FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

Chapter
Analysis and Design of RC

Bridges

SPECIFICATIONS FROM ERA BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

SLAB BRIDGES
Single span slab bridges are perhaps the most common bridges in Ethiopia. They can
be economical for spans from 1 m to 18 m. Above 15 m they should preferably be
ribbed as shown in figure below. Instead of ribs there are several types of prefab
forms that can be used by contractors, if the designer has considered that particular
type.

SLAB

VOIDED SLAB

RIBBED SLAB

Sections of Voided (Hollowed) Slab and Ribbed Slab Bridge Decks

Normally the slab is made with a uniform depth over the whole bridge. The required
design depth is usually 5.5 - 6 % of the span length, due to the width of the
cracks. If stressed reinforced concrete is used, the design depth shall be reduced
to 4.5 % of the span length.
The abutments at single or double span slab bridges should preferably be placed
perpendicular to the bridge in order to avoid a skew in earth pressure, which may
cause skew in the abutment front wall.
GIRDER BRIDGES
A girder bridge is usually used for a single span bridge, or non-continuous girders for
a multi-span bridge, in earthquake areas. They shall be used for span lengths
between 12 - 20 m. Outside of earthquake zones, continuous girder bridges are
preferred. In this case the exterior span length should be approximately 0.8 times the
interior span. The LRFD design method usually minimizes materials used if the
number of girders/beams is minimized. The cantilever should preferably not exceed
40 % of the spacing of the girders, or 2.8 m for a two-lane bridge.
The design depth of a normal girder bridge may vary between 7-10% of the span
length depending on the number of beams used. If possible, a high stem of beam is
preferred to a certain extent, both technically and economically. For construction
reasons however, the height should be minimized. Esthetically a short bridge with a
high superstructure close to the water surface should be avoided. Here a slender
structure (slab) is more appealing.
Spacing of Reinforcement
Minimum Spacing of Reinforcing Bars
Cast-in-Place Concrete
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For cast-in-place concrete, the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer shall not
be less than:
1.5 times the nominal diameter of the bars,
1.5 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, or * 38 mm.

Precast Concrete
For precast concrete manufactured under plant control conditions, the clear distance
between parallel bars in a layer shall not be less than:
The nominal diameter of the bars,
1.3 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, or
25 mm.
Multi-Layers
Except in decks where parallel reinforcing is placed in two or more layers, with clear
distance between layers not exceeding 150 mm, the bars in the upper layers shall be
placed directly above those in the bottom layer, and the clear distance between
layers shall not be less than 25 mm or the nominal diameter of the bars.
CONCRETE
Recommended grade of concrete and corresponding specified strengths are shown in
Table 9-1 for both cylinder and cube strengths. Classes of concrete corresponding to
these grades are shown in Table 9-2.

Grades of Concrete

C25

C30

C40

C50

C60

20

24

32

40

48

fck (200 mm cubes, MPa)

21

25

34

42

50

fck (150 mm cubes, MPa)

25

30

40

50

60

fck (150 mm cylinders, MPa)

Table 9-1 Grades of Concrete and Characteristic Cylinder and Cube

Compressive Strength, fck
Class
I
II

Permissible Grades of Concrete

(C20)
C25
C30
C40
C50
(C20)
-

C60
-

Table 9-2 Grades and Classes of Concrete

Class I concrete is generally used for all elements of structures, except when another
class is more appropriate, and specifically for concrete exposed to saltwater. Class II
concrete is used in footings, pedestals, massive pier shafts, and gravity walls.
Concrete strengths above 50 MPa (150 mm cylinders) shall be used only when
physical tests are made to establish the relationships between the concrete strength
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Chapter
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Bridges

and other properties. Concrete with strengths below 20 MPa at 28 days (150 mm
cylinders) should not be used in structural applications.
The specified compressive strength for prestressed concrete shall not be less than 30
MPa.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
The coefficient of thermal expansion should be determined by the laboratory tests on
the specific mix to be used. In the absence of more precise data, the thermal
coefficient of expansion shall be taken as:
for normal density concrete: 10.8 x 10-6/oC, and
for low-density concrete: 9.0 x 10-6/oC
The thermal coefficient of normal density concrete can vary between 5.4 to 14.4 x 10 6 o
/ C, with limestone and marble aggregates producing the lower values, and chert and
quartzite the higher.
Design Properties (Modulus of Elasticity, Poisson's Ratio, Modulus of
Rupture)
In the absence of more precise data, the modulus of elasticity, Ec, for concrete with
densities between 1440 and 2500 kg/M3, shall be taken as:
Ec 0.043c1.5

