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Elevator
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Background

Anelevatorisaplatform,eitheropenorenclosed,usedforliftingpeopleorfreighttoupperfloorswithinabuilding.Elevatorsareastandardpartofany
tallcommercialorresidentialbuilding.Inrecentyears,theintroductionoftheFederalAmericanswithDisabilitiesActhasrequiredthatmanytwostory
andthreestorybuildingsberetrofittedwithelevators.
Manuallyoperatedelevatorswereusedforliftingfreightinwarehousesandmanufacturingplantsasearlyasthe1600s.Themodernelevatorisa
directdescendantofadesignfirstshownbyElisha(/knowledge/Elisha.html)G.OtisattheNewYorkWorld'sFairin1853.AnotablefeatureoftheOtis
elevator,andtheprincipalreasonforitspopularacceptance,wasasafetydevicethatimmediatelyengagedandheldtheelevatorintheeventthe
hoistingcablesbroke.Thefirstelevatorswereoperatedbysteampower(/knowledge/Steam_engine.html)toturnthecabledrums.In1871,thefirst
hydraulicelevatorswereintroducedusingwaterpressureasthesourceofpower.Atfirstthehydraulicramswereonepiece,whichmeantaholehad
tobedugundertheelevatorshaftasdeepastheelevatorwastobehigh.Latermultiplesection,telescopinghydraulicramsallowedshallowerholes.
Inmanycitieshydraulicpowerfortheseearlyelevatorswassuppliedbypowercompanieswhichinstalledandmaintainednetworksofhydraulicpiping
throughoutthecity.Thefirstcommerciallysuccessfulelectricelevatorwasinstalledin1889,andelectricityquicklybecametheacceptedsourceof
power.
Electricpoweredelevatorsofferedtwosignificantadvantages.First,electricpowerwasclearlybecominguniversallyavailable,andanybuildinglikely
tobeequippedwithanelevatorwouldalsohaveelectricpower.Second,hydraulicelevatorswereseverelylimitedintheheighttowhichtheycould
rise,whileelectricelevators,usingasimplecableandpulleysystem,hadvirtuallynoheightlimit.Formanyyears,electricelevatorsusedeitherdirect
current(DC)motorsoralternatingcurrent(AC)motors.Today,almostallelevatorsuseoneoftwotypesofACmotors:themostcommonaregeared
motorsforelevatorsmovingatspeedsupto500feetperminute(153mperminute),whiledirectdrivemotorsareusedforelevatorsmovingathigher
speeds.Somemodernhighspeedelevatorsmoveatupto2,000feetperminute(610mperminute).

Controlsystemsonearlyelevatorsrequiredhumanoperatorstoregulatethespeedoftheliftanddescent,tostoptheelevatorateachfloor,andto
openandclosethedoors.Inthe1950sautomaticpushbuttoncontrolsystemsreplacedmanualcontrols.Inthe1970selectromechanicalcontrolswere
graduallyreplacedwithsolidstateelectroniccontrols.
Ridinginasmallboxhundredsoffeetintheairwouldbeadisconcertingexperienceifonewerenotconvincedofitssafety.Electricelevatorsare
equippedwithtwoprimarysafetymechanisms:agovernorwhichcontrolstheelevator'sspeedbycontrollingthespeedofthecablepulleys,andthe
emergencybrakewhichconsistsofjawsthatgriptheelevatorguiderailsintheeventthecablesbreak.Elevatorsalsoincludeelectromechanicaldoor
interlockstopreventtheelevatorfromoperatingifthedoorisnotcompletelyclosedandtoprotectpassengersfrombeingtrappedbytheclosingdoor.
Thesamedoorinterlocksalsopreventtheouterdoorsoneachfloorfromopeningiftheelevatorisnotpresent.Mostelevatorsareequippedwitha
telephone,andsometimesatrapdoorintheceiling,sothatpassengerscancallforhelporescapeifanelevatorbecomesstuckbetweenfloors.

