thick epidermis
Germinal layer - undergoing mitosis
Keratin - squamous, water insoluble scleroprotein
Epidermis
Mucus - covering of teleosts & aquatic amphibians
Epidermal glands of teleosts & larval amphibians are unicellular
Metamorphosed amphibians & amniotes have multicellular glands
Fishes & aquatic amphibians - abundant epidermal glands; scales beneath the epidermis
Fishes
Little to no keratin in the epidermis
Photophores - epidermal; light-emitting; modified mucous cells
Melanophores - melanin pigment cells
Aquatic amphibians
Multicellular mucous/granular glands
Semiaquatic tailed amphibians - largest no. of integumentary glands; respiratory membrane

Tetrapods
Saccular (alveoli)/tubular epidermal glands
Glands
Merocrine
o Secretion via cell membrane
o Sudoriferous glands (sweat glands; scent glands)
Tubular; dermal
Pangolins, echidnas, & marine mammals lack sweat glands
Ciliary glands - follicles of eyelashes
Humans have the largest no. of sweat glands
Holocrine
o Secretion via cell
o Oil glands of birds
Uropygial gland (behind the pygostyle; largest in aquatic birds)
o Sebaceous glands of mammals (alveolar; secrete sebum; scent glands)
o Ceruminous glands (secrete cerumen; outer ear canal)
o Meibomian glands (moistening the conjunctiva)
Chalazion -inflamed swelling conjunctival surface of the lid
Apocrine
o Mammary glands (alveolar)
Develop from milk lines
Cystern - terminal ducts at the base of the nippleGoblet cells
o Single cell integumentary glands of fishes that secrete mucus
Granular cells
o Secrete mucus & additional ingredients; found in fishes
Granular glands
o Found in toads

o
o
o
o

Secrete toxic alkaloids

Secrete pheromones
Parotid gland (behind the eye of the toad)
Femoral gland (medial aspect of hind limbs of male lizards)
Secrete substances that harden as spines for copulation