(9.3)

f 'c

where: c = density of concrete (kg/m )

fc = specified cylinder strength of concrete (MPa)
3

For normal density concrete with c = 2 400 kg/m3 , Ec shall be taken as:
(9.4)

Ec 4800 fc

Poisson's ratio shall be assumed as 0.2. For components which are expected to be
subject to cracking, the effect of Poisson's ratio shall be neglected.
The modulus of rupture (fr) in MPa, for normal density concrete, shall be taken as:
(9.5)

Fr 0.63 f ' c

Characteristic Tensile Strength

The Characteristic Tensile Strength may be determined from the characteristic
cylinder compressive strength as:
fctk =0.7 fctm ;
Where fctm =0.3 fck2/3 (see Table 9.3 below)
Grades of Concrete
fctm
fctk

C20
1.9
1.3

C25
2.2
1.5

(9.6)
(9.7)
C30
2.5
1.7

C40
3.0
2.1

C50
3.5
2.5

C60
4.0
2.8

Table 9-3 Grades of Concrete and Values of fctk and fctm

REINFORCEMENT
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Bridges

Reinforcement shall be deformed, except that plain bars or plain wire may be used for
spirals, hoops and wire fabric. Bars < 10 mm should not be used for cast-in-place
structures.
The nominal yield strength shall be the minimum as specified for the grade of steel
selected, except that yield strengths in excess of 520 MPa shall not be used for design
purposes. Bars with yield strengths less than 270 MPa shall be used only with the
approval of ERA. Tensile requirements are as indicated in Table 9-4.
AASHTO M31 M Grade
Equiv. European bars
(Old AASHTO M31 Grade)
Tensile strength, min. MPa
Yield strength, min. Mpa

Grade 300

Grade 420

Grade 520

B500B
(40)
500
300

Ks60
(60)
620
420

(75)
690
520

Table 9-4 Tensile Requirements for Reinforcement Bars

Water/Cement Ratio
SITUATION
Direct exposure to salt water
Cast against earth (i.e. Bottom of
footings)
Exterior other than above
Interior other than above (i.e.
hollow structures)
Up to 35 Bar
45 and 55Bars
Bottom of cast-in-place slabs
Up to 35 Bar
45 and 55Bars
Precast soffit form panels
Precast Reinforced Piles
Non-corrosive environments
Corrosive environments
Precast Prestressed Piles
Cast-in-place Piles
Non-corrosive environments
Corrosive environments
- General
Protected
Shells
Auger cast, tremie concrete or
slurry construction

0,40
COVER (mm)
80
60

0,45
COVER (mm)
100
75

0,50
COVER (mm)
120
90

40

50

60

32
40

40
50

48
60

25
40

25
50

30
60

20

20

24

32
60
40

40
75
50

48
90
60

40

50

60

60
60
40
60

75
75
50
75

90
90
60
90

Table 9-5 Cover for Unprotected Main Reinforcing Steel (mm)

The modulus of elasticity, Ec, of bars and un-deformed wires shall be assumed as 200
000 MPa.
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Bridges

Minimum cover to main bars, including bars protected by epoxy coating, shall be 25
mm. Cover to ties and stirrups shall be 12 mm less than the values specified in Table
9-5 for main bars, but shall not be less than 25 mm.
Precast soffit form panels are not considered as main bars.
Concrete Cover for unprotected prestressing and reinforcing steel for the actual
water-cement ratio shall not be less than as specified in Table 9-5 above, unless
otherwise specified herein. Concrete cover and placing tolerances shall be shown in
the contract documents and/or at the detail drawings.
Cover for pretensioned prestressing strand, anchorage hardware and mechanical
connections for reinforcing bars or post-tensioned prestressing strands shall be the
same as for reinforcing steel.
Cover for metal ducts for post-tensioned tendons shall not be less than:
that specified for main reinforcing steel,
one-half the diameter of the duct, or
that specified in Table 9-5.
Protective Coatings: Protection against chloride-induced corrosion shall be provided
by epoxy coating or galvanizing of reinforcing steel, post-tensioning duct and
anchorage hardware and epoxy coating of prestressing strand.
Flexural Reinforcement
Except at supports of simple-spans and at the free ends of cantilevers, reinforcement
shall be extended beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure
for a distance not less than:
the effective depth of the member,
15 times the nominal diameter of bar, or
1/20 of the clear span.
Continuing reinforcement shall extend not less than the development length, l d,
beyond the point where bent or terminated tension reinforcement is no longer
required to resist flexure.
No more than 50% of the reinforcement shall be terminated at any section, and
adjacent bars shall not be terminated in the same section.
Minimum Reinforcement
For components containing no prestressing steel, the minimum reinforcement
provision herein shall be considered satisfied if:
min 0.03 fc/ fy
where: min =
fc
fy

=
=

(9.13)
ratio of tension steel to gross area
specified concrete strength (MPa)
yield strength of tension steel (MPa)

In T-beams where the web is in tension, the determination of the actual mild steel
ratio, , for comparison with the requirement of Equation 9.13 shall be based on the
width of the web.

