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CHAPTER 8
SUBSAHARAN AFRICA
You should know these locations:
Administrative Divisions Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, Namibia,
Republic of South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Tanzania, Rwanda, Kenya, Uganda, Somalia,
Chad, Sudan.
Physical Features Sahara Desert, Sahel Region, Fouta Jalon Mountains, Drankensberg Mountains, Mt. Kilimanjaro, Rift
Zone, Niger River, Congo River, Zambezi River, Nile River, Congo Basin, Namibian Desert.
Cities Timbuktu, Lagos, Johannesburg.
Introduction to Region
This region encompasses all the countries of Africa to the south of the Saharan Desert. For that
reason, it is referred to as Subsaharan Africa. These countries, while sharing a continent with the
Saharan countries, are very different in terms of their history, economy, and culture. Many of the
Subsaharan countries were never conquered by Islam and were therefore able to progress along
somewhat different cultural pathways, as did the countries of northern Africa. Indeed, numerous
kingdoms and civilizations developed in Subsaharan Africa prior to 1400 CE.
Major Physiographic Features
Sahara Desert - worlds largest desert extending 4000 miles across northern Africa.
Sahel - semi-arid region extending along the southern margin of the Sahara. During rainy years extensive areas of green
grass and shrubs cover much of the Sahel. However, during dry periods the grass dries and many areas become little
more than dunes of blowing sand.
Namibian Desert - extremely dry region in southwestern Africa.
Fouta Djallon Mountains - mountain range is neither impressive in terms of its elevation or ruggedness, but it has been
important for thousands of years because of the large quantities of gold which have been mined in them.
Drankensberg Mountains - reach elevations of 11,000 feet and extend along the southeastern coast of the Republic of South
Africa. They are quite rugged.
Rift Zone - zone of elongated lakes, valleys, and volcanoes, extending from the Republic of South Africa northward to the
Red Sea. It is called the Rift Zone because the Earths crust is being pulled apart by convection cells in the mantel. The
island of Madagascar has already been pulled from Africa, as has the Arabian Peninsula. The rift continues northward
into the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee of Israel. Several high volcanoes (Mt. Kenya and Mt. Kilimanjaro) are formed
from lava, which made its way up from the mantle.
Niger River - originates in the Fouta Djallon Mountains and flows across the Sahel into Nigeria.
Congo River - drains the Congo Basin (an area five times larger than Texas). It is used for transportation.
Zambezi River - originates in south central Africa and flows towards the Indian Ocean.
Nile River - has been important for a variety of civilizations since 3000 BCE, originates in the rain forests of central Africa,
and flows northward 4100 miles until it reaches the Mediterranean Sea.
Major Climates
Highlands Rift Zone and the Highlands of Ethiopia.
Humid Subtropical - portions of the Republic of South Africa.
Marine West Coast - the far southwestern corner of the Republic of South Africa.
Mediterranean - in the southern portion of the Republic of South Africa.
Subtropical Desert - the Saharan and Namibian Deserts.
Subtropical Steppe - the Sahel.
Tropical Monsoon West Africa.
Tropical Wet - most of central Africa.
Tropical Wet and Dry - much of central Africa (outside of the Congo and the Rift Zone Basin).
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Patterns of Natural Vegetation
Desert Vegetation - the deserts of Subsaharan Africa.
Mediterranean Woodland - the southern Republic of South Africa.
Steppe along southern fringe of Sahara, and in eastern Republic of South Africa.
Subtropical Forest - the Ethiopian Highlands and central Madagascar.
Tropical Deciduous Forest - central Africa (outside of the Congo Basin).
Tropical Rain Forest - central Africa.
Tropical Savanna - most of East Africa, and along the Sahel.
Tropical Scrubland Angola and northeastern Africa.
Historical Geography
The Origins of Humans
Any discussion of the historical geography of Subsaharan Africa obviously needs to begin with a
brief explanation of the origin of humans. According to all reliable archaeological evidence, humans
originated in Africa. Furthermore, geneticists have identified genetic linkages (especially using
mitochondria DNA, which supply energy to cells, and which are 99.9% inherited from the mother)
between the various races of humans around the world, and these suggest that all living humans are
descended from a small group of people in eastern Africa. The following section outlines some of the
major events leading up to the development of modern humans (Homo sapien sapien).
