1

Dr. Wasala Bandara

Road Making Materials

Aggregate
Fine

Bitumen

Course

In road construction are

Crushed rock (from quarry)
Stream gravel
Concrete construction debris
Hard materials like broken pieces of tiles from tile industry
Slag (Slag is a waste product in metal extraction)

Rock drill machines can be either hand held jack hammers or rig mounted
Jack hammers
Handles

Hammer Head

Chuck

Jack hammers are light weight. They are

generally employed in drilling holes up to 38 mm
diameter and are powered by compressed air

Drill Rod

Drill Bit

The main action of rock drills is to provide impact, thrust and rotation to a
drill rod attached to the drill

Rig mounted rock drills

The rig mounted rock

drills can be driven by
compressed air or by
hydraulic power.
Drilling rig

Can drill longer holes (100 m) with bigger diameter

(50mm, above 100 mm)
5

 The rock cuttings are removed by flushing

Flushing is done by forcing water and/or
compressed air down the whole through
the drill rods and the drill bit

The cuttings are brought out of the hole

along the annular space between the drill
rod and the wall
Flushing medium also cools the bit during
drilling
Use of water in the flushing suppresses
the rock dust created in the process of
drilling

The drilling machines can also be classified by their

drilling actions into two main groups.
Drilling Machines

Percussion
drilling
machines

Thrust, Impact
and Rotation

Rotary drilling
machines

Only thrust and

rotation
7

There are many types of drill bit used in rock drilling

The selection mainly depends on the drilling machine used, the
diameter of the drilled holes and the required production rates
Chisel bit

Position of chisel bit

and the zone of rock
crushed at the first
impact

Position of chisel bit

and the zone of
broken rock at the
second impact

2nd Zone of
crushed rock

1st Zone of
crushed rock

3rd Zone of
crushed rock

Position of chisel bit

and the zone of
broken rock at the
third impact

10

4-point cross-type bit

Diamond bit

11

Button bit

Button bit diameters range from 100 mm to 225 mm

Drill heads with many roller cutters are used for very large diameter drilling above
225 mm up to about 1500 mm

12

Drilling Rates

Dependent on:
Rock Hardness
Drill Type and Energy
Type of Drill Bit

13

Mixture of chemical compounds which rapidly decompose,

instantly releasing large quantity of energy in form of
heated gas at a high pressure
An explosive should essentially contain a combustible
substance and an oxygen supplier
A good example is a mixture of carbon, sulphur and
sodium nitrate in black powder

Sodium nitrate provides oxygen

Carbon and sulphur burn in oxygen and produce large
quantities of gases at high temperature and pressure

15

List of ingredients in commercially available explosives

Ingredients
Ethylene glycol dinitrate
Nitrocellulose (guncotton)
Nitro-glycerine Nitrostarch
Trrinitroluene(TNT)
Metallic Powder

Black Powder
Pentaerythritoltetranitrate
(PETN)
Ammonium nitrate
Liquid oxygen
Sodium nitrate
Potassium nitrate
Ground coal
Charcoal
Paraffin
Sulphur
Fuel oil
Wood pulp
Lampblack
Kieselguhr
Chalk
Calcium carbonate
Sodium chloride

Chemical formula
Function
C2H4(NO3)2
Explosive base: lowers freezing point
C6H7(NO3)3O2
Explosive base; gelatinizing agent
Explosive base
C3H5(NO3)3
Explosive base; non headache
explosives
C7H5N3O6
Explosive base
Fuel-sensitizer; used in high density
Al
slurries
NaNO3+C+S
Explosive base; deflagrates
Explosive base; caps, detonating
C5H8N4O12
cord
NH4NO3
Explosive base; oxygen carrier
O2
Oxygen carrier
Oxygen carrier; reduces freezing
NaNO3
point
KNO3
Oxygen carrier
C
Combustible, or fuel
C
Combustible, or fuel
CnH2n+ 2
Combustible, or fuel
S
Combustible, or fuel
(CH3)2(CH2)n
Combustible, or fuel
(C6H10O5)n
Combustible; absorbent
C
Combustible
SIO2
Absorbent; prevents caking
CaCO3
Antacid
CaCO3
Antacid
Flame
depressant
(permissible
NaCl
explosive)

