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a. i. Width of vehicle
ii. Minimum side clearance
b. State highway
c. Traffic volume: It is the number of vehicles moving in a specified
direction on a given lane during specified unit time. It is expressed as
vehicles per hour or vehicles per day.
Traffic density: It is the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of
lane at a given instant. It is expressed in vehicles per km.
d. i. Chamber
ii. Width of carriageway
iii. kerbs
iv. Road margins
v. Sight distance
vi. Shoulders
e. Bitumen must form a thin film around the aggregates, which improves
interlocking of aggregate and binder mixes. Repeated deformation and
recoveries occur due to continuous traffic, the bitumen which does not
have ductility would crack and cause pervious pavement.
f. Abrasion is the rubbing action between two dissimilar materials. Los
angeles abrasion test can be performed to determine abrasion value.
g. i. Design wheel load
Maximum wheel load, contact pressure, repetition of loads and
equivalent single wheel laods.
ii. Subgrade soil
iii. Climatic factors.
iv. Environmental factors
v. Special factors
h. The main objective of providing chamber is to drain off rain water from
the road surface.
i. i. Crushing test
ii. Abrasion test
iii. Impact test
iv. Specific gravity
v. Shape test Flakiness index, Elongation index
Part B
Unit-1
b. Explain super elevation. What are the factors on which the design
of super elevation depends?
DEFINITION - 1MARK
EXPLANATION - 4MARKS
FACTORS - 2MARKS
Super-elevation is the transverse slope provided at horizontal curve to
counteract the centrifugal force, by raising the outer edge of the pavement
with respect to the inner edge, throughout the length of the horizontal curve.
When the outer edge is raised, a component of the curve weight will be
complimented in counteracting the effect of centrifugal force. In order to find
out how much this raising should be, the following analysis may be done. The
forces acting on a vehicle while taking a horizontal curve with superelevation
is shown in figure
(1
)
We have already derived an expression for P/W. By substituting this in
equation 1, we get:
(2
)
This is an exact expression for superelevation. But normally, f=0.15 and
<4, 1-f tan 1 and for small , tan sin = E/B = e , then
equation 2 becomes:
(3
)
where, e is the rate of super elevation, f the coefficient of lateral
friction 0.15, v the speed of the vehicle in m/sec2, R the radius of the curve
in m and g=9.8 m/sec2.
4. Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder
or footpaths.
Low or mountable kerbs : This type of kerbs are provided such that
they encourage the traffic to remain in the through traffic lanes and also
allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty. The height of
this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge with a slope which allows
the vehicle to climb easily. This is usually provided at medians and
channelization schemes and also helps in longitudinal drainage.
Semi-barrier type kerbs : When the pedestrian traffic is high, these
kerbs are provided. Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This
type of kerb prevents encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute
emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.
Barrier type kerbs : They are designed to discourage vehicles from
leaving the pavement. They are provided when there is considerable amount
of pedestrian traffic. They are placed at a height of 20 cm above the
pavement edge with a steep batter.
Submerged kerbs : They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are
provided at pavement edges between the pavement edge and shoulders.
They provide lateral confinement and stability to the pavement.
5. Road margins The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and
on the roadway can be generally called road margins. Various elements
that form the road margins are shoulders, parking lanes, service roads,
footpath etc.,
6. Width of formation
Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of
pavements or carriage way including separators and shoulders
7. Right of way
Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the
road, along its alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all
the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may reasonably
provide for future development.
2.b. Describe about engineering surveys for highway alignment.
EACH SURVEY 2MARKS = 4*2 M= 8MARKS
Engineering Surveys:
a. Map Study
b. Reconnaissance Surveys
c. Preliminary Surveys
d. Location and detailed survey
Map Study:
This is the first step of the Engineering survey, using a topographic
map of the area under consideration, which can be availed from the Survey
of India, we can propose different alternatives of the road alignment. This
topographic map in general has a contour interval of around 30 m to 40 m.
We can get the details of the natural and artificial features of the area using
Unit-2
3.a. explain the design procedure of thickness of a flexible
pavement by Group Index Method.
DATA REQUIRED: 2M
DESIGN STEPS: 4M
CROSS SECTION: 2M
Surface course
Base course
Sub-base course
Penetration test:
It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in
tenths of a millimeter to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate
vertically in 5 seconds. The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with
a total weight of 100g and a device for releasing and locking in any position.
The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and
poured into containers at a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the expected
penetration. The test should be conducted at a specified temperature of 25 o
C. It may be noted that penetration value is largely influenced by any
inaccuracy with regards to pouring temperature, size of the needle, weight
placed on the needle and the test temperature. A grade of 40/50 bitumen
means the penetration value is in the range 40 to 50 at standard test
conditions. In hot climates, a lower penetration grade is preferred. The Figure
23.4.1 shows a schematic Penetration Test setup.
