Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
GENRATION
THROU
GH SOUND
Contents
• 1 Construction
• 2 Polarity
• 3 Safety
• 5 Capacitance
• 6 Variants
• 7 See also
• 8 External links
• References
INTRODUCTION
The main idea behind this project is that Now day’s there are
so many vehicles running on the road’s with which there is a lot’s of
noise pollution on the road’s. Government has made many rules to
stop this but still it is same as before. We have try to solve this
problem, but we also cannot get the solution for this. So finally we
decided that if we cannot stop this noise pollution, we can take use of
this noise pollution in our daily life by generating electricity with it.
APPARATUS
The project is basically used to generation of electrical energy by
sound energy, this consists of some components which are :-
1. Speaker
4. Electrolytic capacitor
SPEAKER
A loudspeaker, or speaker, is an electromechanical transducer which
converts an electrical signal into sound. The term loudspeaker is used
to refer to both the device itself, and a complete system consisting of
one or more loudspeaker drivers (as the individual units are often
called) in an enclosure.
Sound Basics
Differentiating Sound
Making Sound
In the last section, we saw that sound travels in waves of air pressure
fluctuation, and that we hear sounds differently depending on the
frequency and amplitude of these waves. We also learned that
microphones translate sound waves into electrical signals, which can
be encoded onto CDs, tapes, LPs, etc. Players convert this stored
information back into an electric current for use in the stereo system.
A speaker is essentially the final translation machine -- the reverse of
the microphone. It takes the electrical signal and translates it back
into physical vibrations to create sound waves. When everything is
working as it should, the speaker produces nearly the same vibrations
that the microphone originally recorded and encoded on a tape, CD,
LP, etc.
So how does the fluctuation make the speaker coil move back and
forth? The electromagnet is positioned in a constant magnetic field
created by a permanent magnet. These two magnets -- the
electromagnet and the permanent magnet -- interact with each other
as any two magnets do. The positive end of the electromagnet is
attracted to the negative pole of the permanent magnetic field, and
the negative pole of the electromagnet is repelled by the permanent
magnet's negative pole. When the electromagnet's polar orientation
switches, so does the direction of repulsion and attraction. In this way,
the alternating current constantly reverses the magnetic forces
between the voice coil and the permanent magnet. This pushes the
coil back and forth rapidly, like a piston.
When the coil moves, it pushes and pulls on the speaker cone. This
vibrates the air in front of the speaker, creating sound waves. The
electrical audio signal can also be interpreted as a wave. The
frequency and amplitude of this wave, which represents the original
sound wave, dictates the rate and distance that the voice coil moves.
This, in turn, determines the frequency and amplitude of the sound
waves produced by the diaphragm.
Different driver sizes are better suited for certain frequency ranges.
For this reason, loudspeaker units typically divide a wide frequency
range among multiple drivers. In the next section, we'll find out how
speakers divide up the frequency range, and we'll look at the main
driver types used in loudspeakers.
and
where
vP and vS are the voltages across the primary winding and
secondary winding,
NP and NS are the numbers of turns in the primary winding and
secondary winding,
dΦP / dt and dΦS / dt are the derivatives of the flux with respect to
time of the primary and secondary windings.
In the hypothetical ideal transformer, the primary and secondary
windings are perfectly coupled, or equivalently, .
Substituting and solving for the voltages shows that:
where
vp and vs are voltages across primary and secondary,
Np and Ns are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary,
respectively.
Hence in an ideal transformer, the ratio of the primary and secondary
voltages is equal to the ratio of the number of turns in their windings,
or alternatively, the voltage per turn is the same for both windings.
The ratio of the currents in the primary and secondary circuits is
inversely proportional to the turns ratio.
The EMF in the secondary winding will cause current to flow in a
secondary circuit. The MMF produced by current in the secondary
winding opposes the MMF of the primary winding and so tends to
cancel the flux in the core. Since the reduced flux reduces the EMF
induced in the primary winding, increased current flows in the primary
circuit. The resulting increase in MMF due to the primary current
offsets the effect of the opposing secondary MMF. In this way, the
electrical energy fed into the primary winding is delivered to the
secondary winding. In addition, the flux density will always stay the
same as long as the primary voltage is steady.
For example, suppose a power of 50 watts is supplied to a resistive
load from a transformer with a turns ratio of 25:2.