Figure 1: Proposed genealogy of humans.
3.5 million years ago An early ancestor of humans (Australopithecus), fossils have been found near Hadar, Ethiopia.
2.4 million years ago Oldest stone tools date from this period, also in Hadar, Ethiopia.
1.8 million years ago Homo erectus, who descended from Australopithecus, made its way into Southeast Asia.
1.6 million years ago First archaeological evidence of humans using fire as a tool in Kenya and South Africa (may have
also used it to clear forests for grazing lands).
1 million years ago Homo erectus made its way into Europe.
230,000 to 150,000 years ago Homo sapien neanderthalus evolve from Homo erectus in Europe because it is adapted to a
colder climate.
135,000 years ago Homo sapien sapien evolved from Homo erectus in Ethiopia.
90,000 years ago Homo sapien sapien expanded into the Middle East.
75,000 years ago It was too cold in Europe, so the Homo sapien sapien made their way into East Asia instead.
40,000 years ago Homo sapien sapiens are found in Australia and in Europe (they had finally learned strategies for
survival in harsher climates).
28,000 years ago the Homo sapien neanderthalus became extinct, most likely because they were out-competed by the
Homo sapien sapiens.
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The first group of Europeans to make a serious attempt at land colonization in Africa was the
Dutch, who came as immigrant families to South Africa in 1652. They were attracted by the mild
climate and good soils of the region, despite the fact that it was already occupied by native Africans
(including the Zulu). The Dutch soon gained territory and established a farming lifestyle much like what
they had back home (they came to be known as Afrikaners or Boers).
Most European countries were so actively involved in colonization in the Americas, Asia, and
Australia, that they scarcely paid attention to Africa until well into the 1800s. Most of these
governments believed that Africa offered little in the way of resources, except for the slave trade (and
even that was already in decline by the 1800s). However, once most of their colonies in the Americas
became independent in the mid-1800s these countries began looking at Africa more seriously.
Explorations into its interior in the mid-1800s revealed extremely rich mineral resources.
In response to the growing interest in Africa, the Emperor of the recently united Germany (1871)
called for a conference to be held in Berlin in the winter of 1884-1885. After the conference, the major
powers of Europe advanced into the territories assigned to them at the Berlin Conference. Indeed, the
years from 1885 to the beginning of WWII (1914) was referred to as the Scramble for Africa.
Table 1: European colonial activity.
Period
1400s-1900s
1500s-1800s
1600s
1700s-1900s
1700s-1900s
1885-1910s
1885-1910s
1885-1910s
Colonial Power
Portugal
Spain
Netherlands
Britain
France
Germany
Italy
Belgium
Each colonial power developed its own peculiar system for administering its colonies in Africa,
and these basic contrasts eventually led to differences in the process of decolonization. For example, the
British managed by what was called Indirect Rule. Local African leaders were kept in power, but were
answerable to the British governor of the colony. The French preferred Direct Rule, in which the
colony became an integral part of France. Local people were directly under the control of the
government in Paris. The Portuguese established a system similar to that of France. The other countries
(Italy, Germany, and Belgium) had little time to develop a well-organized colonial system for Africa.
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captivity and therefore necessitated a constant re-supply of new slaves from Africa. Jewish or Christian
surgeons who lived within Islamic societies normally created these eunuchs.
The slaves suffered horrendous conditions during transport to the Americas, and throughout their
lives in the New World working on plantations and in mines. No one really knows how many died in
journey or how many were killed while trying to escape his or her captors. What is certain is that the
institution of slavery reached a new low point with the introduction of Africans into the labor-poor New
World. Of course, slavery was not new to the colonial period. Indeed, slavery had existed among
African groups for thousands of years prior to the colonial period, as it had existed in most societies
(including Europe, the Middle East, the Roman Empire, India, China, Southeast Asia, and the
Americas). In fact, it would be logical (but immoral) for any powerful group of people to force a weaker
group to do work for them, and as such it must trace its roots to the earliest foundations of human
history.
Table 2: Establishment of slave trade.
