May 10

DESIGN
OF
MACHINE
201
ELEMENT
S 0
Term Paper
DESIGN OF
PRESSURE
VESSEL

Submitted to- Submitted by-

Mr. Sahil Soni Amit Chawla
Lect. DOME 10811413
H4801B65
 DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

INTRODUCTION TO PRESSURE
VESSEL
A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to hold gases or liquids at
a pressure substantially different from the ambient pressure.

The pressure differential is dangerous and many fatal accidents have

occurred in the history of their development and operation. Consequently,
their design, manufacture, and operation are regulated by engineering
authorities backed up by laws. For these reasons, the definition of a
pressure vessel varies from country to country, but involves parameters
such as maximum safe operating pressure and temperature.

X
AMIT CHAWLA

Stresses
In two dimensions, the state of stress at a point is conveniently illustrated by
drawing four perpendicular lines that we can view as representing four adjacent
planes of atoms taken from an arbitrary position within the material. The planes
on this “stress square” shown in Fig. 1 can be identified by the orientations of
their normals; the upper horizontal plane is a +y plane, since its normal points in
the +y direction. The vertical plane on the right is a +x plane. Similarly, the left
vertical and lower horizontal planes are −y and −x, respectively.

Figure 1: State of stress in two dimensions; the stress square.

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The sign convention in common use regards tensile stresses as positive and
compressive stresses as negative. Besides, the stress square must be in
equilibrium; therefore this arrow must be balanced by another force acting on
the −x (lefty) face and pointed in the –x (lefty) direction. Of course, these are not
two separate stresses, but simply indicate the stress state is one of uniaxial
tension. It goes same with y direction for compression.

Figure 2: The sign convention for normal stresses.

Consider now a simple spherical vessel of radius r and wall thickness b, such as a
round balloon. An internal pressure p induces equal biaxial tangential tensile
stresses in the walls, which can be denoted using spherical rθφ coordinates as σθ
and σφ. The internal pressure generates a force towards the spherical wall, which
is balanced by the wall stress.

Figure 3: Wall stresses in a spherical pressure vessel.

At the surfaces of the vessel wall, a radial stress must be present to balance the
pressure there.

Figure 4: Free-body diagram for axial stress in a closed-end vessel.

The stresses in the axial direction of a cylindrical pressure vessel with closed
ends are found using this same approach as seen above and yielding the same
thing (equilibrium state& equation).

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Figure 5: Hoop stresses in a cylindrical pressure vessel.

Note the hoop stresses are twice the axial stresses. This result — different
stresses in different directions — occurs more often than not in engineering
structures, and shows one of the 3 compelling advantages for engineered
materials that can be made stronger in one direction than another (the property
of anisotropy). If a pressure vessel constructed of conventional isotropic material
is made thick enough to keep the hoop stresses below yield, it will be twice as
strong as it needs to be in the axial direction.

What is pressure vessel?

Structures such as tank capable of holding internal pressure have been very
important in the history of science and technology. In order to make a better flow
of gas and fluid, an aqueduct or tank must be constructed so they can run all the
way from the reservoir to the destination.

However, temperature& pressure differential is dangerous and many fatal

accidents have occurred in the history of their development and operation.
These temperature& pressure difference have created stresses toward the shell.

A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to hold gases or liquids material

under internal or external pressure.

Pressure vessels are designed to operate safely at a

specific pressure and temperature technically referred
to as the "Design Pressure" and "Design Temperature".
Design code to design pressure vessel such as ASME sec
VIII and BS standard.

Pressure vessels may theoretically be almost any shape, but shapes made of
sections of spheres, cylinders, and cones are usually employed. A common
design is a cylinder with hemispherical end caps called heads.

Type of pressure vessel

1. Horizontal vessel on saddle support.
a. Shell is primary component that contains pressure.
Curved shape.
b. Vessel always closed by head.
c. Components typically welded together.
d. Saddle supports used for horizontal vessel.
- Spreads load over shell.

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- One support fixed, other slides.

2. Vertical vessel on leg support.

a. Most head are curved shape for strength,
thinness and economy.
b. Semi-elliptical shape is most common head
shape.
c. Small vertical vessel typically supported by legs
- Typically maximum 2:1 ratio of leg length to
diameter.
- Number, size and attachment details depend
on loads.

3. Tall vertical tower.

a. Nozzles used for:
- Piping systems
- Instrument connections
- Manways
- Attaching other equipment
b. End typically flanged, maybe welded.
c. Sometimes extend into vessel.