P = EI (power = electromotive force × current)
50 W = 2 V × 25 A in the primary circuit if the load is a resistive load.
(See note 1)
Now with transformer change:
50 W = 25 V × 2 A in the secondary circuit.
If the flux in the core is sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding
between its number of turns, voltage, magnetic flux density and core
cross-sectional area is given by the universal emf equation (from
Faraday's law):
where
E is the sinusoidal rms or root mean square voltage of the winding,
f is the frequency in hertz,
N is the number of turns of wire on the winding,
a is the cross-sectional area of the core in square metres
B is the peak magnetic flux density in teslas,
Other consistent systems of units can be used with the appropriate
conversions in the equation.
Classifications
Circuit symbols
Standard symbols
WINDINGS
• Energy Losses
An ideal transformer would have no losses, and would therefore be
100% efficient. In practice, energy is dissipated due both to the
resistance of the windings known as copper loss or I2R loss, and to
magnetic effects primarily attributable to the core (known as iron
loss). Transformers are, in general, highly efficient: large power
transformers (over 50 MVA) may attain an efficiency as high as
99.75%. Small transformers, such as a plug-in "power brick" used to
power small consumer electronics, may be less than 85% efficient.
Transformer losses
Winding resistance
Eddy currents
Hysteresis losses
Magnetostriction
Mechanical losses
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes
fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the primary and
secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork,
creating a familiar humming or buzzing noise, and consuming a small
amount of power.
Stray losses
Cooling system
Large power transformers may be equipped with cooling fans, oil
pumps or water-cooled heat exchangers designed to remove the heat
caused by copper and iron losses. The power used to operate the
cooling system is typically considered part of the losses of the
transformer.
Losses may be either load-dependent('load-losses') or independent of
it ('no-load loss'). Winding resistance dominates load-losses, whereas
hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-
load loss.
Construction
A) Cores
i) Steel cores
B) Windings
The wire of the adjacent turns in a coil, and in the different windings,
must be electrically insulated from each other. The wire used is
generally magnet wire. Magnet wire is a copper wire with a coating of
varnish or some other synthetic coating. Transformers for years have
used Formvar wire, which is a varnished type of magnet wire.
The conducting material used for the winding depends upon the
application. Small power and signal transformers are wound with solid
copper wire, insulated usually with enamel, and sometimes additional
insulation. Larger power transformers may be wound with wire,
copper, or aluminium rectangular conductors. Strip conductors are
used for very heavy currents. High frequency transformers operating
in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz will have windings made of Litz
wire to minimize the skin effect losses in the conductors. Large power
transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at
low power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would
otherwise exist in high-current windings. Each strand is insulated from
the other, and the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the
winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies
different relative positions in the complete conductor. This
"transposition" equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the
conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The
stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of
similar size is. (see reference (1) below)
For signal transformers, the windings may be arranged in a way to
minimise leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-
frequency response. This can be done by splitting up each coil into
sections, and those sections placed in layers between the sections of
the other winding. This is known as a stacked type or interleaved
winding.
Windings on both the primary and secondary of power transformers
may have external connections (called taps) to intermediate points on
the winding to allow adjustment of the voltage ratio. Taps may be
connected to an automatic, on-load tap changer type of switchgear
for voltage regulation of distribution circuits. Audio-frequency
transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address
loudspeakers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each
speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the output stage
of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull type circuit. Modulation
transformers in AM transmitters are very similar. Tapped transformers
are also used as components of amplifiers, oscillators, and for
feedback linearization of amplifier circuits.
C) Insulation of windings
D) Shielding
E) Terminals
Very small transformers will have wire leads connected directly to the
ends of the coils, and brought out to the base of the unit for circuit
connections. Larger transformers may have heavy bolted terminals,
bus bars or high-voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or
porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must
provide electrical insulation without letting the transformer leak oil.
F) Enclosure
Small transformers often have no enclosure. Transformers may have
a shield enclosure, as described above. Larger units may be
enclosed to prevent contact with live parts, and to contain the cooling
medium (oil or pressurized gas).