Design
Elevatorsthemselvesaresimpledevices,andthebasicliftingsystemshavenotchangedmuchinover50years.Thecontrolsystems,however,have
changedsubstantiallytoimprovesafetyandspeedofoperation.Elevatorsaredesignedforaspecificbuilding,takingintoaccountsuchfactorsasthe
heightofthebuilding,thenumberofpeopletravelingtoeachfloor,andtheexpectedperiodsofhighusage.
Mostelevatorsusecounterweightswhichequaltheweightoftheelevatorplus40%ofitsmaximumratedload.Thiscounterweightreducestheweight
themotormustliftandensuresthattheelevatorcannotfalloutofcontrolwhilethecableisintact.Inaliftingdruminstallation,ahoistcablerunsdown
fromadrivedrumattachedtothehoistmotor,aroundalargepulleyonthetopoftheelevator,uptoasecondpulleyhangingfromtheroofofthe
elevatorshaft,anddownagaintothecounterweight.Inatractiondruminstallation,thecablerunsfromtheelevator,upandoncearoundadrivedrum
attachedtothehoistmotor,thenbacktothecounterweight.Theelevator,calledthecar,andthecounterweighteachrunintheirownsetsofguide
rails.Asecondgovernorcablerunsfromthecaruptoagovernorpulley,thendowntoatensionpulleyatthebottomoftheelevatorshaft,andupto
thecaragain.Thiscablerotatesthegovernorpulleyataspeeddirectlyproportionaltothespeedofthecar.Intheeventofexcessivecarspeed,the
governorusesanothercabletoactivatetheemergencybrakejawswhichgriptheguiderailsandslowthecartoastop.
Arampedbaronthesideoftheelevatorshaftactivatesaseriesofswitchesontheoutsideofthecartoslowandstopthecarattheproperfloor.As
thecarapproachesthedesiredfloor,therampactivatestheslowdownswitch,whichsignalsthehoistmotortoreducespeed.Whenthecarisaligned
withtheouterdooropening,therampactivatesalimitswitchtostopthecar.Ifthedoorinterlockswitchesalsosensethatthecarisintheproper
location,theelectricdooropeningmotorisactivatedtoopenboththeinnercardoorandtheouterfloordoor.
Moderncommercialbuildingscommonlyhavemultipleelevatorswithaunifiedcontrolsystem.Theobjectofthecontrolsystemistominimizethe
averagetimeanypassengerspendsfromthetimetheelevatorcallbuttonispushedtothearrivalofthefirstavailableelevator.Differentsystemsuse
differentlevelsofsophistication.Thesimplestsystemsuseasingleupanddownbuttononeachfloorregardlessofthenumberofelevators.Whena
passengercallsforanelevator,thecontrollersendsthenearestelevatorthatistravelinginthedesireddirection.Theapproachofanelevatorcaris
signaledbyanilluminatedarrowabovetheelevatorsdoorspointingupordown.
Inmoresophisticatedsystems,thecontrollermonitorstheelevatorcallsystemforaset,orbank,ofelevatorsoperatingsidebyside.Theoperation
zoneoftheseelevatorsisdividedintosectors,witheachsectorbeingmadeupofadjacentfloors.Whenacarhasansweredacallandcompletedthe
designatedrun,itbecomesavailabletoansweranothercall.Atthispoint,dependingonthecontroller'sprogramming,thecarmaybereturnedtoa
designated"home"floor,ormaybesenttothesectorfurthestfromotheroperatingoravailablecarstocoverthatsector.Whenacallisreceived,the
controllerautomaticallycomparesthelocationofallthecarsinthebankandsendsthenearestone.
Controllerscanalsobeprogrammedtoresponddifferentlyatdifferenttimesoftheday.Forexample,theelevatorcontrollerinabusyofficebuilding
willreceiveapreponderanceofcallsfromthegroundfloorinthemorning,whenworkersarearrivingandneedtogototheirworkplacesontheupper
floors.Inthatcase,thecontrollerwillbeprogrammedtosendallunassignedcarstothegroundfloor,ratherthanhavethemreturntoahomefloorin
theirsector.Laterintheday,adifferentsetofinstructionscanbeusedtosendunassignedelevatorstodifferentsectors,sincepassengersleavingthe
buildingwillbemuchmoreevenlydistributedamongthefloorsthaninthemorning.
Allmodernelevatorsalsohavespecialoverridecontrolsthatfirefighterscanactivatewithakeytomakeelevatorsgodirectlytoaspecificfloorwithout
intermediatestops.