4. Vertical reactor.
a. Skirt support typically used for tall vertical
vessels:
- Cylindrical shell.
- Typically supported from grade
b. General support design
- Design for weight, wind, and earthquake.
- Pressure not a factor.
- Temperature also a consideration for material selection and
thermal expansion.

5. Spherical pressurized storage vessel.

a. Spherical storage vessels typically supported
on legs.
b. Cross-bracing typically used to absorb wind
and earthquake loads.

6. Vertical vessel on lug support.

a. Vessel size limits for lug supports:
- 1-10 ft diameter.
- 2:1 to 5:1 height/diameter ratio
b. Vessel located above grade.
c. Lugs bolted to horizontal structure.

Pressure vessel in oil& gas industry

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Applications in oil and gas production that use pressure vessel.

1. Pipe receiver and launcher

2. Gas lift/ injection launcher and receiver
3. Water injection launcher and receiver
4. Production separator
5. Degasser
6. Electrostatic coalescer
7. Hydrocyclone
8. Scrubber
9. Glycol contactor
10.Flare knock-out drum
11.Wet/dry air receiver and launcher
12.Deaerator
13.Closed/ opened drain vessel

Main components of pressure vessel

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DESIGN
A. Generic Criteria in designing a pressure vessel (PV).
The following are the full steps to design a pressure vessel from the beginning,
specification towards the end, shipment and operation.
1. General requirements for PV specification

I. P&ID drawing
From the drawing, we can determine the type of, function and sizing of
the PV which satisfy the process requirement. Moreover, the datasheet
of every PV follows the P&ID.
II. Datasheet
All required information and figures for calculation
III. Scope of Supply
The supplier shall be responsible for the mechanical design, supply of
material, manufacture, assembly, inspection, testing, painting,
protection and delivery of the pressure vessel.
IV. Regulatory Approvals
During or after the fabrication, the pressure vessel will be inspected
and tested for 3rd party U stamp (for Div 1, allowed to be used for
operation) such as ABS and DNV. These organisations have the license
to do inspection and award the U stamp after completion.
V. Design Life
Design life shall be as per client specification.
VI. Location &Environmental Conditions
The operating environmental conditions shall be specified to determine
the protection of the pressure vessel from the wind (in case there is
typhoon) and disasters (earth quake). The data will be used to design
the best support for the vessel.
2. Design basis& manufacturing requirements
All these are the requirement of design basis in order to fabricate the
process PV. They have to obey the ASME code standard thus it can be
approved by the organization for operation.
I. Thickness / pressure
Based on datasheet, the supplier will calculate the allowable pressure
and required wall thickness. Therefore, the dimension of the
component can be determine and start the fabrication. The difference
in pressure and thickness are based on operation temperature, stress
and young modulus of material itself. The design temperature and
pressure shall be the max value allowed. Below is the formula for
required thickness and allowable pressure:

Cylindrical shell (Longitudinal seam)

Required wall thickness

Allowable pressure
Sphere or cylindrical shell (circ. Seam)
Required wall thickness

Allowable pressure

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Ellipsoidal head
Required wall thickness

Allowable pressure

Torisperical head

Add data

Required wall thickness

Allowable pressure
Conical head
Add data α= angle
Required wall thickness

Allowable pressure
Flat ends
Add data d= end type

Required wall thickness

Allowable pressure

II. Manways
Vessels that require access or inspection openings shall be equipped as
follows:
a. All vessels less than 450 mm and over 300 mm I.D. shall have at
least two handholes or two plugged, threaded inspection
openings of not less than NPS 11⁄2 (DN 40).
b. All vessels 450 mm to 900 mm, inclusive, I.D. shall have a
manhole or at least two handholes or two plugged, threaded
inspection openings of not less than NPS 2 (DN 50).
c. All vessels over 900 mm I.D. shall have a manhole, except that
those whose shape or use makes one impracticable shall have at
least two handholes 100 mm x 150 mm or two equal openings of
equivalent area.
An elliptical or obround manhole shall be not less 300mmx400 mm. A
circular manhole shall be not less than 400 mm I.D. A handhole
opening shall be not less 50mmx75mm, but should be as large as is
consistent with the size of the vessel and the location of the opening.
III. Lifting devices
The size, weight and shape of the PV to be made must consider the
available lifting device (carrier, lorry or crane). If the PV is very big,
however there is no lifting device can lift it, thus the PV can not be
transported to the operation site. Some PV are made on site because of
the size are very big.
IV. Attachments/ Gauge
Some attachments such as metering gauge (pressure or temperature),
piping, and instruments have to be attached to PV. The designer will
determine the location of the gauge which satisfies with the client.

