Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
24 - 493516
Seite 493
HANS-JOACHIM JRDENING
KLAUS BUCHHOLZ
Braunschweig, Germany
1 Introduction 495
2 Basic Principles 496
2.1 Biofilm Formation 496
2.2 Biofilm Characteristics 497
2.3 Kinetics and Mass Transfer 497
2.3.1 External Mass Transfer 497
2.3.2 Internal Mass Transfer 498
2.4 Support Characteristics 499
2.4.1 Stationary Fixed Film Reactors 499
2.4.2 Fluidized Bed Reactors 499
3 Reactor Design Parameters 500
3.1 Scale-Up 500
3.2 Support 502
3.2.1 Stationary Bed Reactors 502
3.2.2 Fluidized Bed Reactors 504
3.3 Wastewater 504
3.3.1 SolidsStationary Fixed Film Reactors 505
3.3.2 SolidsFluidized Bed Reactors 505
3.4 Reactor Geometry and Technological Aspects 506
3.4.1 Fixed Bed Reactors 506
3.4.2 Fluidized Bed Reactors 506
3.4.2.1 Fluidization of the Support 507
3.4.2.2 Bed Height and Loss of Support 507
4 Reactor Operation 507
4.1.1 Start-up Procedure 507
4.1.2 Operation Results Stationary Bed 508
4.1.3 Operational Results Fluidized Bed Reactors 511
5 Conclusions 511
6 References 512
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Name
unit
a
ci
cib
cip
cis
n
D
Deff
dR
dP
dV/S
j
k0
k1
ke
r
Re
ReP
ReT
qr
Sc
Sh
t
g
CD
u
uT
uT*
X
xb
xc
xp
xs
Y
BV, COD
BV, inert
F
tX
f
f1m
r
rP
rL
h
h
geometrical factor
concentration of the substrate i
substrate concentration at the biofilmliquid interface
substrate concentration at the biofilmparticle interface
substrate concentration in bulk liquid
expansion index
diffusion coefficient
effective diffusion coefficient
reactor diameter
particle diameter
Sauter diameter
molar substrate flux
kinetic constant (zero order)
kinetic constant (1st order)
mass transfer coefficient
reaction rate
Reynolds number
particle Reynolds number
particle terminal Reynolds number
amount of particles
Schmidt number
Sherwood number
time
gravitational acceleration
drag coefficient
superficial upflow velocity
terminal settling velocity
terminal settling velocity in a particle swarm
biomass concentration
bioparticle radius
substrate concentration depth
particle radius
radial distance of cS`0
yield coefficient
volumetric loading rate
volumetric loading rate of non-biodegradable solids
voidage
sphericity
biomass retention time
Thiele modulus
1st (reaction order) modified Thiele modulus
density
particle density
liquid density
effectiveness factor
dynamic viscosity
mol mP3
mol mP3
mol mP3
mol mP3
m2 sP1
m2 sP1
m
m
m
mol mP2 sP1
mol mP3 sP1
sP1
m sP1
mol mP3 sP1
s
m sP2
m sP1
m sP1
m sP1
kg mP3
m
m
m
m
kg
kg
kg mP3
kg mP3
kg mP3
kg mP1 sP1
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1 Introduction
1 Introduction
Fixed and fluidized bed reactors offer the
advantage of high-load systems, requiring much
less volume and space, and hence less investment as compared to conventional systems.
Furthermore, these systems tend to operate
more stable under transient conditions, like
fluctuations of substrates and pH. Such advantages are of interest to those industries which
produce large amounts and/or highly concentrated wastewaters, notably the food, paper,
and pulp industries. Some fixed film systems
reactor configurations are shown schematically in Fig. 1. Although most fixed film systems
can be associated with this scheme, the number of variations is high concerning the flow
mode (up- and downflow), the fluid distribution system at the reactor inlet, the support
material and expansion (for fluidized beds),
and the configuration of the reactor outlet
(gasliquid support separation). Recycle is in
general provided for dilution of substrate and
fluidization.
Several problems, however, have slowed
down the application of these systems. These
are longer start-up times, if no specific inoculum is available, a more sophisticated process
control required, and the cost of the support
material (WEILAND and ROZZI, 1991). Proper
solutions are available in principle to overcome these problems.