Ductility test:
Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great
deformation or elongation. Ductility is defined as the distance in cm, to which
a standard sample or briquette of the material will be elongated without
breaking. Dimension of the briquette thus formed is exactly 1 cm square. The
bitumen sample is heated and poured in the mould assembly placed on a
plate. These samples with moulds are cooled in the air and then in water
bath at 27 oC temperature. The excess bitumen is cut and the surface is
leveled using a hot knife. Then the mould with assembly containing sample
is kept in water bath of the ductility machine for about 90 minutes. The sides
of the moulds are removed, the clips are hooked on the machine and the
machine is operated. The distance up to the point of breaking of thread is the
ductility value which is reported in cm.
4.a. Explain CBR and the test procedure for laboratory. How are the
results of the test obtained and interpreted?
APPARATUS DETAILS AND SPECIFICATIONS: 2MARKS
PROCEDURE: 4MARKS
FORMULA: 1MARK
Procedure
The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the
swelling and water absorption values are noted. The surcharge weight
is placed on the top of the specimen in the mould and the assembly is
placed under the plunger of the loading frame.
Surface course
Base Course
Sub-base course
tb
tsb
Tsb
Unit-3
5a. briefly explain with neat sketches the method of construction of
i. contraction joints ii expansion joints
CONTRACTION JOINT CONSTRUCTION : 3MARKS
FIGURE: 1 MARK
EXPANSION JOINT CONSTRUCTION : 3MARKS
FIGURE : 1 MARK
Contraction joints
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
The purpose of the contraction joint is to allow the contraction of the slab
due to change in slab temperature below the construction temperature.
The movement is restricted by the sub-grade friction.
These are provided closer than expansion joints.
Load transfer is provided through physical interlocking of aggregates.
Dowel bars can also be used for added safety.
Expansion joints
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Alligator Cracking:
This is the most common type of flexible pavement failure and occurs
due to relative movement of pavement layer materials.
This may be caused by repeated application of heavy wheel loads
resulting in fatigue failure or due to moisture vibrations resulting in
swelling and shrinkage of subgrade and other pavement materials.
Weakness in underlying course also causes a cracking of surface
course.
Longitudinal Cracking:
Due to frost action and differential volume changes in subgrade
longitudinal cracking is caused in pavement traversing the full
pavement thickness.
Reflection Cracking:
This type of failure is observed when bituminous overlays provided
over existing concrete pavements.
The crack pattern as existing cement concrete pavements are mostly
reflected on bituminous surfacing in the same pattern.
These allow surface water to seep through and cause damage to the
soil subgrade or result in mud pumping.
6a. Explain about the materials and construction procedure of
cement concrete pavements
MATERIALS USED: 2MARKS
Preparation of base
Joint filling: After drying road, clean the joints and fill the shelling
compound or hot bitumen, also bitumen fill road bank.
Edging: To protect damaging the sides of concrete pavements used
over burnt brick work. In place of brick, provided kerb of pre mix
concrete.
Open to traffic: Generally after a month, road should be open to traffic.
If used rapid hardening cements it take 7 days to open traffic.
12)
This allows further compaction of this portion under traffic. Wet
soil binder is applied on the surface of the patched area to fill up the
voids and the surface is rammed again.
13)
After the period of useful life of the WBM road or when the layer
fails extensively, a resurfacing should be done.
14)
If the thickness requirement of the old road was inadequate, the
thickness of the WBM pavement is increased during the resurfacing.
Unit-iv
7a. With a diagram, explain the working of Benkelman beam for
measurement of pavement deflection.
FIGURES : 3MARKS
PROCEDURE: 6MARKS
FORMULA: 1MARK
The loading points are marked from the pavement edge of 0.9mts if
the width of pavement is 3.5mts.
pavement.
The dual wheel of the truck is centered above the mark
The probe of the benkelman beam is placed between the dual tyres at
and stopped.
Intermediate reading (Di) is recorded.
Truck is driven forward a further 9 m.
Final reading (Df) is recorded.
Pavement temperature is recorded atleast once in each hour.
Tyre pressure is checked at 2-3 hrs intervals during a day.
The temperatures of the pavement surface are recorded at intervals of
Df)
K is to be determined for every make of the Benkelman beam and is
given by the relation
K =(3d-2e)/f
d = distance between the bearing of the beam and the rear adjusting
leg
e = distance between the dial guage and rear adjusting leg
f = distance between the front leg and rear legs.
condition
of
flexible
pavement
may
be
evaluated
by
Black cotton soils exhibit higher affinity towards water and has higher
liquid limit, higher shrinkage characteristics, lower density and
strength (CBR, bearing capacity)
Due to the poor properties of black cotton soil, it is not possible to use
black cotton soil directly for pavement construction.
The properties can be enhanced using various stabilization techniques,
by mixing with cement, lime, flyash, bitumen etc., depends on site
conditions and types of soil.
Fly ash embankments can be constructed; due to its cementatious
properties it will provide strength to foundation.
Cement, lime and other chemical admixtures can be mixed with black
cotton soil to improve its strength and various engineering properties.
After mixing, spreading can be done and compaction has to be carried
out up to desirable density as per specifications.