16

Rock blasting is carried out using explosives from two or

more of the types
a) High power explosives
b) Detonators plain or electrical
c) Blasting agents

17

Type of explosives
High explosives
High VOD, detonated with shock wave propagation associated with gas
expansion
For example: dynamite, water gels, emulsion

Low explosives
Low VOD, deflagrated with gas expansion only
For example: such as black powder
Velocity of Detonation (VOD)- How long it takes to get the chemical reaction
completed and energy released

18

 Detonators are used for the initiation of an explosive

charge
They are made of high heat sensitive explosives and
can be set off by fire (flame)
The explosion caused by them is capable of initiating
the explosion of High explosives

20

The blasting agents are cheap and safe to handle

FUSE WIRE

The safest blasting agent

ANFO is a mixture of
ammonium nitrate and
fuel oil

SHOT
EXPTODER

STEMMING
BLASTING
AGENT
(ANFO)

DETONATOR
PRIMER
(Gelignite or
Dynamite)

21

ANFO blasting agents

3NH4NO3 + CH2 CO2 + 7H2O + 3N2+ heat

ammonium
nitrate

fuel oil

m.w. 3 (80.1gm) +(14gm) = 254.3gm

NH4NO3 = 94.5%
CH2 = 5.5%

22

en
=B

W
ch

h
id t

Free Face

V
E
E

K = Bench
Height

ho = length of
stemming
hp = length of
column charge
(qpk kg/m)

hb = length of bottom charge

(qbk kg/m)
u = under drilling

K
B
V
E
u
H

Vertical height of bench in (m)

Bench width (m)
Practical burden (m)
Practical hole spacing (m)
Depth of under drilling (m)
Length of entire hole (m)

ho
hb
hp
qbk
qpk

Length of stemming (m)

Length of bottom charge (m)
Length of column charge (m)
Charge concentration of bottom charge (m)
Charge concentration of column charge (m)

23

1) Maximum burden ( )

C - ground factor
d - blast hole diameter

(m)

2) Under-drilling ()

= 0.3

(m)

24

(H)

H = (K+u)

3) Length of entire hole

For inclined hole

For vertical hole

=+

(m)

= ( + ) 1.05

(m)
25

4) Faulty drilling factor (F)

= 0.05 + 0.03

(m)

Hole should
start here
V

5 cm setting error

F=.05+.03H

Intended hole
Hole with 5 cm setting error

Vmax

V = Vmax - F

H
Hole with 5 cm setting error
+ 3% deviation (worst
possible)
Vmax

F = FAULTY DRILLING FACTOR

5) Practical burden (V)

(m)

26

6) Practical hole spacing

(E)

= 1.25
7) Length of stemming

Stemming
h0

(m)

Inert material
(rock dust, sand,
clay, saw dust)

( )

(m)

8) Length of bottom charge ( )

= 1.3

hp

Explosive

(m)

9) Length of column charge ( )

Explosive

= ( + )

hb

(m)

27

10) Density of bottom charge ( ): is in meters

3.14
4

(kg/m)

P- Density of explosive (kg/m3)

11) Density of column charge ( )

= 0.5

(kg/m)

12) Total bottom charge per hole ( )

(kg)

13) Total column charge per hole ( )

(kg)
28

B=

Be

h
nc

Wi

dth

Free Face

V
E
E

14) Total charge per hole ( )

= +

V
1

K = Bench
Height

hp = length of
column charge
(qpk kg/m)

(kg)

15) Specific charge q

Specific charge =

ho = length of
stemming

hb = length of bottom charge

(qbk kg/m)
u = under drilling

(kg/m3)

Where KxVxE is the volume of rock broken per hole

Generally for bench blasting q is around 400 g/m3

The specific charge for the whole blast with nbh holes per row given by:
16) Specific charge

Specific charge =

(1)

(kg/m3)

Where KxVxEx(nbh-1) is the total volume of rock broken per blast. Also note that B=E X (nbh-1)
29

Crushing is necessary to reduce further the size of particles

created by blasting

The blasting products vary in size from large boulders to fine

fragments
Large boulders are subject to secondary blasting and the
rock less than 1200mm can be reduced in size by crushing

30

Crushers

Hammer
mills

Jaw
crushers

Gyratory
crushers
31

A Hammer mill consists of heavy steel hammers hung by

steel chains or steel plate

32

33

The crushing action takes place

between two jaws with manganese
steel liners
One jaw is fixed while the other is
movable.