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Bridges

Control of Cracking by Distribution of Reinforcement

Provisions specified, herein, are used for the distribution of tension reinforcement to
control flexural cracking in beams.
From the standpoint of appearance, many fine cracks are preferable to a few wide
cracks. The best crack control is obtained when the steel reinforcement is well
distributed over the zone of maximum concrete tension. Several bars at moderate
spacing are more effective in controlling cracking than one or two larger bars of
equivalent area.
Components shall be so proportioned that the tensile stress in the mild steel
reinforcement at the service limit state, f s does not exceed:

fs =

Z
0.6 fy
1/3
(dc A)

(9.14)

where: dc = depth of concrete measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar
or wire located closest thereto; for calculation purposes, the thickness of
clear cover used to compute dc shall not be taken to be greater than 50
mm
A =area of concrete having the same centroid as the principal tensile
reinforcement and bounded by the surfaces of the cross-section and a
straight line parallel to the neutral axis, divided by the number of bars or
wires (mm2); for calculation purposes, the thickness of clear concrete cover
used to compute A shall not be taken to be greater than 50 mm
Z =crack width parameter (N/mm)
Except for cast-in-place reinforced concrete box culverts, the quantity Z in Equation
9.14 shall not exceed 30 kN/mm for members in moderate exposure conditions, 23
kN/mm for members in severe exposure conditions, and 17.5 kN/mm for buried
structures.
Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement
Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses shall be provided near
surfaces of concrete exposed to daily temperature changes and in structural mass
concrete. Temperature and shrinkage reinforcement shall be added, so that the total
reinforcement on exposed surfaces is not less than that specified herein.
Components less than 1200 mm thick: Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature
shall be in the form of bars, welded wire fabric or prestressing tendons. For bars or
welded wire fabric, the area of reinforcement in each direction shall not be less than:

As 0.75 Ag/fy

(9.17)

Where: Ag = gross area of section (mm2)

fy = Specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)
Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart than
either 3.0 times the component thickness or 450 mm.

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Strength Limit State

Factored resistance shall be the product of nominal resistance, and the resistance
factor in
Table 9-7 below:

Resistance Factors, Conventional Construction:

Resistance
factor :
For flexure and tension of reinforced concrete .........0.90
For flexure and tension of prestressed concrete........1.00
For shear and torsion:
Normal density concrete............................................0.90
Low-density concrete...............................................0.70
For axial compression with spirals or ties..................0.75
For bearing on concrete ............................................0.70
For compression in strut-and-tie models ..................0.70
For compression in anchorage zones:
Normal density concrete..........................................0.80
Low-density concrete................................................0.65
For tension in steel in anchorage zones ...................1.00
for resistance during pile driving..............................1.00
Table 9-7 Resistance Factors
Distribution reinforcement for the Slab Bridges
Requirements for bottom distribution reinforcement in top slabs shall be placed in the
secondary direction in the bottom of slabs as a percentage of the primary
reinforcement for positive moment. For primary reinforcement parallel to the traffic:
(12.11)

1750 / s 50%

Where s = effective span length (mm).

For primary reinforcement perpendicular to traffic:
3840 / s 67%

Equivalent strip widths for slab bridge: The equivalent width of longitudinal
strips per lane for both shear and moment with one lane, i.e., two lines of wheels,
loaded shall be determined as:
(12.40)

E 250 0.42 L1W1

(the strip width has been divided by 1.20 to account for the multiple presence effect).
The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with
more than one lane loaded shall be determined as:
W