Nevertheless, there has been considerable
progress in application due to research and pilot plant investigations as well as data published on industrial systems, many of which are
in operation now. A large amount of literature
has accumulated, mainly over the last two
decades, so that only part of it can be mentioned in this chapter. Earlier overviews are
available summarizing a good deal of original
papers notably up to the mid 1980s (HENZE,
1983; HENZE and HARREMOES, 1983; NYNS,
1986; HALL and HOBSON, 1988; AUSTERMANNHAUN et al., 1993). This chapter concentrates
on basic principles of anaerobic fixed and
fluidized bed systems, and on recent experience accumulated on the lab, pilot, and industrial scale. It should, however, be kept in mind
that industrial applications must be based on
pilot plant experience at the factory site in eve-
495
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2 Basic Principles
Reactors are tubes with fixed bed internals
or fluidized suspended particles, which serve
as a support for biomass immobilization. The
dimensions range from 10500 m3 with a ratio
of height to diameter from 15. In general an
external loop recycles a part of the effluent to
the inlet, where mixing with the wastewater
provides for its dilution to non-inhibitory substrate concentrations and pH. In a few cases
tapered beds have been used; most of the
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2 Basic Principles
497
hp
(1)
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(2)
D
dp
(3)
ke dp
D
(4)
Re p
dp u r
h
(5)
Sc p
h
Dr
(6)
0.81
Re0.5 Sc0.33
(7)
(9)
xpxb
(10)
cipcis
If a zero order reaction is assumed, the integration of Eq. (5) with the boundary conditions yields an expression given by SHIEH and
KEENAN (1986), i.e.
( xx ) P1.5 ( xx ) c ( 12 P F3 ) p 0
c
Deff
( dd xc c ax dd cx ) P rp0
i
2
(11)
(8)
where Deff is the effective pore diffusion coeffficient, ci the concentration of the substrate
Fpxb
sDr k c
0
eff
(12)
i
hp
coth (3 F1m)
1
P
F 1m
3 F 21m
(13)
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2 Basic Principles
F 1m p(r k1 ci)0.5
x3bPx3p
x 2b
(14)
499
s4 g3dCr rPr
p
(15)
uT dp
yL
(16)
18.5
Re0.6
P
(17)
From these equations the single particle settling velocity can be calculated by iteration.
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500
(18)
ReT^0.2
0.2^ReT^1
1^ReT^500
500^ReT^7,000
Seite 500
x qr (x) dx
q r (x) dx
(19)
(20)
Even the volume contraction has to be considered for the calculation of , if a mixture of different particle sizes is used. A detailed calculation procedure is given by OUCHIJAMA and TANAKA (1981).
The easiest way for determining the fluidization behavior is to make experiments in lab
scale reactors. There one has to consider that
for obtaining representative data it is necessary to adjust a ratio of 100 as a minimum for
the reactor and the particle diameter. However, the growing biofilm and possible precipitations of inert solids may cause significant
changes in the fluidization behavior during
work.Therefore, it is very important to use real
wastewater and to control the fluidization until a dynamic steady state is reached.
3 Reactor Design
Parameters
The development of any anaerobic system
needs the evaluation of some optimal conditions concerning several topics. For fixed film
systems this includes especially the choice of
the support, the reactor geometry, the start-up
procedure and the handling of excess sludge or
inert support.
3.1 Scale-Up
Concepts for scale-up have been summarized by KOSSEN and OOSTERHUIS (1985),
where dimensional analysis and rules of thumb
may be mentioned, since they provide guidance and recourse to practical experience.
Fluid flow and fluidization can be treated with
the aid of Reynolds, Peclet, and Froude numbers in order to estimate regimes appropriate
for technical-scale operation (MSCHE, 1998).
However, a rational design seems very difficult
due to the high complexity of the systems.
Therefore, empirical rules are mostly used in
practice for the design of technical reactors
(HENZE and HARREMOES, 1983).
The parameter considered most important
is the load with biodegradable organics in
terms of COD. This must be correlated to the
active biomass in the reactor. So a load of
11.5 kg (COD) kgP1 (VSS) dP1 is considered
as the upper limit for stable operation, where
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the following correlation can be used for guidance (HENZE and HARREMOES, 1983):
BV, COD p
X/tXPBV, inert
Y
(21)
A range of further parameters of high significance should be taken into account: geometrical dimensions and H DP1; recirculation rate,
determining the substrate dilution and pH
(and their gradient); residence time and distribution; mixing behavior; flow rate, pressure
drop, and energy requirements; fluidization
and bed expansion.
The recirculation rate, inlet substrate concentration, and pH and its gradient are correlated to each other, and they are highly important aspects since the stability of the stationary
operation greatly depends on it, as subsequently discussed (BURKHARDT and JRDENING, 1994; MSCHE, 1998).