34

Jaw crushers are used, where crusher gape is

more important than the capacity
35

Gyratory crushers on the other hand have low tendency to

produce flaky and elongated products. The crushing
surfaces are curved.

It consists of a conical, suspended crushing head

Gyratory crushers are used, where high capacity
is required

36

Jaw crusher

Gyratory crushers

Crushes on half cycle

Crushes on full cycle

Installation cost is high

Installation cost is low

Capital & Maintenance cost is

less
Perform better on clayey,
plastic material

Capital & Maintenance cost is

more
Particularly suitable for hard,
abrasive material
37

39

Feed

ting
ota

D ru

m
Perforations

40
Bins

41

The quality of an aggregate is affected by the production

process in that:
(a) Decomposed or inferior rock can find its way into the crushers, which can
be eliminated by screening. If a considerable amount of clay is present
washing of the aggregates may be necessary. Contamination affects both
strength and adhesive qualities of aggregates.
(b) Higher reduction of the crushing plant can result in flaky or elongated
particles. The reduction ratio is the ratio of the size of feed to the size of
product. Experience shows that reduction ratio should be less than 4%.

(c) Excess of undersize materials can be caused by overloading the screens.

Flaky and elongated aggregates can contain more fines (undersize) than
the cubical aggregates.
42

Fine Aggregate
aggregate particles mainly between the 4.75 mm size and the 75um sieve
Coarse Aggregate
aggregate particles mainly larger than 4.75 mm
Pit Run
aggregate from a sand or gravel pit with no processing
Crushed Gravel
pit gravel (or sand) that has been put through a crusher either to break the
rounded gravel particles into smaller sizes or to produce rougher surfaces
Crushed Rock
aggregate from the crushing of bedrock. All particles are angular and not
rounded as in gravel
Screenings
chips, dust, powder that are produced from crushing
Concrete Sand
sand that has been washed to remove dust and fines
Fines
silt, clay, or dust particles smaller than 75um usually the undesirable
impurities in aggregates
43

The aggregates used in pavement construction should have

the following qualities:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Hard (strength) enough to withstand the load of traffic and rolling equipment
Resistant to abrasion and weathering
Non slipping (skid resistance)
Angular (friction between particles)
Well graded (packing)
Aggregate Testing

Descriptive test
A visual examination of an aggregate
and then describing the shape of and
the surface texture of the particles

Rounded
Irregular
Angular
Elongated

Non-destructive test

Gradation tests
o

sieve analysis

Shape tests
o
o

Flakiness index
Elongation index

Durability test
Abrasion tests
o
o

The aggregate abrasion test

The accelerated polishing test

Toughness tests
o
o
o
o

Aggregate crushing test

Ten percent fines test
Aggregate impact test
Specific gravity test

44

A visual examination of an aggregate and then describing the shape of

and the surface texture of the particles

Round

Angular

Elongated

Flat

45

Sieve tests (BS 812-103.1:1985)

A process in which an aggregate is
separated into its various sizes by
passing it through screens of various size
openings for the purpose of determining
the distribution of the quantities
separated

BS 812-103.1:1985
46

Importance of sieving

Grain size distribution for highway bases and asphalt mixes that will
provide a dense strong mixture

Ensure that the voids between the larger particles are filled with
medium particles. The remaining voids are filled with still smaller
particles until the smallest voids are filled with a small amount of fines.