Raw Materials
Theelevatorcaritselfisconstructedwithasteelframeworkfordurabilityandstrength.Asetofsteelbeamsabovethecar,calledthecrosshead,span
theelevatorshaftfromsidetosideandholdthepulleyforthehoistcable.Asteelstructure,calledthesling,extendsdownthesidesofthecarfromthe
crossheadandcradlesthefloor,orplatform.Thesidesofapassengerelevatorcarareusuallymadefromsteelsheetandaretrimmedontheinside
withdecorativepaneling.Thefloorofthecarmaybetiledorcarpeted.Handrailsandotherinteriortrimmaybemadefromstainlesssteelfor
appearanceandwearability.Asuspendedceilingisusuallyhungbelowtheactualtopofthecarandmaycontainfluorescent
(/knowledge/Fluorescence.html)lightingaboveplasticdiffuserpanels.Theelevatorcontrols,alarmbuttons,andemergencytelephonearecontained
behindpanelsinthefrontofthecar,nexttothedoors.
Steelguiderollersorguideshoesareattachedtothetopandbottomoftheslingstructureoneachsidetorunalongtheguiderails.Theguiderailsare
alsosteelandareattachedtotheinteriorwallsoftheelevatorshaftwhichrunsfromthetopofthebuildingtothebottom.Theemergencybrake
mechanismconsistsoftwoclampingfaceswhichcanbedriventogetherbyawedgetosqueezeontheguiderail.Thewedgeisactivatedbyascrew
turnedbyadrumattachedtotheemergencycable.

TheelevatorinthenewLordandTaylordepartmentstoreinNewYorkCity

lookedlikethisonopeningdayin1873.
(FromthecollectionsofHenryFord(/knowledge/Henry_Ford.html)Museum&
GreenfieldVillage.)

Theelevatorisoneofthoseinventions(/knowledge/Inventions.html)whose"rippleeffect"isoftenoverlooked.Justthinkofthepracticalityofany
buildingovereightortenstorieswithoutanelevator.ThenimagineamoderncitywithoutbuildingsovertenstorieslAlongwithstructuralsteeland
reinforcedconcrete,theelevatorwasessentialtothedevelopmentofthemodernskyscraper(/knowledge/Skyscraper.html)andthustothecommon
formofthemodernurbancenter.
Theelevator'spracticalimpactwasalmostmatchedbyitssymbolicimpact.The1880$wereyearsofimmenseurbangrowth,andtheinfluxof
newcomerstothecitiesincludedmiddleclasscareerpeopleaswellasfactoryworkers.Withpropertyvaluesskyrocketinginthecities,themiddle
classfamiliescouldnotaffordsinglefamilyhomes.Apartmentbuildingownerspromotedapartmentlivingwithadvertisements
(/knowledge/Advertisements.html)of"hightech"amenities:hotandcoldrunningwater,telephonesystems,centralgasforcookingandlighting,fully
equippedbathrooms,andelevators.
Moreover,withallthesemodernconveniences,apartmentlivingcapturedthemiddleclassimaginationastheembodimentofaneworganizationof
domesticduties.Buildingscamewithcentralizedheating,ventilating,andplumbingsystemssomehadkitchensinthebasementwhichwouldprepare
foodforindividualapartmentdwellerssomeevenhadacentralizedvacuumsystemwithnozzlesineachroomconnectedtoapumpinthebasement.
Theelevatorwasevenextolledasacontributortodemocracy.Inanelevatorequippedbuilding,itmodelittledifferencewhichflooronelivedonevery
floorwasequallyaccessible.Bycontrast,inEurope,wealthyfamiliesweregenerallyfoundonthemiddlefloorswheretheydidnothavetoclimbmany
flights.Poorerfamilieswereusuallyconfinedtothebasementortheupperfloors.
WilliamS.Pretzer
Elevatorhoistingcableusuallyconsistsofsixormorestrands,eachofwhichconsistofanumberofseparatesteelwires.Thestrandsmaybetwisted
aroundahemp(/knowledge/Hemp.html)centerwhichservesasacushionandalsocontainsalubricant.