Date Established
mid-1500s
mid-1500s
1606
1672
Region
Spanish Colonies
Portuguese Colonies
French North America
Most of British North America
That said, the short-term and long-term impacts of the African slave trade are tremendous. In the
short-term, it led to major wars and conflicts in Africa itself as coastal groups took advantage of rival
interior groups (who were also suffering through a drought period). Many tribal groups were completely
annihilated during the raids for slaves; never to recover. The long-term impacts are still being felt today,
especially in the psychological imprint that slavery has had on many societies in the New World. People
of African ancestry have generally been considered to be inferior and have received unfair treatment in
most countries of the Western Hemisphere. Indeed, many African Americans in the United States still
bear the cumulative emotional scars of slavery, Jim Crow laws, and embedded racism. Hopefully, with
time the long term impacts will also be minimized.
Finally, the ideas and accomplishments of the Age of Enlightenment (starting in the 1700s)
began to take root on the minds of European and American leaders. One by one these countries began to
first prohibit their citizens from engaging in the capture and transportation of Africans to the New World
(referred to as the slave trade). Later, once the economic advantage of slavery became less important
they also outlawed slavery within their territories and set the remaining slaves free (called
emancipation).
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In the end, it was the economic, political, and military instabilities brought on by WWII that
ultimately led to a weakening of colonial authority in Africa. Unfortunately, independence did not bring
the immediate benefits long hoped for by Africans. Instead, most of the last 50 years have been
characterized by severe military dictatorships and ethnic infighting in most African countries. Only 20%
of the countries have some form of democratic rule. In addition, the living conditions for most people in
the region have remained unimproved under their new national governments. Political oppression and
economic subjugation have been common throughout the region, with the gap between the poor and the
wealthy getting larger with the arrival of the Industrial Revolution in the middle 1900s. Indeed, the
majority of Subsaharan countries are currently under some form of military dictatorship. The primary
causes for this pattern are discussed later. A growing problem in Zimbabwe, and now, in the Republic
of South Africa, is the murder of white farmers. The phenomenon, which began in Zimbabwe, is usually
associated with government-sponsored land occupations.
Furthermore, unlike the countries in the Americas and many in Asia, African countries have had
very little time to work out their political problems. One should keep in mind that most Subsaharan
countries are less then 60 years old, whereas most countries in the New World are at least 160 years old.
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In addition, most Subsaharan African countries have poorly developed systems of education,
welfare, health care, agriculture, infrastructure, and industry. They served as peripheral regions while
Europe (and the United States) developed, in many cases with the resources extracted from Africa. This
has led to major socio-economic and political problems within these countries (most are under the rule
of a military or civilian dictatorship).
Table 3: Selected conflict areas.
Countries
Sudan
Zaire (Congo)
Eritrea
Nigeria
Burundi
Mozambique
Angola
Somalia
Uganda
Ethiopia
Liberia
Rwanda
Time Period
1955-1972, 1983-present
1960-1964, 1977-1978, 1997
1962-1991
1967-1970
1972, 1993-present
1974-1992
1974-1995
1977-present
1979-1982
1985-1991
1989-1997
1994
Conflict in Sudan
A centuries-old ethnic struggle also exists in neighboring Sudan. The northern part of the country
has been dominated by Muslim Arabs since their invasion in the 900s CE. The southern half of the
country is controlled by Christian Nilo-Saharan ethnic groups who were actually the original inhabitants
of most of the country (prior to the Arab invasions).
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apartheid. Soon afterwards he released Nelson Mandela from prison and legalized the African National Congress;
authorizing its participation in elections for the first time in South African history. Both the Democratic Party (DP) and
the New Nationalist Party (NNP) of South Africa supported the reforms and they remain powerful political forces in postapartheid South Africa..
1994 - Nelson Mandela was elected the first Black President of the Republic of South Africa in the first general elections the
country has ever had. He had been a political prisoner from 1964 to 1991.
1998 elections in 1998 replaced Nelson Mandela with the second Black president, Thabo Mbeki.
Percent
80.7%
5.8%
2.7%
7.9%
1.8%
1.0%
Today, the system of Apartheid has ended and the country is in the process of redistributing access
to resources, education, farmland, education, and political power more equitably without causing severe
alienation of the countrys 6 million whites. Over 500 US companies are now invested in the country,
and the Republic of South Africa is developing favorable relations with countries in Europe, the
Americas, and Asia.