Ensure maximum density and strength using a maximum density curve

The gradation controls the amount of binder used and

tight compaction of the aggregate

47

BS 812-103.1:1985

Apparatus

sample divider- Appropriate to the

maximum particle size to be handled

ventilated oven - Thermostatically

controlled to maintain a temperature of
105 5 C.

A balance - Suitable capacity

accurate to 0.1 % of the mass of
the test portion

Test sieves

Trays & Containers

A mechanical sieve shaker

48

BS 812-103.1:1985

Test sieves

49

BS 812-103.1:1985

Procedure
Part 1 - Washed sieve analysis
Dry aggregate and determine mass
Wash and decant water through 0.075 mm sieve until water is clear
Dry aggregate to a constant mass

50

BS 812-103.1:1985

Procedure
Part 2 - Mechanical sieve analysis
Place dry aggregate in standard stack of sieves
Place sieve stack in mechanical shaker
Determine mass of aggregate retained on each sieve

51

BS 812-103.1:1985

Computation
Sieve
(mm)

Mass
Retained
(g)

9.5
4.75
2.36
1.18
0.60
0.30
0.15
0.075
Pan

0.0
6.5
127.4
103.4
72.8
64.2
60.0
83.0
22.4

Cumulative
Mass Retained
% Retained

% Passing

52

BS 812-103.1:1985

Computation
% Retained = Cum. Wt Retained * 100
Original Dry Wt.

Sieve
(mm)

Mass
Retained

9.5
4.75
2.36
1.18
0.60
0.30
0.15
0.075
Pan

0.0
6.5
127.4
103.4
72.8
64.2
60.0
83.0
22.4

% Passing =

1 - Cum. Wt Retained
Original Dry Wt.

Cumulative
Mass Retained
% Retained
0.0
6.5
133.9
237.3
310.1
374.3
434.3
517.3
539.7

0.0
1.2
24.8
44.0
57.5
69.4
80.5
95.8
100.0

* 100

% Passing
100.0
98.9
75.2
56.0
42.6
30.6
19.5
4.2
0.0
53

BS 812-103.1:1985

Computation

Chart for recording sieve analysis results

54

BS 812-103.1:1985

Computation

55

BS 812-103.1:1985

Computation

56

BS 812-103.1:1985

Computation
The coefficient of uniformity,Cu is a crude shape parameter

The coefficient of curvature, Cc is a shape parameter

57

Flakiness Index (BS 812-105.1:1989)

Flaky is the term applied to aggregate or chippings that are flat and thin
with respect to their length or width
Aggregate particles are classified as flaky when they have a thickness
(smallest dimension) of less than 0.6 of their mean sieve size

Thickness gauge =

3
Average sieve size
5

The test is not applicable to material passing a 6.30mm BS test sieve or

retained on a 63.0mm BS test sieve
58

BS 812-105.1:1989

Apparatus
A balance Suitable capacity
accurate to 0.1 %
of the mass of the
test portion
A mechanical sieve shaker
A sample divider Size appropriate to the
maximum particle size
to be handled

Test sieves

A metal thickness gauge - The gauge

shall be made from1.5mm thickness
sheet steel
ventilated oven - Thermostatically
controlled to maintain a temperature
of 105 5 C.

Trays & Containers

59

BS 812-105.1:1989

Preparation of test portion

Reduce the sample by the procedures described in clause 6 of BS812102:1989 to produce a test
Allowance for the later rejection of particles retained on a 63.0mm test
sieve and passing a 6.30mm test sieve

Minimum mass of test portion

Dry the test portion by heating at a temperature of 105 5C to achieve a

dry mass which is constant to within0.1%. Allow to cool and weigh

60

BS 812-105.1:1989

Procedure

Carry out a sieve analysis

Discard all aggregates retained on the 63.0mm test sieve and all aggregate passing the
6.30mm test sieve

Weigh each of the individual size-fractions retained on the sieves,

other than the 63.0mm BS test sieve, and store them in separate
trays
From the sums of the masses of the fractions in the trays (M1),
calculate the individual percentage retained on each of the various
sieves. Discard any fraction whose mass is 5% or less of mass M1. Record the
mass remaining (M2)
Gauge each fraction by Using the gauge, select the thickness gauge
appropriate to the size-fraction under test and gauge each particle of
that size-fraction separately by hand
61