Inaliftingdruminstallotion,ahoistcablerunsdownfromadrivedrum
attachedtothehoistmotor,aroundalargepulleyonthetopoftheelevator,
uptoasecondpulleyhongingfromtheroofoftheelevatorshoh,anddown
ogointothecounterweight(/knowledge/Counterweight.html).Inatroction
druminstallotion,thecablerunsfromtheelevotor,upandoncearoundadrive
drumattochedtothehoistmotor,thenbocktothecounterweight.

Theelectrichoistingmotorsarespecificallydesignedforelevatorserviceandmaydrivethehoistingdrumthroughagearbox,bothofwhichare
purchasedparts.

The Manufacturing
Process
1. Theelevatorcarsarebuiltattheelevatormanufacturer'splantusingstandardmetalcutting,welding,andformingtechniques.Ifthecarswillbe
exposedtotheweatherduringbuildingconstruction,theinteriortrimmaybeinstalledafterthebuildingisfinished.
2. Therestoftheelevatorisassembledonthebuildingsite.Thebuildingdesignintegratestheelevatorshaftfromthebeginning,andtheshaft
growsasthebuildingiserected.Thewallsoftheshaftarepouredconcrete,andtheshaftstraightnessand

Mostelevatorsusecounterweightswhichequaltheweightoftheelevatorplus
40%ofitsmaximumratedload.Thiscounterweightreducestheweightthe
motormustliftandensuresthattheelevatorcannotfalloutofcontrolwhilethe
cableisintact.

otherdimensionsarecarefullymonitoredaseachfloorgoesup.
3. Guiderails,switchramps,serviceladders,andsimilarsupportequipmentareboltedintotheshaftaftertheshaftwallsarecomplete,butbefore
theshaftisroofed.
4. Whiletheshaftisstillopenatthetop,acraneraisesthecounterweighttothetopofthebuildingandlowersitintotheshaftalongitsrails.
5. Thecranethenliftstheelevatorcarandinsertsitpartlyintotheshaft.Theguidewheelsconnectthecartotheguiderails,andthecariscarefully
loweredtothebottomoftheshaft.
6. Theshaftisthenroofedover,leavingamachineroomabovetheshaft.Thehoistmotor,governor,controller,andotherequipmentaremounted
inthisroom,withthemotorlocateddirectlyovertheelevatorcarpulley.
7. Theelevatorandgovernorcablesarestrungandattached,theelectricalconnectionscompleted,andthecontrollerprogrammed.

Quality Control
EachelevatorinstallationintheUnitedStatesmustmeetthesafetystandardsoftheAmericanNationalStandardsInstituteandtheAmericanSociety
ofMechanicalEngineers.Thesestandardsmaybeincorporatedintolocalbuildingcodes,orthelocalcodesmayhavetheirownsafetystandards.The
statemustinspect,rate,andcertifyeachpassengerelevatorinstallationbeforeitgoesintooperationandmustreinspectonaregularbasisthereafter.

The Future
Elevatorshavenotchangedsubstantiallyinmanyyearsandareunlikelytodosointhenearfuture.Electroniccontrolswillcontinuetoimproveinways
thatareevolutionaryandnotverydramatic.Controlsystemsarebeingdevelopedthatwilllearnfrompasttrafficpatternsandusethisinformationto
predictfutureneedsinordertoreducewaitingtimes.Laser(/knowledge/Laser.html)controlsarecomingintouse,bothtogaugecarspeedand
distance,aswellastoscanbuildingfloorsforpotentialpassengers.

Where To Learn More

Books
ElevatorTechnology.PublishedfortheInternationalAssociationofElevatorEngineersbyEllisHorwood.HalstedPress,1986.
Ford,Barbara.TheElevator.WalkerandCompany,1982.

Periodicals
Evans,Barrie."FuzzyLogicforSmarterLifts."Architect'sJournal,May18,1994,pp.2425.
Richards,Kristen."DesignFiles."Interiors,February1991,pp.2223.
JoelSimon

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AlsoreadarticleaboutElevator(/knowledge/Elevator.html)fromWikipedia

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