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V. Reinforcement (reinforced pad)
When the shell is holed for any attachment (nozzle or piping), there is
increased stress toward the surface nearby the hole. To avoid from the
force breaking the shell, the reinforcement welded to support the
surface. Meanwhile the attachment will be welded on the
reinforcement pad.
VI. Insulation
The importance of insulation in PV is to maintain the heat inside the
vessel. The heat is very important for PV boiler application, hence it
has a layer of insulator inner shell to avoid the heat absorb out to the
surrounding. Meanwhile, if the heat is not significant, the supplier will
just build casing as protection in term of economic wise.
VII. Corrosion allowance
For corrosive operation, the client will set corrosion allowance that
supplier should meet by choosing the suitable material and corrosion
protection (chemical inhibitor).
VIII. Deflection
For horizontal PV, the weight & pressure might cause deflection to the
PV itself; hence the supplier will make sure the calculation of the
saddle include the overall weight; PV and fluid. Meanwhile, the vertical
PV might deflect due to wind load, inertia generate by the movement
of the ship (ex FPSO) or earth quake. Therefore the supplier will include
all these external force (wind, G force and seismic load) in the
thickness calculation instead of the inner pressure thus the deflection
only in the range below maximum allowable value.
IX. Support
This support can counter extreme environmental conditions such as
typhoon and earth quake which create vibration to the PV.

3. Components for fabrication of PV

I. Plate
Plate in oil& gas PV commonly made of carbon steel and stainless
steel. It will be rolled into cylindrical shape as PV shell and formed to
make the head. The thickness of the plate is the main point in
designing the pressure vessel.
II. Pipe
The external force and moments exerted by the attachment such as
piping should be included in the calculation. The joint is another main
thing in PV design beside of dimension and material.
III. Forging
Forging is a process which the material (commonly steel) is deformed
by giving external force on it. The forging steel is harder and stronger
than the machined cut steel (mild steel) due to difference in grain
structure.
IV. Flanges
Flange is an interface between nozzle and pipe. It made of forged steel
or mild steel (ASTM A105N). There are 6 types of flange, however only
two types commonly use in oil and gas PV application:
• Slip-on (use in oil& gas)
• Welding neck (preferred in oil& gas)
• Socket welding
• Threaded

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• Lap-joint
• Blind
V. Bolting
Bolt and nut joint the flange. The material for bolt is ASTM A193-B7 –
PTFE Coated; and the material for nut is ASTM A194-2H – PTFE Coated.
VI. Gaskets

Gasket is used between flange to enhance the bolted joint and avoid
leakage. There are two types of gasket material used based on flow
pressure:

a. Below 150 pound – CNAF

b. Below 300 pound – SS316, Graphite Filled, SS316 Inner Ring &
CS Outer Ring

4. Material selection
The selection of construction materials for Code pressure vessels has to be
made from Code approved material specifications. It usually specifies the
most economical materials of low first cost and/ or low future maintenance
cost that will be satisfactory under operating conditions and will meet
other requirements. There are many factors must be considered in
selecting the most suitable materials including:

a. Corrosion resistance in the service corrosive environment

b. Strength requirements for design temperature and pressure
c. Cost
d. Ready market availability
e. Fabricability

f. Quality of future maintenance.

Generally, process equipment is designed for a certain minimum service

life under specific operating conditions. Typical design lives are given
below for several types of petrochemical equipment:

a. 20 years: fractionating tower, reactors, high pressure heat exchanger

shells and other major equipment which is hard to replace.
b. 10-15 years: carbon steel drums, removable reactor parts and alloy or
carbon steel tower internal

c. 5-10 years: carbon-steel piping, heat exchanger tube bundles and

various process column internals.

Basically the vessels are specialized to adapt with two different services.
Therefore, we can save money in material selection which uses the
material specific to the working operation. The typical service for pressure
vessels are:

I. Noncorrosive service

In addition to corrosion resistance, the fundamental material selection

criteria are design temperature and design pressure. So basically, the

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materials are selected based on operating temperature. There are 3
level of temperature:

a. Low temperature – low alloy and fine-grain carbon steels which

tested for notch toughness and are found to perform satisfactory.
b. Intermediate temperature – low carbon steels are sufficient which
they behave essentially in elastic manner; that is the structure
returns to its original dimensions when applied forces are removed
and maximum stress is below than the yield point.
c. Elevated temperature – mechanical changes in mechanical
properties occur in steels. They begin to exhibit a drop in ultimate
and yield strength and cease to be elastic, becoming partly plastic.