Combine and weigh all the particles passing each of the gauges (M3)

BS 812-105.1:1989

Computation
Flakiness index =

M3
M2

M2- Total weight of the sample taken (greater than 5 % of the total mass)
M3- Total weight of passing through various thickness gauge

62

BS 812-105.1:1989

Computation
Size of aggregate

Weight of material
Total

Retained
thickness
gauge

Passing
thickness
gauge

BS test sieve nominal aperture size

100% passing

100% retained

63.0

50.0

50.0

37.5

37.5

28.0

28.0

20.0

20.0

14.0

732.2

613.9

118.3

14.0

10.0

1166.5

1095.2

71.3

10.0

6.3

542.0

463.7

78.3

2440.7

2172.8

267.9

Total
Flakiness index =

Flaking Index
(%)
(individual
size)

Total weight of material passing through various thickness gauge

Total weight of the sample taken (greater than 5 % of the total mass)

Flakiness index =

267.9
2440.7

Flakiness index =

11%

X 100%
63

BS 812-105.1:1989

64

Elongation Index (BS 812-105.2:1990)

Aggregate particles are classified as elongated when they have a length
(greatest dimension) of more than 1.8 of their mean sieve size

Thickness gauge =

9
Average sieve size
5

The test is not applicable to material passing a 6.30 mm test sieve or retained on
a 50.0 mm test sieve

65

BS 812-105.2:1990

Apparatus
A balance Suitable capacity
accurate to 0.1 %
of the mass of the
test portion
A mechanical sieve shaker
A sample divider Size appropriate to the
maximum particle size
to be handled

Test sieves

Metal length gauge

ventilated oven - Thermostatically

controlled to maintain a temperature
of 105 5 C.

Trays & Containers

66

BS 812-105.2:1990

Preparation of test portion

Reduce the sample by the procedures described in clause 6 of BS812102:1989 to produce a test
Allowance for the later rejection of particles retained on a 50.0mm test
sieve and passing a 6.30mm test sieve

Minimum mass of test portion

Dry the test portion by heating at a temperature of 105 5C to achieve a

dry mass which is constant to within0.1%. Allow to cool and weigh

67

BS 812-105.2:1990

Procedure
Carry out a sieve analysis
Discard all aggregates retained on the 50.0mm test sieve and all aggregate passing the
6.30mm test sieve

Weigh each of the individual size-fractions retained on the sieves,

other than the 50.0mm test sieve, and store them in separate trays

From the sums of the masses of the fractions in the trays (M1),
calculate the individual percentage retained on each of the various
sieves. Discard any fraction whose mass is 5% or less of mass M1. Record the
mass remaining (M2)

68

BS 812-105.2:1990

Procedure
Gauge each fraction as follows. Select the length gauge appropriate
to the size fraction under test and gauge each particle separately by
hand
Elongated particles are those whose greatest dimension prevents
them from passing through the gauge, and these are placed to one
side
Combine and weigh all the particles remaining each of the gauges
(M3)

69

BS 812-105.2:1990

Computation
M3
Elongation index =
M2
M2- Total weight of the sample taken (greater than 5 % of the total mass)
M3- Total weight of martial retained on various length gauges

70

BS 812-105.2:1990

Computation
Size of aggregate

Weight of material

BS test sieve nominal aperture size

Total

Retained length
gauge

100% passing

100% retained

50.0

37.5

37.5

28.0

28.0

20.0

20.0

14.0

732.2

613.9

14.0

10.0

1166.5

1095.2

10.0

6.3

542.0

463.7

2440.7

2172.8

Total

Flaking Index
(%) (individual
size)

Elongation index = Total weight of martial retained on various length gauges

Total weight of the sample taken (greater than 5 % of the total mass)
Elongation index =

2172.8
X 100%
2440.7

Elongation index = 89%

71

Calculate the flakiness index and the elongation index of the aggregate
sample shown in Table 1.