Several different scenarios are possible in post-apartheid South Africa. Despite unity in
overthrowing apartheid, confrontations now exist between different groups of black South Africans. The
ANC composed primarily of Xhosas and other tribal peoples, has had violent confrontations with the
Inkatha, led by Chief Buthelezi and composed mostly of Zulus. A commission called the Truth and
Reconciliation Commission has granted limited amnesty to human rights abuse committed during
apartheid. While there has been reconciliation between black and white, concern exists among
Afrikaners that retribution will be taken against them. Extremist groups on both sides have continued
violence and there remain difficult challenges to erase the legacy of apartheid. Another issue is the
rampant crime in the country (especially in Johannesburg). As much as 10,000 people are murdered per
year in the country.
Demography
The large size of the African continent and the extensive areas of relatively poor farmland have led
to a general pattern of low population densities per square mile as compared to most other regions of the
planet. Indeed, the population of one billion for the entire continent (including North Africa) is
moderate considering how large the continent. Most Africans live within 100 miles of the coast. In the
interior population is extremely nodal, reflecting a concentration of people in areas of good soils (the
Rift Zone) or in mineral belts. Only 25% of all Africans live in cities of 5,000 or more.
Table 5: Demographic patterns.
Country
Angola
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Ethiopia
Nigeria
South Africa
USA
Population 2009
18.5 million
66.0 million
79.2 million
154.7 million
49.3 million
308.7 million
Growth Rate
2.8%
3.2%
2.5%
2.2%
0.6%
0.97%
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Organism
Plasmodium
Virus
Protozoan
Filaria (nematode)
Virus
Bacterium
Virus
Filaria (nematode)
Filaria (nematode)
Larvae
Virus
Transmission
Mosquito
Mosquito
Tsetse Fly
Water
Food, Contact
Food, Water
Mosquito
Sand Flies
Black Fly
Botfly
Contact
Other infectious diseases include Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) which can be contracted by drinking,
bathing, or swimming in contaminated water. River Blindness (Onchoceriasis) is present in 25 countries
of central Africa, and is caused by parasites which are found near fast-moving streams, and which
consume nerve tissue, including the spinal nerves, optical nerves, and brain tissues. Sleeping Sickness
(Trypanosomiasis, which is caused by the Tsetse Fly, and which affects mostly livestock, but can also
infect humans) is increasingly common in West Africa, the Congo Basin, and in East Africa. Various
maggot species can find humans as hosts, and they advance through living tissue leaving in their wake
severely damaged muscles and nerves.
In addition, AIDS (which is caused by the HIV, Human Immunodeficiency Virus) appears to be
native to central or eastern Africa, and has become a major epidemic in much of Subsaharan Africa.
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Indeed, Subsaharan Africa is believed to be home to 21 million HIV-positive people, while the United
States has about 900,000, and the world total is about 31 million.
The primary cause of the high infection rates are found in the following three explanations: (1)
AIDS originated in Africa and has had more time to infect the population, (2) the overall lack of concern
for African problems throughout the 1980s by most western countries, and (3) certain social
conditions encourage the spread of the virus, such as migrant males seeking sexual relations in mining,
industrial, and trucking camps, and the general resistance to condom use. Thousands of rural
communities have been decimated by the disease as whole families have been wiped out.
The rates of infection are almost unbelievable, with as much as 40% of the population of some
regions being HIV-positive. The health care costs attributed to this infectious disease are staggering;
leading many scholars to believe that little progress will be made in resolving the problem for another 20
years. Who knows how many more people will perish from the disease prior to that time. A recent
development in most of these areas is the abundance of funeral insurance providers. These providers
sell insurance to cover the cost of funeral expenses to people who are HIV-positive from small shops,
market vendors, and even private homes.
Table 7: HIV infection rates.
Country
Zimbabwe
Botswana
Namibia
Zambia
Swaziland
Mozambique
Republic of South Africa
USA
Other diseases of concern are those that appear to be activated by clearing of forest areas,
especially in central Africa, including Ebola virus, Dengue, Cholera, and Rift Valley Fever.
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I. Songhai Branch - 4 languages in the Sahel.