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(12.41)
Where: E= equivalent width (mm)
L1 = modified span length taken equal to the lesser of the actual span or 18
000 (mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken equal to the lesser of the
actual width or 18 000 mm for multi-lane loading, or 9000 mm for single
lane loading (mm)
W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)
NL = number of design lanes as specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads:
Vehicular Live Load.
Equivalent strip width for overhang part of girder bridge:
E = 1140 + 0.833X
Where X=distance from load to point of support (mm)
Girders (Simple Span, Continuous, Box)
Some recommended dimensions for cast-in-place girders, box and T-beams are:
The thickness of top flanges serving as deck slab:
same as for bridge decks
not less than 5% of the clear span between fillets, haunches, or webs, unless
transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the clear span are used.
And for the bottom flange thickness not less than either:
140 mm,
1/16 of the distance between fillets or webs of non prestressed girders and beams,
or
1/30th of the clear span between fillets, haunches or webs for prestressed girders,
unless transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the clear span are used.
The thickness of webs shall be determined by requirements for shear, torsion,
concrete cover and placement of concrete. For adequate field placement and
consolidation of concrete, usually a minimum web thickness of 200 mm is needed for
webs without prestressing ducts. For girders over about 2.4 m in depth, the above
dimensions should be increased to compensate for the increased difficulty of concrete
placement. Changes in girder web thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance
of 12.0 times the difference in web thickness.
Reinforcement for Cast-in-place Girder, Box and T-beams
The reinforcement in the deck slab of cast-in-place T-beams and box girders shall
be determined by either the traditional or by empirical design methods. Where the
deck slab does not extend beyond the exterior web, at least one-third of the bottom
layer of the transverse reinforcement in the deck slab shall be extended into the
exterior face of the outside web and anchored by a standard 90 hook. If the slab
extends beyond the exterior web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the
transverse reinforcement shall be extended into the slab overhang and shall have an
anchorage beyond the exterior face of the web not less in resistance than that
provided by a standard hook.
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Interior Beams with Concrete Decks: The live load flexural moment for interior beams
with concrete decks shall be determined by applying the lane fraction specified in
Chapter 13: Approximate Methods of Analysis. For preliminary design, the terms K g/
(L*ts3) and I/J shall be taken as 1.0.
Force Effect
Positive Moment
Negative Moment Near interior
supports of continuous spans from
point of contra flexure to point of
contra flexure under a uniform load on
all spans
Negative Moment Other than near
interior supports of continuous spans
Shear
Exterior Reaction
Interior Reaction of Continuous Span

L (mm)
The length of the span for
which
moment
is
being
calculated
The average length of the two
adjacent spans

The length of the span for

which
moment
is
being
calculated
The length of the span for
which shear is being calculated
The length of the exterior span
The average length of the two
adjacent spans

Table 13-2 L for Use in Live Load Distribution Factor Equations

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Bridges

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

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Bridges

Figure 13-2 Common Deck Superstructures

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Type of
Superstructure
Wood Deck on
Wood or Steel
Beam
Concrete Deck on
Wood Beams
Concrete
Deck,
filled
Grid,
or
Partially
Filled
Grid on Steel or
Concrete Beams:
Concrete
TBeams. T and
Double T Sections

Applicable
Cross-section
from Figure
13-2
a, l

One
Design
Lane
Loaded
Lever Rule

Two or More
Design Lanes
Loaded

Range of
Applicability

Lever Rule

N/A

Lever Rule

Lever Rule

N/A

a, e, k and
also i, j if
sufficiently
connected to
act as a unit

Lever Rule

g = e ginterior

-300 de
1700

e = 0.77 + de
280
0
Use lesser of
the values
obtained from
the equation
above with Nb
= 3 or the
lever rule

Nb = 3

Table 13-4 Distribution of Live Loads per Lane for Moment in Exterior
Longitudinal Beams

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Bridges

Type of
Superstructure
Wood
Deck
on
Wood
or
steel
Beams
Concrete
Deck,
Filled
Grid,
or
Partially Filled Grid
on
Steel
or
Concrete Beams;
Concrete T-Beams,
T- and Double TBeams
Multi-cell Concrete
Box Beams, Box
Sections

Applicable
Crosssection from
Figure 13-2
a, l

One
Design
Lane
Loaded
Lever
Rule

a, e, k and
also i, j if
sufficiently
connected to
act as a unit

Lever
Rule

Steel Grid Deck on

Steel Beams

Two or More
Design
Lanes
Loaded
Lever Rule
g = e ginterior
e = 0.6 +
.

de

N/A
-300
1700

de

de

300
0
Lever Rule

Range of
Applicability

Lever
Rule

Lever
Rule

g = e ginterior

Nb = 3
-600
1500

= 0.64 + de
380
0
Lever Rule
N/A

Table 13-8 - Distribution of Live Load Per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams
Nb = number of beams or girders
ts = deck slab thickness (mm)
S
=
spacing of supporting components (mm)
L = span of beam (mm)

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