Sieve size (mm)

100% passing

100%
Retained

63.0
50.0
37.5
28
20
14
10

50.0
37.5
28
20
14
10
6.3

Weight retained
(g)
5165
4356
3526
2215
1154
570
350

Weight passing
through
Weight not retained
elongation gauge (g)
Flakiness
gauge (g)
683
558
447
640
128
63

4256
3301
2058
1029
481
326

72

AASHTO: T 85 (1996)

This procedure covers the determination of specific gravity and

absorption of coarse aggregate in accordance with AASHTO: T 85
(1996)
Absorption the increase in the mass of aggregate due to water being
absorbed into the pores of the material, but not including water adhering to the
outside surface of the particles, expressed as a percentage of the dry mass
Specific Gravity the ratio of the mass, in air, of a volume of a material to the
mass of the same volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature
Specific gravity is critical information for the Hot Mix Asphalt Design
Engineer. The value is used in calculating air voids, voids in mineral
aggregate (VMA), and voids filled by asphalt (VFA)
73

AASHTO: T 85 (1996)

Moisture Conditions of Aggregates:

1.

Oven dry- fully absorbent

2.

Air dry- dry at the particle surface but containing some

interior moisture

3.

Saturated surface dry (SSD) neither absorbing water nor

contributing water to the concrete mixture

4.

Wet or moist- containing an excess of moisture on the

surface

74

AASHTO: T 85 (1996)

75

AASHTO: T 85 (1996)

Apparatus

Balance

Suspension apparatus
with Water tank

Sieves

ventilated oven - Thermostatically

controlled to maintain a temperature
of 105 5 C.
76

Sample container

AASHTO: T 85 (1996)

Preparation of test portion

Thoroughly mix the sample of aggregate and reduce it to the approximate
quantity needed using the applicable procedures in T 248
Reject all material passing a 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve by dry sieving and
thoroughly washing to remove dust or other coatings from the surface

Procedure
Dry the test sample to constant mass at a temperature of 110 5C and cool
in air at room temperature for 1 to 3 hours. 2
Sink the aggregate in water at room temperature for a period of 15 to 19
hours
Remove the test sample from the water and roll it in a large absorbent cloth
until all visible films of water are removed (Wipe the larger particles individually)
77

AASHTO: T 85 (1996)

Procedure
Determine the saturated surface dry (SSD) weigh of the sample (Designate
this mass as B)
Place the SSD test sample in the sample container and weigh it in water
maintained at 23.0 1.7C (Shake the container to release entrapped air
before recording the weight) (Designate this submerged weight as C)
Remove the sample from the basket. Ensure all material has been removed
and place in a container of known mass
Dry the test sample to constant mass at a temperature of 110 5C about
24hrs (Designate this mass as A)

78

Computation
Bulk Dry Specific Gravity
The ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of aggregate at a stated
temperature to the weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at
a stated temperature

Bulk Dry Specific Gravity =

A - Oven dry weight

A
(B-C)

B = Saturated surface dry (SSD) weight

C = Weight in water
79

Computation
Bulk SSD Specific Gravity
The ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of aggregate, INCLUDING the
weight of water within the voids filled to the extent achieved by submerging in
water for approximately 15 hours, to the weight in air of an equal volume of gasfree distilled water at a stated temperature

Bulk SSD Specific Gravity =

B
(B-C)

B = Saturated surface dry (SSD) weight

C = Weight in water
80

Computation
Apparent Specific Gravity
The ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of aggregate at a stated
temperature to the weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at
a stated temperature

Apparent Specific Gravity =

A - Oven dry weight

A
(A-C)

C = Weight in water
81

Computation
Absorption
The increase in weight of aggregate due to water in the pores of the material, but
not including water adhering to the outside surface of the particles

Absorption =

(B- A)
A

A - Oven dry weight

X 100 %

B = Saturated surface dry (SSD) weight

82

Bitumen is a black, oily, viscous material that is

a naturally-occurring organic byproduct of
decomposed organic materials.
It is sticky, thick, Tar like form of petroleum
derived from polycyclic aeromatic hydrocarbon
General uses of Bitumen:

Constructions of roads, runways and platforms

Water proofing to prevent water seepage
Canal lining to prevent erosion
Dump-proof courses for masonry

83

Petroleum based bitumen (refinery bitumen) is largely

used in road construction in Sri Lanka

In the petroleum refinery

process
in
which
the
residuum contains largely
the refinery bitumen

84

Bitumen

Asphalts

Tars

Pitches

Natural
deposits

Native
asphalt

Petroleum
asphalts

Rock
asphalt

Cut back
bitumen

Asphalt
cement

Slow
curing

Medium
curing

Emulsifiers

Bitumen
Emulsion

Rapid
curing

Stabilizer

Rubber

85

The most common bituminous materials are, as follows:

Asphalts (available as natural deposits or are

produced from petroleum processing)

Tars (obtained through the destructive distillation of

materials such as wood, coal, and shale, i.e., by
heating wood or coal or shale in absence of air)

Pitches (obtained through further processing of tars)

86

 Asphalt cement (also called paving asphalt) are the

primary asphalt products produced by the distillation of

crude oil.
At ambient temperatures asphalt cement is a black, sticky,

semisolid and a highly viscous material

It is strong and durable cement with excellent adhesive and

waterproofing characteristics. It is also highly resistant to

the action of most acids, alkalis and salts
The largest use of asphalt cement is in the production of

asphalt concrete, which is primarily used in the

construction of flexible pavements throughout the world
The asphalt cement can readily be liquefied by applying

heat for mixing with mineral aggregates to produce asphalt

concrete
87

Several standard grades of asphalt cement, based on

consistency, are available commercially
Two methods, viscosity and penetration are used to

classify asphalt cements into different grades, as follows:

The viscosity grades based on original asphalt cements

(AC), as specified in ASTM D3381 are: AC 5; AC 10; AC

20; AC 30; and AC 40 (The numerical values indicate
viscosity at 140 F in hundreds of poise)
The penetration grades, as specified in ASTM D946 are:

200-300; 120-150; 85-100; 60-70; and 40-50 (higher the

penetration, the softer the asphalt cement, therefore, 40-50 is
the hardest grade and 200-300 is the softest grade

88

 Liquid asphalts or cutback asphalts are asphalt

cements mixed with a solvent to reduce their

viscosity to make them easier to use at ordinary
temperatures
They are commonly heated and then sprayed on

aggregates
Upon evaporation of the solvent, they cure or harden

and cement the aggregate particles together

89

Types and grades, as given below, are based on the type of

solvent, which governs viscosity and the rates of evaporation
and curing
Rapid-Curing (RC) - Produced by adding a light diluent of
high volatility (generally gasoline or naphtha) to asphalt cement.
These are used primarily for tack coat and surface treatments

Medium-Curing (MC) - Produced by adding a medium

diluent of intermediate volatility (generally kerosene) to asphalt
cement. These are generally used for prime coat, stockpile
patching mixtures, and road-mixing operations
Slow-Curing (SC) - Produced by adding oils of low volatility
(generally diesel or other gas oils) to asphalt cement. They are
also called road oils. They are generally used for prime coat,
stockpile-patching mixtures, and as dust palliatives
90

Cutback asphalts are commercially available in different

grades, as shown in the following Fig.:

A viscosity of 30 is more fluid than a viscosity of 3000

Prime coat is a coating applied directly to a prepared base before additional layers of
support or coating are supplied. Prime coat asphalt preparation is a vital element, as it
directly affects the shear strength of the final asphalt product.
Tack coat is applied after the prime coat, to form an adhesive bond between the tack
coat and the next layer of coating

91

Emulsified asphalts are increasingly being used in lieu of

cutback asphalts for the following reasons:
Environmental regulations: Emulsions are relatively
pollution free
Loss of high-energy products: When cutback asphalts
cure, the diluents which are high energy, high price
products are wasted into atmosphere
Safety: Emulsions are safe to use
Lower application temperature: Emulsions can be
applied at relatively low temperatures saving the fuel
costs. Emulsions can also be applied effectively to a
damp pavement, whereas dry conditions are required for
cutback asphalts
92