II. Corrosive services

For high corrosive operation, commonly we use stainless steel for

petro-chemical plant. Since the price of stainless steel is very high,
which triple of the carbon steel, there are three method of attaching
the alloy to the carbon steel plate:
a. Integrally applied cladding – integrally clad or roll clad is fabricated
in a steel mill by hot rolling of assemblies of carbon or low alloy steel
plates (backing) and corrosion resistant sheet (linear) which have
been welded at the edges.

b. Strip or sheet lining (explosion cladding)

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The stainless steel which can not use conventional welding such as
titanium steel are attached to the plate using explosion method.

c. Weld overlay cladding.

The stainless steel which can be weld using conventional welding is

weld on the plate line by line until the surfaces are totally covered up.

III. Bolting materials

a. Bolt for pressure connections – Bolting materials for pressure

connections must conform to the specifications listed in the Code.
Bolts are designed not only for strength but also for tightness at the
joints. In order to prevent leakage of a bolted joint, the total force
exerted by the bolts must exceed the sum of the force due to the
operating fluid pressure and the force necessary to keep the joint
tight.

b. Bolt for structural connections – bolting for structural non pressure

parts is designed for strength only, since the tightness of the joint is
not important.

5. Fabrication
I. Shell
The shell commonly made of carbon steel and stainless steel. The steel
plate rolling process will make it become cylindrical shaped. Because
there is limitation in forming and rolling machine width, thus the design
should be based on the available width, meaning the PV shall be
divided into several parts.
II. Heads
There are several types of head:
a. Semi ellipsoidal
b. Torispherical
c. Hemispherical
d. Flat
e. Conical
The head is formed into shapes by two types of forming:
a. Hot formed – heads are formed at temperature suitable to the
material. This method basically to reduce residual stresses, to
temper or soften the material itself. Typically carbon steel heads
are hot formed at 899oC and stainless steels are hot formed at
1038oC.
b. Cold formed – heat treatment is usually required after cold
forming to remove brittleness including stress relief.

III. Nozzle

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The nozzle existence will affect PV load calculation. The loads are
strictly forces and moments imposed on the nozzle by the attached
piping. Before applying these load numbers, check the piping layout
connected to the nozzle to make assumption about the loading
combination. Then, refer to supplier/fabricator range of dimension
which suit with load.

IV. Welding
Welding plays important role during fabrication. It is about joining
several plate and nozzle become one large shape.

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a. Welding Method
Welding is a joining process that uses heat, pressure, and/or
chemicals to fuse two materials together permanently.

The most widely used industrial welding is arc welding which is any
of several of fusion welding processes wherein the heat of fusion is
generated by an electric arc.

b. Type of weld
i. Groove weld
A type of weld that consists of an opening between two part
surfaces, which provides space
to contain weld metal. Groove
welds are used on all joints
except lap joints.

Groove weld can be subdivided

according to the edge conditions.

Type of groove weld

ii. Fillet Weld

A fillet weld is a weld with an approximately triangular cross
section, joining two surfaces at right angles.

iii. Plug weld

A plug is a circular weld made either by arc or gas welding
through one member of a lap or tee joint.

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welding

Some form of welded joint in combination with different weld

types

c. Welding process.

i. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

This form of welding is widely used. The heat for welding is
produced by the resistance of the arc air gap to the flow of
electric current. Also called stick electrode welding, SMAW is
almost always done manually. As the electrode heats, the core
wire which conducts the current to the arc melts and provides
filler metal for the welded joint. The coating of the electrode
breaks down to form a gaseous shield for the arc and weld
puddle as well as small amount of slag, which protects the weld
as it cools. Shielding is very important for the quality of weld,
since it prevents the loss of alloying elements during the transfer
of molten metal through the arc.

ii. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

This process, almost always fully automatic, is used in the
fabrication of main vessel seams. It gives excellent welds at low
cost. However, it can be used for horizontal positions only. A
continuous consumable wire coil is used as electrode. Weld
puddle and arc are protected by liquid slag, formed form
granular mineral flux deposited ahead of the arc.

iii. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

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A consumable continuous wire is used as an electrode which
melts and supplies the filler metal for the welded joint. A
protective shield of inert gases (helium, argon, CO2, or a mixture
of gases) is used. The process produces excellent welds at less
cost than the GTAW process (see below) with higher weld
deposition rate.