An example for modeling of an industrial
fluidized bed reactor as a guide to scale-up and
optimization of its operation has been presented by SCHWARZ et al. (1996, in press). The
model comprises those aspects which were
most sensitive for the results: material balance
equations for substrates and products in the
gas and liquid phase, kinetics of the biological
degradation, mass transfer between gas and
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3.2 Support
A great number of support materials have
been investigated in laboratory scale reactors
for the use in packed or fluidized bed systems
(HENZE and HARREMOES, 1983). Despite that,
the number of supports which are used even
for technical-scale systems is rather low. Certainly, one big problem for the realization of
new processes is due to the difficulties of cooperation with manufacturers. But often, the
problems result from shortcomings in the studies with respect to requirements of large-scale
application. For a successful application of any
material as support in fixed film stationary or
fluidized bed reactors on the technical scale
the following general requirements should be
fulfilled:
(1) availability of the material in big quantities (`100 m3),
(2) low cost of the material (related to the
achieveable performance; it should be
in general lower than 150 $ mP3),
(3) inert behavior (mechanically and microbially stable) without toxic effects
and easy disposal,
(4) low pressure drop (low energy demand
for mixing or fluidization).
Raschig rings
Pall rings
Pall rings
Hiflow 90H
Plasdek C. 10H
Bed
Porosity
Equivalent
Pore
Diameter
[mm]
[m2 mP3]
10.16
90.90
corrugated
modular blocks
25
90
modular blocks
4549
102
0.760.78
0.95
20
98
215
65
148
0.95
46
320
190
97
0.74
Flocor RH
corrugated rings
Ceramic Raschig rings 25
0.965
0.96
`30 mm
`30 mm
Reference
`30 mm
ANDREWS (1988)
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which 31 kg mP3 were found to be immobilized within the inner pores of the support (NEY
et al., 1989).
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3.3 Wastewater
Wastewater should be acidified to a high degree (`80%, related to COD). Otherwise,
acidifying bacteria could lower the pH, overgrow the methanogenic biofilm and, hence, reduce the methanogenic activity. Thus 2-stage
systems are considered superior, since the performance in terms of stability and space-timeyield will be superior to 1-stage systems. The
load of reactors with volatile fatty acids (in a
system with a separate acidification reactor)
can be higher by factors of 45, compared to
feeding with complex substrates (HENZE and
HARREMOES, 1983).
Furthermore, inhibitory substances like sulfur compounds may play a major role, as in
yeast processing (FRIEDMANN and MRKL,
1994). It is also essential that results concerning load refer to an average of a stable, continuous process rather than to a singular maximum. Even results obtained in the laboratory
reactors differ in general from pilot plant and
full-scale reactors operating at the factory site
[10P3 m]
[kg mP3]
Porosity Upflow
Velocity
[m2 mP3]
[m hP1]
Sand
Sepiolite
GAC
Biomass granules
Sand
Biolite
0.5
0.53
0.6
2,540
1,980
7,100a
20,300b
0.10.3
0.30.5
2,600
2,000
Pumice
0.250.5
1,950
a
b
Diameter Density
Surface
0.41
30
26.5
16
510
2.2 106
0.85
10
Calculated from the given data with the assumption of total sphericity.
Calculated with data given in SANCHEZ et al. (1994).
Biomass Reference
420
32
34
[kg mP3]
40
3090
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Fig. 5ad. Support materials for anaerobic fluidized bed reactors (a and b uncovered and biofilm covered
sand, c and d uncovered and biofilm covered pumice particles).
Solids from the wastewater may cause clogging, especially at the entrance region of the
reactor. HOLST et al. (1997) recommend solid
concentrations lower than 0.5 kg mP3 with respect to problems of clogging in the distribution system, while MSCHE (1998) reports that
even solid concentrations up to 1.7 kg mP3 did
not cause any problems. This difference can be
explained by differences in the composition of
the solids as well as by the construction of the
reactor inlet.
Some inorganic compounds, such as calcium
carbonate or ammonium magnesium phosphate, will be precipitated in the reactor mainly onto the support, when the actual concen-
Suspended solids and even suspended biomass may cause clogging in the reactor; this can
be reinforced by extracellular polysaccharides
secreted by acidogenic bacteria (EHLINGER et
al., 1987). Therefore, backwash and excess
sludge removal must be provided for in the reactor design. Gas-phase desorption and transport through the reactor must be possible. Fixed
bed systems are not feasable for wastewater
with high solids content or components which
tend to precipitate, such as calcium ions.
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