Emulsified asphalt (also simply called emulsion) is a mixture of

asphalt cement, water, and emulsifying agent

Because the asphalt cement will not dissolve in water,

asphalt cement and water exist in separate phases as
shown in the following figure:

To mix the asphalt cement with water, an emulsifying

93
agent (usually a type of soap) is added

1. Colloid mill Method

2. High speed mixing method

94

Process of manufacture of emulsified asphalt consists passing

the hot asphalt cement and water containing the emulsifying
agent under pressure through a colloid mill method
The colloid mill breaks up
the asphalt cement and
disperses it, in the form of
very fine droplets, in the
water carrier
The emulsified asphalt when
used, the emulsion sets as
the water evaporates

The
emulsion
usually
contains 55-75% asphalt
cement and up to 3%
emulsifying
agent,
with
balance being water
95

High speed mixing is a batch process in which hot

bitumen, hot water, emulsifier, and stabilizer are added
into a vessel and agitated using a high speed agitator

High speed
rotation

Agitator

Vessel
Bitumen
+
Water
+
Emulsifier
+
Stabiliser

96

Two most commonly used types of emulsified asphalts are

specified in ASTM D977 and ASTM D2397:
Anionic electro-negatively charged asphalt droplets
Cationic electro-positively charged asphalt droplets

Anionic emulsions adhere better to aggregate particles

with positive surface charges (e.g., limestone)

Cationic emulsions adhere better to aggregate particles

with negative surface charges (e.g., sandstone, quartz,

siliceous gravel). Cationic emulsions also work better with
wet aggregates and in colder weather
97

Structure of Cationic Bitumen Emulsion

Asphalt particles have positive charge

Adhere better with negative particles (e.g., sandstone, quartz, siliceous
gravel)
98

99

The anionic emulsified asphalts include

Rapid Setting (RS),
Medium Setting (MS)
Slow Setting (SS)
as specified in ASTM D977

The cationic emulsified asphalts include

Rapid Setting (CRS)
Medium Setting (CMS)
Slow Setting (CSS)
as specified in ASTM D2397

100

Selection and uses of emulsified asphalts are given in ASTM

D3628. Generally, they are used as follows:
Type of emulsified
asphalts

Uses

Rapid-setting

Surface treatments
macadam's

and

Medium-setting

Open-graded
mixtures

asphalt-aggregate

Slow-setting

Track coat, fog seal, dense-graded cold

asphalt-aggregate mixtures, and slurry
seals

cold

penetration

101

 The amount of emulsifiers used in bitumen emulsions is

between 0.5 to 1.0 %, which is just sufficient to prevent

coagulation of globules
However, in some applications it is necessary to provide

better protection against coagulation

In such a case it is necessary to add a stabilizer, which can

be done during the manufacture of the emulsion or at a

later stage
Commonly used stabilizers are casein and the potassium

soaps of tall oil (a liquid resin) or Vinsol resin

102

Emulsions are classified into three groups according to the

resistance to coagulation as follows
Labile emulsifiers contain a minimum of emulsifier

and moderately stable

Semi stable emulsions are more highly stabilized
Fully stable emulsions contain very high

proportion of stabilizer

103

A recent development in bitumen technology is the addition of

rubber to the bitumen mixtures to improve the performance of
resulting bitumen mixture

104

Favourable effects of the presence of rubber in bituminous

materials are:
1.

A mixture of rubber bitumen provides aggregate binding facility

2.

Rubber bitumen reduces sensitivity to temperature changes of the

bitumen.

3.

Rubber increases softening point, viscosity, elasticity and cohesion

4.

Loss of lighter fractions in bitumen though weathering is retarded

5.

Bitumen mixtures containing rubber are more resilient and therefore

can absorb vibrations and traffic shock

6.

Addition of vulcanized rubber in bitumen mixture can reduce reflection

cracking.

7.

Adding 5.5 to 7.0 % rubber by weight of bitumen can reduce surface

cracking in cold temperatures.

8.

An increase of life of bitumen up to 50 % is possible.

105