iv. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

This process is used when the highest-quality welding with
difficult to weld metals is required. An arc is formed by a
nonconsumable tungsten electrode, which carries the electric
current; the filler metal, if required, is added separately form a
rod or a continuous wire. Inert gas flows around the arc and the
weld puddle to protect the hot metal.

v. Gas Welding
Heat of fusion is generated by burning a flame of gas with
oxygen. Different gases are used, as described below:
a. The oxyhydrogen process (OHW) uses hydrogen for
combustion.
b. The oxyacetylene process (OAW) uses acetylene gas:

- Flame cutting

- Flame machining

vi. Resistance Welding

The heat of fusion is generated by the resistance at the interface
to the flow of electric current. No shielding is required. Pressure
must be applied for good metal joining. Resistance spot welding
(RSW) or resistance seam welding (RSEW) are used to fix
corrosion-resistant linings to the wall of a vessel shell.

V. Heat Treatment
Heat treatment intended to be done on individual parts of a vessel
after they have been shaped for assembly. Post hotwork/ coldwork
heat treatment (heating about 2/3 of material melting temperature)
followed by natural cooling to remove the residual stress.
VI. Clad Construction
Integrally clad materials are used for fabricating equipment of reactive
metals economically, robustly and durably. Bonding these materials
onto lower cost, stronger backers extends the economical service of
these materials into higher pressures and temperatures and more
challenging service environments than are feasible with solid alloy
construction.
VII. Tolerances.
The entire components have their percentage of permissible
dimensional difference which provided in the code.
6. Inspection, examination and testing.

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The inspection must be run during the fabrication. This because to ensure
the vessel is in the best quality and satisfy with the required operating
requirement.

 Inspection and Test Plan (ITP)

It is basically the test planning before the fabrication of the pressure

vessel. Refer Table 1 for an example of ITP

 Material Identification and Certification

i. Material

Make sure the materials that supplied by the suppliers are as

stated in the datasheet.
ii. Dimensional

The inspectors have to ensure that the dimension of all fabricated

plate, shell, nozzle and head are same as stated in the datasheet.
iii. Sizing

This matter also same with above. Running of size is the biggest
problem during fabrication. It will lead to other problems. I.e.
leakage and deform.

 Inspection and Examination

i. NDT

- Visual& optical testing

Must be performed in suitable conditions, however, fine cracks may

remain invisible.
- Magnetic particle examination (MT)

It is the best method for the detection of fine surface cracks. This
method is the most sensitive and it reveals many cracks that are
not detected by other methods with a lower defect sensitivity. AC
yoke WMFT is preferred over DC or prod methods. DC methods are
not as sensitive and prod methods may leave arc strikes that, if not
ground out, can serve as crack initiators.
- Ultrasonic examination (UT)

With straight and angle-beam probes is the main method for the
detection of subsurface and deeper surface defects of sufficient
size. UT shear waves, longitudinal waves, and crack-tip diffraction
ultrasonic inspections are used. UT may also be used for the
examination of a vessel under pressure without discharging of the
liquid gas from the vessel.
- Radiographic testing (RT)

- It is used incases of volume defects

revealed by ultrasonic as an additional method

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RT setup
 DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
for the characterization the defects. Incases of weld repair, it is
always recommended to use RT.

- Dye-penetrant examination (PT)

It is used only occasionally, is less sensitive than MT, it is however,

easier to perform. In case, some complicated areas that MT, UT
and RT are not accessible, the PT is used.

ii. Hydrostatic test

During a hydrostatic test, a pressure vessel is placed inside a

closed system, usually a test jacket filled with water, and a
specified internal water pressure is applied to the container inside
this closed system. The applied internal pressure causes an
expansion of the container being tested, and the total and
permanent expansion that the container undergoes is measured.
This volumetric expansion measurement, in conjunction with an
internal and external visual inspection of the container, are used to
determine if a pressure vessel is safe for continued use, or has
suffered from a degradation in its structural integrity and must be
condemned.

7. Marking
The manufacturer’s markings on a pressure vessel include information
regarding the date of manufacture, the manufacturers name or registered
mark, the serial number of the unit and the specification or exemption to
which the container complies. For pressure vessels that have been re-
qualified one or more times, additional markings indicate the date(s) of
any previous hydrostatic retests and identification markings of the retest
facility.

8. Preservation and protection for shipment.

This preservation and protection basically to protect the pressure vessel
from accidental deformation, leakage and rust initiator during
transportation to the site. The vessel might be very big and heavy thus
very dangerous to residential if something happen. The action below taken
to overcome this matter:

• Rust Prevention.
• Protection and safety during delivery.
• Transport Saddles.

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