3. Afro-Asiatic Language Family
A. Berber Branch - 29 languages in northwest Africa.
B. Chadic Branch - 192 languages in west Africa and the Sahel.
C. Cushitic Branch - 47 languages in Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya.
D. Egyptian (Coptic) Branch - one language in Egypt.
E. Omotic Branch 28 languages in Ethiopia.
F. Semitic Branch - Arabic, Hebrew, Amharic, and 70 other languages in North Africa and the Middle
East.
4. Khoisan Language Family - 35 languages in southern Africa.
5. Austronesian Language Family
A. Malayo-Polynesian Branch Malagasy.
6. Indo-European Language Family
A. Germanic Branch English, Afrikaans.
B. Romance Branch Portuguese, French, and Spanish (mostly spoken as second languages).
Religion
A wide variety of religions are practiced across Subsaharan Africa. Despite social changes brought
on by the period of European colonialism, several million Africans still practice some form of Animism
(polytheistic religions involving the worship of numerous gods and spirits). These religions are
remnants of the early native African religions, and are most common in the Sahel and in the Congo
Basin.
Islamic armies and merchants advanced across the Sahara and the Sahel in the 700s CE to 1200s
CE bringing Islamic law to all the areas conquered by them. Through time most of these areas converted
to Islam, and they remain Muslim today. Indeed, the maximum extent of these Arab groups in the 1200s
is almost exactly the southern boundary of Islam today. However, advances of Islam have taken place in
southeastern Africa in the last 20 years.
The incorporation of the region into various colonial empires helped introduced various forms of
Christianity. For the most part, their distribution is related to the pattern of European influence. Roman
Catholicism is found on those regions colonized by France, Portugal, Belgium, and Spain. It remains
important in ex-French, Portuguese and Belgian areas than in the regions colonized by the Spanish. In
contrast, Protestants are most common in areas settled by the British (Anglicanism) or the Dutch (Dutch
Reformed). As elsewhere, evangelical Protestant missionaries (especially Mormon, Baptist, and
Pentecostal) have been actively working at converting many of the regions inhabitants. In addition, a
small number Jews immigrated to Ethiopia and Somalia at various times since the Diaspora, although
their numbers are quite small today.
Liberation Theology
You should re-read the discussion of Liberation Theology in the Middle America notes.
Politically active priests have been present in the Republic of South Africa.
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environments of Subsaharan Africa. They used irrigation and slash-and-burn agriculture, and they
domesticated many food crop. Today, wheat, maize (a crop from the Americas), and sorghum
(domesticated in Africa) are grown in the Sahel and in far southern Africa. Root crops such as yams,
sweet potatoes, and manioc (cassava) are grown in the humid Congo Basin. Bananas and other Musa
crops (i.e., banana-related plants) are grown on the fertile soils of the Rift Zone.
Of special significance is the fact that many former farming areas no longer produce food. This is
a direct result of the way in which foreign food aid has been distributed in Subsaharan Africa. The
severe droughts, famines and civil wars of the 1960s-1980s motivated many international relief
organizations, the United Nations, and the United States to send grain (for human consumption) to help
the victims of these sporadic disasters. For the most part, the aid has continued through today, despite
the fact that the initial causes of amine are no longer prevalent. This is especially true in countries with
pro-United States political leaderships. Their citizens are issued coupons that they can redeem for bags
of grain. As a result, thousands of farming communities do not cultivated their own crops. Their
children do not know how to farm, and their fields lie unused year after year. This strong dependence
on foreign food aid could lead to serious disasters in the future. Nonetheless, there are many forms of
agriculture in Subsaharan Africa. Each type of production system is described below.
Shifting cultivation (also known as slash-and-burn farming) is practiced on the poor lowland soils
of the Congo Basin, where permanent agriculture is not possible. The farmers clear small patches of
tropical forest and burn the felled trees. The ash provides plant nutrients to the crops for the first several
years, but soon depletes. The farmers then need to move on to new forest areas for clearing.
Permanent subsistence farming is common to the areas with better soils (especially in West
Africa, southern Africa, and the Rift Zone). It involves the production of small quantities of food on
very small parcels of land (usually less than 15 acres). Most of these farmers live near the poverty level
(subsistence).
Livestock ranching - is conducted on the grasslands of southern Africa. These large ranches are
typically in excess of 1000 acres and most are owned by white South Africans and Namibians, or
Europeans. Most operations raise cattle.