A) Autotransformers
Circuit diagram
C) Polyphase transformers
For three-phase power, three separate single-phase transformers can
be used, or all three phases can be connected to a single polyphase
transformer. The three primary windings are connected together and
the three secondary windings are connected together. The most
common connections are Y-Δ, Δ-Y, Δ-Δ and Y-Y. A vector group
indicates the configuration of the windings and the phase angle
difference between them. If a winding is connected to earth
(grounded), the earth connection point is usually the center point of a
Y winding. If the secondary is a Δ winding, the ground may be
connected to a center tap on one winding (high leg delta) or one
phase may be grounded (corner grounded delta). A special purpose
polyphase transformer is the zigzag transformer. There are many
possible configurations that may involve more or fewer than six
windings and various tap connections.
D) Resonant transformers
E) Instrument transformers
i) current transformer
v) Baluns
Audio transformers are usually the factor which limit sound quality;
electronic circuits with wide frequency response and low distortion are
relatively simple to design.
Transformers are also used in DI boxes to convert impedance from
high-impedance instruments (for example, bass guitars) to enable
them to be connected to a microphone input on the mixing console.
A particularly critical component is the output transformer of an audio
power amplifier. Valve circuits for quality reproduction have long been
produced with no other (inter-stage) audio transformers, but an output
transformer is needed to couple the relatively high impedance (up to
a few hundred ohms depending upon configuration) of the output
valve(s) to the low impedance of a loudspeaker. (The valves can
deliver a low current at a high voltage; the speakers require high
current at low voltage.) Solid-state power amplifiers may need no
output transformer at all.
For good low-frequency response a relatively large iron core is
required; high power handling increases the required core size. Good
high-frequency response requires carefully designed and
implemented windings without excessive leakage inductance or stray
capacitance. All this makes for an expensive component.
Early transistor audio power amplifiers often had output transformers,
but they were eliminated as designers discovered how to design
amplifiers without them.
Uses of transformers
For supplying power from an alternating current power grid to
equipment which uses a different voltage.
For regulating the secondary output of a constant voltage (or
ferro-resonant), in which a combination of core saturation and
the resonance of a tank circuit prevents changes in the primary
voltage from appearing on the secondary.
Electric power transmission over long distances.
Large, specially constructed power transformers are used for
electric arc furnaces used in steelmaking.
Rotating transformers are designed so that one winding turns
while the other remains stationary. A common use was the
video head system as used in VHS and Beta video tape
players. These can pass power or radio signals from a
stationary mounting to a rotating mechanism, or radar antenna.
Other rotary transformers are precisely constructed in order to
measure distances or angles. Usually they have a single
primary and two or more secondaries, and electronic circuits
measure the different amplitudes of the currents in the
secondaries. See synchro and resolver.
Sliding transformers can pass power or signals from a
stationary mounting to a moving part such as a machine tool
head.
A transformer-like device is used for position measurement. See
linear variable differential transformer.
Some rotary transformers are used to couple signals between
two parts which rotate in relation to each other.
Small transformers are often used internally to couple different
stages of radio receivers and audio amplifiers.
Transformers may be used as external accessories for
impedance matching; for example to match a microphone to an
amplifier.
Balanced-to-unbalanced conversion. A special type of
transformer called a balun is used in radio and audio circuits to
convert between balanced linecircuits and unbalanced
transmission lines such as antenna downleads.
Flyback transformers are built using ferrite cores. They supply
high voltage to the CRTs at the frequency of the horizontal
oscillator. In the case of television sets, this is about 15.7kHz. It
may be as high as 75 - 120kHz for high-resolution computer
monitors.
Switching power supply transformers usually operate between
30-1000 kHz. The tiny cores found in wristwatch backlight
power supplies produce audible sound (about 1 kHz).
Types of transformers
Power Transformers
Step-up transformers
Examples:
• You are a Swiss visiting the U.S.A., and want to operate your
220VAC shaver off of the available 110 VAC.
• The CRT display tube of your computer monitor requires
thousands of volts, but must run off of 110 VAC from the wall.
Limitations
• Transformers alone cannot do the following:
• Convert DC to AC or vice versa
• Change the voltage or current of DC
• Change the AC supply frequency.
Diode
Diode Bridge
• When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand
corner, current flows along the upper colored path and returns
to the supply via the lower colored path.
arrows. Waveforms (1) and (2) can be observed across D1 and D3.