Commercial grain farming is mostly concentrated in the High Veld area of southern Africa, and
involves heavy usage of chemicals and tractors. These farms are among the most productive in all of
Subaharan Africa.
Plantation cultivation of tropical crops is common to the coastal plains (especially the west
coast, and the southeast coast of Africa), and it is focused on the production of cash crops for both
domestic and international markets. Most plantations are at least 100 acres in size and are mostly owned
by foreign companies. They use paid labor to grow a wide variety of crops like sugarcane, coconut,
papaya, citrus, mango, pineapple, banana, and coffee.
Nomadic herding - is found throughout the Sahel and in scattered areas of southern Africa. Cattle,
camels, and goats are more common in the Sahel, while cattle and sheep are more common in southern
Africa. Cattle are also dominant in Kenya, where the Fulani, Masaai, and other herders are typically the
only African groups who are not lactose intolerant (in other words they have lactase). Pigs and chickens
are especially common in West Africa and in the Rift Zone.
Natural Resources
Tropical Deforestation
As is the case with South America, destruction of the tropical forests in central Africa is problem
of global concern. You may need to re-read the section in the South America notes.
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Mineral Resources
The African continent has a tremendous diversity of mineral resources. Furthermore, the overall
quantity of metals and energy reserves is impressive by any standard. Numerous types of metals and
jewelry-grade gemstones are mined in large quantities in many areas of Subsaharan Africa. Indeed,
approximately 85 percent of the worlds jewelry-grade diamonds come from the Republic of South
Africa. The DeBeers Company, which is owned by the Oppenheimer Family and the London-based
Anglo-American Company, still dominates the diamond industry. DeBeers is currently in violation of
United States anti-trust laws due to their manipulation of the world diamond market.
The Republic of South Africa (Rand District) has large quantities of coal, gold, iron, diamonds,
chromium, tin, lead, and uranium. The Harare region (Zimbabwe) also contains large quantities of
copper, gold, nickel, platinum, zinc, iron, and vanadium. The Copper Belt Region in Zambia and Zaire
has reserves of copper, gold, nickel, platinum, zinc, iron, and vanadium. The Fouta Djallon Mountains
are best known for gold and diamonds. Nigeria, Gabon, and Angola have significant reserves of
petroleum and natural gas.
Industry
Industry associated with small-scale import substitution is found in the larger cities of most of the
region. In addition to these lighter forms of manufacturing, several areas stand out as more advanced
and diverse industrial regions. They are listed below.
Major Industrial Regions
Johannesburg (Republic of South Africa - the most diverse industrial region in all of Subsaharan Africa. It focuses
on heavy industry and agricultural processing, and supplies most processed food to neighboring countries.
Lagos (Nigeria) - focuses on petroleum refining, heavy manufacturing, and food processing.
Copper Belt Region - southeastern Zaire and central Zambia, focused on metals refining and manufacturing.
Harare (Zimbabwe) - focused on metals refining and manufacturing.
The table below outlines the relative economic strength of various countries in the region with a
comparison of their per capita GDP (Gross Domestic Product). Per capita GDP is calculated by dividing
the total GDP by the population of the country, and it is roughly equivalent to the median (average)
annual income in that particular region.
Table 8: Per capita GDP (Purchasing Power Parity, PPP). Source: World Bank.
Country
Ethiopia
Gabon
Kenya
Liberia
Mozambique
Rwanda
Republic of South Africa
Tanzania
USA
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The West African empires traded extensively with the Romans, and other Europeans.
The arrival of Arab Muslims brought dramatic changes to commerce and social patterns in the areas
along the southern edge of the Sahara and in East Africa.
In addition to Subsaharan Africas strong ethnic diversity, European and Muslim slave trade and
colonialism devastated whole African communities and set the stage for many of the civil wars and
ethnic conflicts which characterize the region today.
This region is plagued by an extremely high infectious disease load which severely hinders attempts at
economic development and improvements in material well-being.
Low population numbers in the interior and the vast expanse of natural habitat have facilitated the
survival of a wide variety of African animals; especially large mammals. However, poaching,
population growth, and environmental destruction have placed these habitats/animals in peril.
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