One-half cycle later the polarity across the secondary of the
transformer reverses, forward biasing D2 and D4 and reverse biasing
D1 and D3. Current flow will now be from point A through D4, up
through RL, through D2, through the secondary of T1, and back to
point A. This path is indicated by the broken arrows. Waveforms (3)
and (4) can be observed across D2 and D4. You should have noted
that the current flow through RL is always in the same direction. In
flowing through RL this current develops a voltage corresponding to
that shown in waveform (5). Since current flows through the load (RL)
during both half cycles of the applied voltage, this bridge rectifier is a
full-wave rectifier.
Electrolytic Capacitor
Construction
Polarity
Capacitance
Variants
Unlike capacitors that use a bulk dielectric made from an intrinsically
insulating material, the dielectric in electrolytic capacitors depends on
the formation and maintenance of a microscopic metal oxide layer.
Compared to bulk dielectric capacitors, this very thin dielectric allows
for much more capacitance in the same unit volume, but maintaining
the integrity of the dielectric usually requires the steady application of
the correct polarity of direct current else the oxide layer will break
down and rupture, causing the capacitor to fail. In addition, electrolytic
capacitors generally use an internal wet chemistry and they will
eventually fail as the water within the capacitor evaporates.
Electrolytic capacitance values are not as tightly-specified as with
bulk dielectric capacitors. Especially with aluminum electrolytics, it is
quite common to see an electrolytic capacitor specified as having a
"guaranteed minimum value" and no upper bound on its value. For
most purposes (such as power supply filtering and signal coupling),
this type of specification is acceptable.
Tantalum:
compact, low-voltage devices up to about 100 µF, these have a lower
energy density and are more accurate than aluminum electrolytics.
Compared to aluminum electrolytics, tantalum capacitors have very
stable capacitance and little DC leakage, and very low impedance at
low frequencies. However, unlike aluminum electrolytics, they are
intolerant of voltage spikes and are destroyed (often exploding
violently) if connected backwards or exposed to spikes above their
voltage rating. Tantalum capacitors are also polarized because of
their dissimilar electrodes. The cathode electrode is formed of
sintered tantalum grains, with the dielectric electrochemically formed
as a thin layer of oxide. The thin layer of oxide and high surface area
of the porous sintered material gives this type a very high capacitance
per unit volume. The anode electrode is formed of a chemically
deposited semi-conductive layer of manganese dioxide, which is then
connected to an external wire lead. A development of this type
replaces the manganese dioxide with a conductive plastic polymer
(polypyrrole) that reduces internal resistance and eliminates a self-
ignition failure.
Aerogel capacitors
Volt Meter
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the potential
difference between two points in an electric circuit.
The voltage can be measured by allowing it to pass a current through
a resistance; therefore, a voltmeter can be seen as a very high
resistance ammeter. One of the design objectives of the instrument is
to disturb the circuit as little as possible and hence the instrument
should draw a minimum of electric current to operate. This is
achieved by using a sensitive ammeter or microammeter in series
with a high resistance.
The moving coil galvanometer is one example of this type of
voltmeter. It employs a small coil of fine wire suspended in a strong
magnetic field. When an electrical current is applied, the
galvanometer's indicator rotates and compresses a small spring. The
angular rotation is proportional to the current that is flowing through
the coil. For use as a voltmeter, a series resistance is added so that
the angular rotation becomes proportional to the applied voltage.
Potentiometer
A voltmeter may also be realized using a potentiometer, which is a
length of uniform resistance material (wire or carbon film, for
instance) and a "wiper" that can short-circuit any portion of the
material, thereby changing effective resistance between the wiper
and an end terminal of the potentiometer. The unknown voltage
source may be connected to a current detector, which is in turn
connected to the potentiometer's wiper, while the known voltage
source is connected to an end terminal of the potentiometer. Then the
wiper position is adjusted to change the potentiometer's effective
resistance until a balance is obtained and no current is detected. At
this time, record the potentiometer's wiper position. For example, if
our potentiometer were a length of very long wire and our wiper were
some sort of metal wand in contact with that wire, record the length of
wire between the wiper and the end of the wiper that is in our circuit.
Now replace the unknown voltage supply with the known voltage
supply and repeat the procedure. The unknown voltage is then given
by the product of the known voltage and the recorded used length of
wire corresponding to the unknown voltage, divided by the recorded
length of wire corresponding to the reference voltage.
VU meter
0 VU was defined: