SubjectIndex

Search

Announcements

Feedback

SupportthisSite

Chapter10

Mutazalism

MutazilismbyMirValiuddin,M.APh.D.,Professorof
Philosophy,OsmaniaUniversity,HyderabadDeccan
(India)

MUTAZILISM

THEGENERALMU'TAZILITEPOSITION

SubsequenttothetimesoftheCompanionsoftheProphet
ofIslam,theMu'tazilahcreedmadeitsappearance.Ithad
itsinceptionnearlytwocenturiesafterthemigration
(Hijrah)oftheHolyProphettoMadinah.TheMu'tazilites
werethoroughgoingratiorialists.Theybelievedthatthe
arbiterofwhateverisrevealedhastobetheoreticalreason.

Letus,foramoment,considerwhytheMu'taziliteswereso
named.ThestorygoesthatonedayImamalHasanalBasri
wasimpartinginstructiontohispupilsinamosque.Before
thelessonswerefinishedsomeoneturnedupandaddressed
himthus:

"Now,inourowntimesasect[1]ofpeoplehasmadeits
appearance,themembersofwhichregardtheperpetratorof
agravesinasanunbelieverandconsiderhimoutsidethe
foldofIslam.Yetanothergroupofpeople[2]have
appearedwhogivehopeofsalvationtotheperpetratorofa
gravesin.Theylaydownthatsuchasincandonoharmto
atruebeliever.Theydonotintheleastregardactionasa
partoffaithandholdthatasworshipisofnousetoone
whoisanunbeliever,soalsosincandonoharmtoone
whoisabelieverinGod.What,inyouropinion,isthetruth
andwhatcreedshouldweadopt?"

ImamalHasanalBasriwasonthepointofgivingareply
tothisquerywhenalongneckedpupilofhisgotupand
said:"Theperpetratorofgravesinsisneitheracomplete
unbelievernoraperfectbelieverheisplacedmidway
betweenunbeliefandfaithanintermediatestate(manzilah
bainalmanzilatain)."

Havingspokenhestrodetoanothercornerofthemosque
andbegantoexplainthisbeliefofhistoothers.[3]This
manwasWasilibn`Ata.TheImamshotaswiftglanceat
himandsaid,"Itazala`anna,"i.e.,"Hehaswithdrawn
fromus."FromthatverydayWasilandhisfollowerswere
calledalMu'tazilah,theWithdrawersorSecessionists.

IbnMunabbihsaysthatthetitleofalMu'tazilahcameinto
vogueafterthedeathofalHasanalBasri.Accordingtohis
statement,whenalHasanpassedaway,Qatadahsucceeded
himandcontinuedhiswork.`Amribn`Ubaidandhis
followersavoidedthecompanyofQatadahtherefore,they
weregiventhenameofalMu'tazilah.Inbrief,theword
i'tizalmeanstowithdraworsecede,andtheMu'tazilitesare
thepeoplewhoinsomeoftheirbeliefswerediametrically
opposedtotheunanimousconsentoftheearlytheologians
orthePeopleoftheApprovedWay(ahlalsunnah).The
leaderofallofthemwasWasilb.`Atawhowasbornin
80/699atMadinahanddiedin131/748.

MuslimsgenerallyspeakofWasil'spartyasthe
Mu'tazilites,butthelattercallthemselvesPeopleofUnity
andJustice(ahlaltauhidwal`adl).Byjusticetheyimply
thatitisincumbentonGodtorequitetheobedientfortheir
gooddeedsandpunishthesinnersfortheirmisdeeds.By

unitytheyimplythedenialofthedivineattributes.
Undoubtedly,theyadmitthatGodisknowing,powerful,
andseeing,buttheirintellectdoesnotallowthemtoadmit
thatthesedivineattributesareseparateanddifferentfrom
thedivineessence.Thereasonforthisviewoftheirsisthat
iftheattributesofGodarenotconsideredtobeidentical
withtheessenceofGod,pluralityofeternals"would
necessarilyresultandthebeliefinunitywouldhavetobe
givenup.This,intheiropinion,isclearunbelief(kufr).
Unityandjusticearethebasicprinciplesofthebeliefsof
theMu'tazilitesandthisisthereasonwhytheycall
themselves"PeopleofUnityandJustice."

Now,fromthebasicbeliefsofunityandjusticeafewmore
beliefsnecessarilyfollowascorollaries

1.GodAlmighty'sjusticenecessitatesthatmanshouldbe
theauthorofhisownactsthenalonecanhebesaidtobe
freeandresponsibleforhisdeeds.Thesamewasclaimed
bytheQadarites.TheMu'tazilitesacceptedtotallythe
theoryofindeterminismandbecametruesuccessorsofthe
Qadarites.Ifmanisnottheauthorofhisownactsandif
theseactsarethecreationofGod,howcanhebeheld
responsibleforhisactsanddeservepunishmentforhis
sins?WoulditnotbeinjusticeonthepartofGodthat,after
creatingamanhelpless,Heshouldcallhimtoaccountfor
hissinsandsendhimtohell?Thus,alltheMu'tazilites
agreeinthematterofman'sbeingthecreatorofhis
volitionalacts.Hecreatessomeactsbywayofmubasharah
andsomebywayoftaulid.Bythetermtaulidisimpliedthe
necessaryoccurrenceofanotheractfromanactofthedoer,
e.g.,themovementofZaid'sfingernecessitatesthe
movementofhisring.Althoughhedoesnotintendtomove
thering,yethealonewillberegardedasthemover.Of
course,toperformthisactthemediumofanotheractis
necessary.Mancreatesguidanceormisguidancefor
himselfbywayofmubasharahandhissuccessorfailure
resultingfromthisiscreatedbywayoftaulid.Godisnotin
theleastconcernedincreatingit,norhasGod'swill
anythingtodowithit.Inotherwords,ifamanisregarded
astheauthorofhisownacts,itwouldmeanthatitisinhis
powereithertoacceptIslamandbeobedienttoGod,or
becomeanunbelieverandcommitsins,andthatGod'swill
hasnothingtodowiththeseactsofhis.God,ontheother
hand,willsthatallcreatedbeingsofHisshouldembrace
IslamandbeobedienttoHim.Heordersthesametotake
placeandprohibitspeoplefromcommittingsins.

Sincemanistheauthorofhisownacts,itisnecessaryfor
Godtorewardhimforhisgooddeedsandthiscanbejustly
claimedbyhim.AsalShahrastaniputsit:"TheMu'tazilites
unanimouslymaintain,thatmandecidesuponandcreates
hisacts,bothgoodandevilthathedeservesrewardor
punishmentinthenextworldforwhathedoes.Inthisway
theLordissafeguardedfromassociationwithanyevilor
wrongoranyactofunbeliefortransgression.ForifHe
createdthewrong,Hewouldbewrong,andifHecreated
justice,Hewouldbejust."[4]

ItisthecreedofmostoftheMu'tazilitesthatonepossesses
"ability"beforetheaccomplishmentoftheact,butsome
Mu'tazilites(e.g.,Muhammadb.`Isaandabu`IsaWarraq)
liketheSunnitesareoftheviewthatonehasabilitytoact
besidestheact.

2.ThejusticeofGodmakesitincumbentuponHimnotto
doanythingcontrarytojusticeandequity.Itisthe
unanimousverdictoftheMu'tazilitesthatthewisecanonly
dowhatissalutary(alsalah)andgood,andthatGod's
wisdomalwayskeepsinviewwhatissalutaryforHis
servantstherefore,Hecannotbecrueltothem.Hecannot
bringintoeffectevildeeds.Hecannotrenouncethatwhich
issalutary.HecannotaskHisservantstodothatwhichis
impossible.Further,reasonalsosuggeststhatGoddoesnot
placeaburdenonanycreaturegreaterthanitcanbear.

AccordingtotheMu'tazilites,thingsarenotgoodorevil
becauseGoddeclaresthemtobeso.No,Godmakesthe
distinctionbetweengoodandevilonaccountoftheirbeing
goodandevil.Goodnessorevilareinnateintheessenceof

thingsthemselves.Thisverygoodnessorevilofthingsis
thecauseofthecommandsandprohibitionsoftheLaw.
Thehumanintellectiscapableofperceivingthegoodness
andevilofafewthingsandnolawsarerequiredtoexpress
theirgoodnessandevil,e.g.,itiscommendabletospeak
thetruthanddespicabletocommitoneselftountruth.This
showsthattheevilandgoodnessofthingsareobviousand
requirenoprooffromtheShari`ah.Shamefulandunjust
deedsareevilinthemselvestherefore,Godhasbanned
indulgenceinthem.ItdoesnotimplythatHisputtingaban
onthemmadethemshamefulandunjustdeeds.The
thoroughgoingrationalismoftheMu'tazilitesisthus
expressedbyalShahrastaniinthesewords:"Theadherents
ofjusticesay:Allobjectsofknowledgefallunderthe
supervisionofreasonandreceivetheirobligatorypower
fromrationalinsight.Consequently,obligatorygratitudefor
divinebountyprecedestheordersgivenby(divine)Law
andbeautyanduglinessarequalitiesbelongingintrinsically
towhatisbeautifulandugly."[5]

FromthesecondprincipleoftheMu'tazilites,theunityof
God,thefollowingbeliefsnecessarilyresultascorollaries

1.Denialofthebeatificvision.TheMu'tazilitesholdthat
visionisnotpossiblewithoutplaceanddirection.AsGod
isexemptfromplaceanddirection,therefore,avisionof
Himispossibleneitherinthisworldnorinthehereafter.

2.BeliefthattheQur'anisacreatedspeechofAllah.Itwas
heldbythemthattheQur'anisanoriginatedworkofGod
anditcameintoexistencetogetherwiththeprophethoodof
theProphetofIslam.

3.God'spleasureandanger,notattributes,butstates.
AccordingtotheMu'tazilites,God'spleasureandanger
shouldnotberegardedasHisattributes,becauseangerand
pleasurearestatesandstatesaremutable****theessence
ofGodisimmutable.Theyshouldbetakenasheavenand
hell.

Thefollowingisthesummaryofsomemorebeliefsofthe
Mu'tazilites:

1.Denialofpunishmentandrewardmetedouttothedead
inthegraveandthequestioningbytheangelsMunkarand
Nakir.

2.DenialoftheindicationsoftheDayofJudgment,ofGog
andMagog(YajujandMajuj),andoftheappearanceofthe
Antichrist(alDajjal).

3.SomeMu'tazilitesbelieveintheconcreterealityofthe
Balance(alMizan)forweighingactionsontheDayof
Judgment.Somesaythatitisimpossibleforittobea
realityandthinkthatthementionmadeintheQur'anof
weightandbalancemeansonlythismuchthatfulljustice
willbedoneontheDayofJudgment.Itisclearly
impossibletoelicitthemeaningsofthewordsweightand
balanceliterally,fordeeds,whichhavebeensaidtobe
weighed,areaccidentsanditisnotpossibletoweigh
accidents.Theoreticalreasonisincapableof
comprehendingthis.Substancesalonecanpossessweight.
Further,whennothingishiddenfromGod,whatistheuse
ofweighingthedeeds?IthasbeenmentionedintheQur'an
thatthebooksofbadorgooddeedswillbehandedoverto
us.Thistooismerelyametaphor.Itmeansonlyourbeing
giftedwithknowledge.

4.TheMu'tazilitesalsodenytheexistenceoftheRecording
Angels(KiramanKatibin).Thereasontheygiveforthisis
thatGodiswellawareofallthedeedsdonebyHis
servants.ThepresenceoftheRecordingAngelswouldhave
beenindispensableifGodwerenotacquainteddirectlywith
thedoingsofHisservants.

5.TheMu'tazilitesalsodenythephysicalexistenceofthe
"Tank"(alHaud),andthe"Bridge"(alsirat).Further,they
donotadmitthatheavenandhellexistnow,butbelievethat
theywillcomeintoexistenceontheDayofJudgment.


6.TheydenytheCovenant(alMithaq).Itistheirfirm
beliefthatGodneitherspoketoanyprophet,angel,or
supporteroftheDivineThrone,norwillHecastaglance
towardsthem.

7.FortheMu'tazilites,deedstogetherwithverification
(tasdiq)areincludedinfaith.Theyholdthatagreatsinner
willalwaysstayinhell.

8.Theydenythemiracles(alkaramat)ofsaints(walis),
for,ifadmitted,theywouldbemixedupwiththe
evidentiarymiraclesoftheprophetsandcauseconfusion.
ThesamewasthebeliefoftheJahmitestoo.

9.TheMu'tazilitesalsodenytheAscension(alMi'raj)of
theProphetofIslam,becauseitsproofisbasedonthe
testimonyofindividualtraditions,whichnecessitates
neitheractnorbeliefbuttheydonotdenytheHolyPro
phet'sjourneyasfarasJerusalem.

10.Accordingtothem,theonewhopraysisaloneentitled
toreaptherewardofaprayerwhateveritsform,itsbenefit
goestonooneelse.

11.Asthedivinedecreecannotbealtered,prayersserveno
purposeatall.Onegainsnothingbythem,becauseifthe
object,forwhichprayersareoffered,isinconformitywith
destiny,itisneedlesstoaskforit,andiftheobjectconflicts
withdestiny,itisimpossibletosecureit.

12.Theygenerallylaydownthattheangelswhoare
messagebearersofGodtoprophetsaresuperiorinrankto
thehumanmessengersofGodtomankind,i.e.,the
prophetsthemselves.

13.Accordingtothem,reasondemandsthatanImam
shouldnecessarilybeappointedovertheummah(Muslim
community).

14.Forthem,themujtahid(theauthorizedinterpreterofthe
religiousLaw)canneverbewronginhisview,asagainst
theopinionoftheAsh`aritescholasticsthat"themujtahid
sometimeserrsandsometimeshitsthemark."

TheMu'tazilitesandtheSunnitesdiffermostlyfromone
anotherinfiveimportantmatters:

(1)Theproblemofattributes.
(2)Theproblemofthebeatificvision.
(3)Theproblemofpromiseandthreat.
(4)Theproblemofcreationoftheactionsofman.
(5)TheproblemofthewillofGod.

IbnHazmsaysinhisMilalwalNihalthatwhosoever
believes(1)thattheQur'anisuncreated,(2)thatallthe
actionsofmanareduetodivinedecree,and(3)thatman
willbeblessedwiththevisionofGodontheDayofJudg
ment,and(4)admitsthedivineattributesmentionedinthe
Qur'anandtheTradition,and(5)doesnotregardthe
perpetratorofagravesinasanunbeliever,willnotbe
styledasoneoftheMu'tazilites,thoughinallothermatters
hemayagreewiththem.

ThisstatementofibnHazmshowsthattheMu'tazilites
wereagroupofrationalistswhojudgedallIslamicbeliefs
bytheoreticalreasonandrenouncedthosethatrelatetoall
thatliesbeyondthereachofreason.Theyhardlyrealized
thefactthatreason,likeanyotherfacultywithwhichman
isgifted,hasitslimitationsandcannotbeexpectedto
comprehendrealityinallitsdetails.Thepointdoesnot
needelaboration.AsShakespeareputsit,"Therearemore
thingsinheavenandearth,Horatio,thanaredreamtofin
yourphilosophy."Somemodernthinkershaverecognized
thatthereisaplaceforintuitioninthefieldof
comprehensionand,asacorollarytothis,haveadmittedthe
claimofrevelationorwahiasasourceofknowledge.That
iswhyIqbalexclaimed

"AtthedawnofLifetheAngelsaidtome
`Donotmakethyheartamereslavetoreason."'

AndprobablyonasimilargroundIqbal'sguide,Rumi,
offeredthefollowingmeaningfuladvice

"SurrenderthyintellecttotheProphet!
Godsufficeth.Say,Hesufficeth.
Bewareofwilfulreasoning,
Andboldlywelcomemadness!
Healoneismadwhomadnessscoffs,
AndheedsnottheagentofLaw!"

SOMELEADINGMU'TAZILITES

Inpresentingabird'seyeviewofthebeliefsofthe
Mu'tazilitesintheaboveparagraphs,ithasnotbeen
suggestedthattheseviewswereintheirtotalitysharedby
alltheleadingMu'tazilites.Thereweredifferencesof
opinionwithinthemselves.Forinstance,abualHudhail
al`Allafdifferedfromhiscompanionsinrespectoften
problemsIbrahimibnSayyaralNazzaminthirteenBishr
ibnalMu'tamirinsixMu'ammaribnKhayyat`Abbad
alSulamiinfourand`AmribnBahralJahiz,infive.Abu
alHusainandhisfollowersarecalledthe"Mu'tazilitesof
Baghdad"andabualJubba'i,hissonabuHashim,andtheir
followerswereknownasthe"Mu'tazilitesofBasrah."
Belowisgivenabriefaccountofthelivesandideasof
someoftheleadingMu'tazilites.

1.Wasilibn`Ata

WasilwasbornatMadinahin80/699andwasbroughtup
inBasrah."SuqiGhazzal,"abazaarinBasrah,usedtobe
hisfamiliarhauntandonthataccountpeopleassociatedits
namewithhim.Hediedin131/748.Wasilhadaverylong
neck.Amribn`Ubaid,whowasacelebratedMu'tazilite,on
lookingathimonceremarked:"Therewillbenogoodina
manwhohassuchaneck."[6]Wasilwasalthagh,[7]i.e.,
hecouldnotpronouncetheletterrcorrectly,buthewasa
veryfluentandaccomplishedspeakerandinhistalktotally
avoidedthisletter.Heneverallowedittoescapehislips,
despitethegreatdifficultyinavoidingitinconversation.
Hecompiledavoluminoustreatiseinwhichnotasingleris
tobefound.Hewouldoftenmaintainsilencewhichled
peopletobelievethathewasmute.

WasilwasapupilofabuHashim`AbdAllahibn
MuhammadibnalHanafiyyah,butinthematterof
Imamate,asinsomeothermatters,heopposedhismaster.
BeforebecomingaMu'taziliteheusedtoliveinthe
companyofImamHasanalBasri.

Hisworksare:KitabalManzilahbainalManzilatain,
KitabalFutya,andKitabalTauhid.Thefirstbooksonthe
scienceofalKalamwerewrittenbyhim.IbnKhallikanhas
recountedanumberofhisworks.

InhisillustriousworkalMilalwalNihal,alShahrastani
saysthattheessentialteachingsofWasilconsistedofthe
following:(1)DenialoftheattributesofGod.(2)Man's
possessionoffreewilltochoosegooddeeds.(3)Thebelief
thatonewhocommitsagravesinisneitherabelievernor
anunbelieverbutoccupiesanintermediateposition,and
thatonewhocommitsagravesingoestohell.(4)The
beliefthatoutoftheopposingpartiesthatfoughtinthe
battleoftheCamelandfromamongtheassassinatorsof
`Uthmanandhisalliesonepartywasinerror,thoughit
cannotbeestablishedwhich.

(1)DenialofAttributesWasildeniesthatknowledge,

power,will,andlifebelongtotheessenceofGod.
Accordingtohim,ifanyattributeisadmitteedaseternal,it
wouldnecessitate"pluralityofeternals"andthebeliefin
theunityofGodwillthusbecomefalse.Butthisideaof
Wasilwasnotreadilyaccepted.Generally,theMu'tazilites
firstreducedallthedivineattributestotwoknowledgeand
powerandcalledthemthe"essentialattributes."
Afterwardstheyreducedbothofthesetoone
attributeunity.

(2)BeliefinFreewillInthisproblemWasiladoptedthe
creedofMa'badalJuhaniandGhailanalDimashqiand
saidthatsinceGodiswiseandjust,evilandinjustice
cannotbeattributedtohim.HowisitjustifiableforHim
thatHeshouldwillcontrarytowhatHecommandsHis
servantstodo?Consequently,goodandevil,beliefand
unbelief,obedienceandsinaretheactsofHisservant
himself,i.e,theservantaloneistheirauthororcreatorand
istoberewardedorpunishedforhisdeeds.Itisimpossible
thattheservantmaybeorderedto"do"athingwhichheis
notabletodo.Manisorderedtodoanactbecausehehas
thepowertodothatact.Whosoeverdeniesthispowerand
authorityrejectsaselfevidentdatumofconsciousness.

AsibnHazmfranklysaid,theexcellentworkofthe
Mu'tazilitescanbeseeninthedoctrineoffreewillandthat
ofpromiseandthreat.Ifmanweretoberegardedas
absolutelydeterminedinhisactions,thewholeedificeof
Shari'ahandethicswouldtumbledown.

(3)IntermediaryPositionoftheGraveSinnersOn
accountofhisbeliefthatonewhocommitsagravesinis
neitherabelievernoranunbelieverbutoccupiesan
intermediateposition,Wasilwithdrewhimselffromthe
companyofImamHasanalBasriandearnedthetitle
Mu'tazilite.Wasilthoughtthattheexpression"true
believer"isonewhichmeanspraise.Thepersonwho
commitsgravesinscanneverdeservepraisetherefore,he
cannotbecalledatruebeliever.Suchapersonhas,
nevertheless,beliefintheIslamicfaithandadmitsthatGod
aloneisworthyofbeingworshippedtherefore,hecannot
beregardedasanunbelievereither.Ifsuchapersondies
withoutpenitence,hewilleverstayinhell,butasheis
rightinhisbelief,thepunishmentmetedouttohimwillbe
moderate.

AsImamalGhazalihaspointedoutinhisIhya'`Ulum
alDinmisinterpretationofthefollowingversesofthe
Qur'anwasthecauseoftheMu'tazilites'misunderstanding

"By(thetokenof)Time(throughtheages),verilymankind
isinloss,exceptsuchashavefaithanddorighteousdeeds
and(jointogether)inthemutualteachingoftruth,patience,
andconstancy.[9]

"ForanythatdisobeyGodandHisApostleforthemishell
theyshalldwellthereinforever:[10]

Inthelightoftheseandsimilarotherverses,the
Mu'tazilitesarguethatalltheperpetratorsofgravesinswill
alwaysstayinhell,buttheydonotthinkoverthefactthat
Godalsosays:

"But,withoutdoubt,Iam(also)Hethatforgivethagainand
againthosewhorepent,believe,anddoright,who,infine,
arereadytoreceivetrueguidance:"[11]

"GodforgivethnotthatequalsshouldbesetupwithHim
butHeforgivethanythingelse,towhomHepleaseth."[12]

Thelastquotedverseshowsthatinthecaseofallsins,
exceptpolytheism,GodwillactaccordingtoHispleasure.
InsupportofthistheclearsayingoftheHolyProphetof
Islamcanbecited,viz.,"thatpersontoowillfinallycome
outofhellwhohasevenaniotaoffaithinhisheart."
Further,somewordsofGod,e.g.,"VerilyWeshallnot

suffertoperishtherewardofanyonewhodoesa(single)
righteousdeed,"[13]and"VerilyGodwillnotsufferthe
rewardoftherighteoustoperish,"[14]clearlyshowthat
forthecommissionofonesin,Hewillnotignoreaman's
basicfaithanddeprivehimofalltherewardforhisgood
deeds.Therefore,thegeneralbeliefisthatastheperpetrator
ofgravesinsisbyallmeansatruebeliever,evenifhedies
withoutrepentance,afterbeingpunishedforhissinsinhell
andtherebypurifiedofthem,hewilleventuallyenter
heaven.

(4)UnestablishedErrorsWasilhadfirmconvictionthat
outofthosewhofoughtin"thebattleoftheCamel"and
"thebattleofSiffin"andthekillersof`Uthman,thethird
Caliph,andhisallies,onepartywasdefinitelyinerror,
thoughitcannotbeestablishedwhich.[15]

2.AbualHudhail`Allaf

`Allafwasbornin131/748anddiedinc.226/840.He
receivedinstructionfrom`UthmanbinKhalidTawil,a
pupilofWasil.Hewasafluentspeakerandvigorousinhis
arguments.Heoftenmadeuseofdialecticalargumentsin
hisdiscussions.Hehadakeeninsightinphilosophy.He
wroteaboutsixtybooksonthescienceofKalambutallof
themhavelongbeenextinct.

`Allafwasanaccomplisheddialectician.Thestorygoes
thatbyhisdialecticsthreethousandpersonsembraced
Islamathishand.Weshallherespeakoftwoofhisdebates.
InthosedaystherelivedaMagianSalihbynamewho
believedthattheultimateprinciplesoftheuniversearetwo
realities,LightandDarkness,thatbothoftheseareopposed
toeachother,andthattheuniverseiscreatedbythemixture
ofthesetwo.ThisbeliefledtoadiscussionbetweenSalih,
theMagian,andAllaf.Allafinquiredofhimwhetherthe
mixturewasdistinctanddifferentfromLightandDarkness
oridenticalwiththem.Salihrepliedthatitwasoneandthe
samething.`Allafthensaid,"Howcouldtwothingsmix
togetherwhichareopposedtoeachother?Thereoughtto
besomeonewhogotthemmixed,andthemixeraloneisthe
NecessaryExistentorGod."Onanotheroccasion,while
Salihwasengagedinadiscussionwith`Allaf,thelatter
said,"Whatdoyounowdesire?"Salihreplied,"Iaskeda
blessingofGodandstillsticktothebeliefthatthereare
twoGods."`Allafthenasked,"OfwhichGoddidyouaska
blessing?TheGodofwhomyouaskedforitwouldnot
havesuggestedthenameoftheotherGod(whoisHis
rival)."

Wasilwasnotabletoclarifytheproblemofdivine
attributes.Inthisrespecthisideaswerestillcrude.`Allafis
opposedtotheviewthattheessenceofGodhasnoquality
andisabsolutelyoneandbynomeansplural.Thedivine
qualitiesarenoneotherthanthedivineessenceandcannot
beseparatedfromit.`Allafacceptssuchattributeasareone
withtheessenceofGod,oronemaysay,acceptssuchan
essenceasisidenticalwiththeattributes.Hedoesnot
differentiatebetweenthetwo,butregardsbothasone.
WhenonesaysthatGodistheknower,onecannotmean
thatknowledgeisfoundintheessenceofGod,butthat
knowledgeisHisessence.Inbrief,Godisknowing,
powerful,andlivingwithsuchknowledge,power,andlife
asareHisveryessence(essentialnature).

AlShahrastanihasinterpretedtheidentityofdivine
essenceandattributesthus:GodknowswithHisknowledge
andknowledgeisHisveryessence.Inthesameway,Heis
powerfulwithHispowerandpowerisHisveryessence
andliveswithHislifeandlifeisHisveryessence.Another
interpretationofdivineknowledgeisthatGodknowswith
HisessenceandnotwithHisknowledge,i.e.,Heknows
throughHisessenceonlyandnotthroughknowledge.The
differenceinthesetwopositionsisthat,inthelatter,the
attributesaredeniedaltogether,whileintheformer,which
`Allafaccepts,theyareadmittedbutareidentifiedwith
God'sessence.Thisconformstothestatementsofthe
philosopherswhoholdthattheessenceofGod,without
qualityandquantity,isabsolutelyone,andbynomeans

admitsofplurality,andthatthedivineattributesarenone
otherthantheessenceofGod.WhateverqualitiesofHim
maybeestablished,theyareeither"negation"or
"essentials."Thosethingsaretermed"negation"which,
withouttherelationofnegation,cannotbeattributedto
God,as,forinstance,body,substance,andaccidents.When
therelationofnegationisturnedtowardsthemanditssign,
i.e.,thewordofnegation,isapplied,thesecanbecomethe
attributesofGod,e.g.,itwouldbesaidthatGodisneither
abody,norasubstance,noranaccident.Whatismeantby
"essential"isthattheexistenceoftheNecessaryExistentis
ItsveryessenceandthusItsunityisreal.

`AllafdidnotadmittheattributesofGodasseparatefrom
Hisessenceinanysense.Forhesensedthedangerthat,by
doingso,attributes,too,likeessence,wouldhavetobe
takenaseternal,andbytheirpluralitythe"pluralityof
eternals"or"thepluralityofthenecessaryexistents"would
becomeinevitable,andthusthedoctrineofunitywouldbe
completelynullified.Itwasforthisreasonthatthe
ChristianswhodevelopedthetheoryoftheTrinityof
Godheadhadtoforsakethedoctrineofunity.

Amongthe"heresies"of`Allafwashisviewthatafterthe
discontinuationofthemovementoftheinmatesofheaven
andhell,astateoflethargywouldsupervene.Duringthis
periodcalmpleasurefortheinmatesofheavenandpain
andmiseryfortheinmatesofhellwillbegin,andthisis
whatisreallymeantbyeternalpleasureandperpetualpain.
SincethesamewasthereligiousbeliefofJahm,according
towhomheavenandhellwouldbeannihilated,the
Mu'tazilitesusedtocall`AllafaJahmiteinhisbeliefinthe
hereafter.

Allafhastermedjustice,unity,promise,threat,andthe
middlepositionasthe"FivePrinciples"oftheMu'tazilites.

3.AlNazzam

AbuIstiaqIbrahimibnSayyar,calledalNazzam,was
youngerthan`Allafanditisgenerallyknownthathewas
`Allaf'spupil.HelivedduringthereignofCaliphs
alMamunandalMu'tasimanddiedin231/845.Hewasa
peerlesslitterateurandpoet.HestudiedGreekphilosophy
wellandmadefulluseofitinhisworks.Hismainideasare
asfollows.

(1)DenialofGod'sPoweroverEvilGodhasnopowerat
alloversinandevil.OtherMu'tazilitesdonotdenythe
powerofGodoverevil,butdenytheactofHiscreating
evil.Intheiropinion,Godhaspoweroverevil,butHedoes
notuseitforthecreationofevil.AlNazzam,inopposition
tothem,saysthatwhenevilorsinistheattributeoressence
ofathing,thenthepossibilityoftheoccurrenceofevilor
thepowertocreateitwillitselfbeevil.Therefore,itcannot
beattributedtoGodwhoisthedoerofjusticeandgood.
Similarly,alNazzamholdsthatinthelifehereaftertoo,
Godcanneithermitigatenoraddtothepunishmentand
rewardoftheinmatesofheavenandhellnorindeedcan
Heexpelthemfromheavenorhell.Astotheaccusation
thatthedenialofGod'spoweroverevilnecessitatesthe
affirmationthatHeisimpotentagainstevil,alNazzam
repliesthatthisequallyfollowsfromthedenialofdivine
actiontocreateevil.Hesays:"You,too,denyHimthe
wrongact,sothereisnofundamentaldifferencebetween
thetwopositions."[16]

God,whoisAbsoluteGoodandAbsoluteJustice,carnotbe
theauthorofevil.Besides,ifGodhaspoweroverevil,it
willnecessarilyfollowthatHeisignorantandindigent.But
thisisimpossibletherefore,itsnecessaryconsequenceis
alsoimpossible.Thesequenceoftheargumentmaybe
explainedthus:

IfGodhaspoweroverevil,thentheoccurrenceofevilis
possible,andasthesuppositionoftheoccurrenceofa
possiblethingentailsnoimpossibility,letussupposethat
evildidoccur.Now,Godmightormightnothavehad

knowledgeoftheevilwhichoccurred.IfwesaythatHedid
nothavetheknowledgeofit,itwouldnecessarilyfollow
thatHewasignorantandifwesaythatHedidhaveit,it
wouldnecessarilyfollowthatHewasinneedofthisevil
forhadHenotbeeninneedofit,Hewouldnothave
createdit.Whenapersonisnotinneedofathingand
knowsitsinherentevils,hewillhavenothingtodowithit,
ifheiswise.ItisdefinitelytruethatGodisallwiseso
whenanyeviliscausedbyHim,itnecessarilyfollowsthat
Heneededit,otherwiseHewouldhaveneverproducedit.

ButsinceitisimpossibletothinkthatGodneedsevil,itis
impossibletothinkthatHecreatesit.

(2)DenialoftheWillofGodApartfromthepowerof
actionandaction,alNazzamdoesnotadmitthatGodhas
will,whichhaspriorityoverbothpowerandaction.He
holdsthatwhenweattributewilltoGodweonlymeanthat
GodcreatesthingsaccordingtoHisknowledge.Hiswilling
isidenticalwithHisacting,andwhenitissaidthatGod
willstheactionsofmen,whatismeantisthatHeenjoins
themtoactinacertainway.

WhydoesalNazzamdenythewillofGod?Hedoesso,
because,accordingtohim,willimplieswant.Hewhowills
lacksorneedsthethingwhichhewills,andsinceGodis
altogetherindependentofHiscreatures,Hedoesnotlackor
needanything.Consequently,willcannotbeascribedto
Him.Therefore,thewillofGodreallyconnotesHisactsor
Hiscommandsthatareconveyedtoman.[17]

(3)DivisibilityofEveryParticleadinfinitumAlNazzam
believesinthedivisibilityofeveryparticleadinfinitum.By
thishemeansthateachbodyiscomposedofsuchparticles
asaredivisibletoanunlimitedextent,i.e.,everyhalfofa
halfgoesonbecominghalfoftheotherhalf.Duringthe
processofdivisions,weneverreachalimitafterwhichwe
maybeabletosaythatitcannotbefurtherdividedinto
halves.

Now,totraverseadistance,whichiscomposedofinfinite
points,aninfiniteperiodoftimewouldnecessarilybe
required.Is,then,thetraversingofadistanceimpossible?
Doesitnotnecessitatethedenialoftheexistenceofthe
movementitself?AmongtheGreekphilosophers,
ParmenidesandZenohaddeniedmovementitself.They
couldnotdeclareuntruethemovementwhichisobservable
andisafact,sotheyclaimedthatperceptioncannotreveal
reality.Theymaintainedthatsensesarenottheinstruments
ofrealknowledgeandaredeceptiveandthephenomenal
worldisillusoryamirage.Therealworldistherational
world,theknowledgeofwhichisgainedbyreasonalonein
whichthereisneitherpluralitynormultiplicity,neither
movementnorchange.Itisanimmutableandimmovable
reality.Buttheycouldnotexplainhowthisillusoryand
deceptiveworldwasbornoutoftherealworld.Thustheir
systemofphilosophy,inspiteoftheirclaimingittobe
monism,endedindualism.

AlNazzamdidnotacceptthesolutionoftheseGreek
philosophers,buttotideoverthisdifficultyheofferedthe
theoryoftafrah.Thewordtafrahmeanstoleapitmeans
thatthemovingthingtraversesfromonepointofdistance
toanotherinsuchamannerthatbetweenthesetwopointsa
numberofpointsaretraversed.Obviously,ithappenswhen
themovingthingdoesnotcrossallthepointsofadistance,
butleapsoverthem.Thisindeedisananticipationofthe
presentdaydoctrineofthe"quantumjump."

(4)LatencyandManifestation(KumunwaBuruz)
AccordingtoalNazzam,creationistoberegardedasa
singleactofGodbywhichallthingswerebroughtinto
beingsimultaneouslyandkeptinastateoflatency(kumun).
Itwasfromtheiroriginalstateoflatencythatallexisting
things:minerals,plants,animals,andmen,haveevolvedin
theprocessoftime.Thisalsoimpliesthatthewholeof
mankindwaspotentiallyinAdam.Whateverpriorityor

posterioritytheremaybe,itisnotinbirthbutin
appearance.Allthingscameintoexistenceatthesame
time,butwerekepthiddentillthetimeoftheirbecoming
operativearrived,andwhenitdidarrive,theywerebrought
fromthestateoflatencytothestateofmanifestation.This
doctrinestandsindirectoppositiontotheAsh'ariteview
thatGodiscreatingthingsatallmomentsoftime.[18]

(5)MaterialismofalNazzamForalNazzam,asformany
beforeandafterhim,therealbeingofmanisthesoul,and
bodyismerelyitsinstrument.Butthesoulis,accordingto
him,ararefiedbodypermeatingthephysicalbody,the
samewayasfragrancepermeatesflowers,buttermilk,or
oilsesame.[19]AbuMansfir`AbdalQahiribnTahir,in
hisworkalFarqbainalFiraq,hasdiscussedthistheory
criticallyandhasattemptedtorefuteit.

Besidesthesephilosophicalideas,therearewhatthe
orthodoxcalledthe"heresies"ofalNazzam.Forexample,
hedidnotbelieveinmiracles,wasnotconvincedofthe
inimitabilityoftheQur'an,consideredastatutenecessary
forthedeterminationofanImam,andthoughtthatthe
statuteestablishingtheImamateof`Aliwasconcealedby
`Umar,thatthesalataltarawihwasunauthorized,thatthe
actualvisionofthejinnwasaphysicalimpossibility,and
thatbelatedperformanceofmissedprayerswas
unnecessary.

AmongalNazzam'sfollowers,thefollowingarewell
known:MuhammadibnShabib,abuShumar,Yunusibn
'Imran,AhmadibnHayat,BishribnMu`tamir,and
ThamamahibnAshras.AhmadibnHayatwholivedinthe
companyofalNazzamheldthattherearetwodeities:one,
thecreatorandeternaldeity,andtheother,thecreatedone
whichisJesusChristsonofMary.HeregardedChristas
theSonofGod.Onaccountofthisbeliefhewasconsidered
tohaverenouncedIslam.Accordingtohisfaith,Christin
thehereafterwillaskthecreatedbeingstoaccountfortheir
deedsinthisworld,andinsupportofhisclaimAhmadibn
Hayatquotedtheverse:"WilltheywaituntilGodcomesto
themincanopiesofclouds?"[20]Thereisatraditionthat,
lookingtowardsthemoononthefourteenthdayofthe
lunarmonth,theHolyProphetofIslamsaid,"Yewill
beholdyourLordjustasyebeholdthismoon.[21]Ahmad
ibnHayattwistedthemeaningofthistraditionandsaidthat
thewordLordreferredtoJesusChrist.Healsobelievedin
incarnationfor,accordingtohim,thespiritofGodis
incarnatedintothebodiesoftheImams.

FadlalHadathi,whowasanotherpupilofalNazzam,had
faithsimilartothatofibnHayat.Heandhisfollowers
believedintransmigration.Accordingtothem,inanother
worldGodcreatedanimalsmatureandwise,bestowedon
theminnumerableblessings,andconferredonthemmany
sciencestoo.Godthendesiredtoputthemtoatestandso
commandedthemtoofferthankstoHimforHisgifts.
SomeobeyedHiscommandandsomedidnot.Herewarded
Histhankfulcreaturesbygivingthemheavenand
condemnedtheungratefulonestohell.Thereweresome
amongthemwhohadpartlyobeyedthedivinecommand
andpartlynotobeyedit.Theyweresenttotheworld,were
givenfilthybodies,and,accordingtothemagnitudeoftheir
sins,sorrowandpain,joyandpleasure.Thosewhohadnot
sinnedmuchandhadobeyedmostofGod'scommands
weregivenlovelyfacesandmildpunishment.Butthose
whodidonlyafewgooddeedsandcommittedalarge
numberofsinsweregivenuglyfaces,andweresubjected
toseveretribulations.Solongasananimalisnotpurified
ofallitssins,itwillbealwayschangingitsforms.

4.BishribnalMu'tamir

OneofthecelebratedpersonalitiesofalNazzam'scircleis
BishribnalMu'tamir.Theexactdateofhisbirthisnot
known,buthisdateofdeathis210/825.

Bishrmadethe"TheoryofGeneratedActs"(taulid)current

amongtheMu'tazilites.TheMu`tazilitesbelieve
infreewill.Theyadmitthatmanistheauthorofhis
voluntaryactions.Someactionsarisebywayof
mubasharah,i.e.,theyarecreateddirectlybyman,but
someactionsarisebywayoftaulid,i.e.,theynecessarily
resultfromtheactsdonebywayofmubasharah.Throwing
ofastoneinwater,forexample,necessitatesthe
appearanceofripples.Evenifthemovementoftheripples
isnotintendedbythestonethrower,yetheisrightly
regardedasitsagent.Similarly,manisthecreatorofhis
deedsandmisdeedsbywayofmubusharah,andallthe
consequentialactionsnecessarilyresultbywayoftaulid.
Neithertypeofactionsisduetodivineactivity.

BishrregardsthewillofGodasHisgraceanddividesit
intotwoattributes:theattributeofessenceandtheattribute
ofaction.ThroughtheattributeofessenceHewillsallHis
actionsaswellasmen'sgooddeeds.Heisabsolutelywise,
andinconsequenceHiswillisnecessarilyconcernedwith
thatwhichissuitableandsalutary.Theattributeofaction
alsoisoftwokinds.IfactionsareconcernedwithGod,
theywouldimplycreation,andifconcernedwithmen,they
wouldmeancommand.

AccordingtoBishhr,Godcouldhavemadeadifferent
world,betterthanthepresentone,inwhichallmighthave
attainedsalvation.Butinoppositiontothecommon
Mu'tazilitebelief,BishrheldthatGodwasnotboundto
createsuchaworld.AllthatwasnecessaryforGodtodo
wasthatHeshouldhavebestoweduponmanfreewilland
choice,andafterthatitwassufficienttobestowreasonfor
hisguidancetodiscoverdivinerevelationandthelawsof
nature,andcombiningreasonwithchoice,attainsalvation.

Mu'tamir'spupilabuMusaIsabinSabih,nicknamed
Mizdar,wasaverypiousmanandwasgiventhetitleofthe
hermitoftheMu'tazilites.Heheldsomeverypeculiar
views.God,hethought,couldacttyrannicallyandlie,and
thiswouldnotmakeHislordshipimperfect.Thestyleof
theQur'anisnotinimitableaworklikeitorevenbetter
thanitcanbeproduced.ApersonwhoadmitsthatGodcan
beseenbytheeye,thoughwithoutform,isanunbeliever,
andhewhoisdoubtfulabouttheunbeliefofsuchaperson
isalsoanunbeliever.

5.Mu'ammar

Mu'ammar'sfullnamewasMu'ammaribn`Abbad
alSulami.Neitherthedateofhisbirthnorthatofhisdeath
canbedeterminedprecisely.Accordingtosome,hediedin
228/842.

ToagreatextentMu`ammar'sideastallywiththoseofthe
otherMu'tazilites,butheresortstogreatexaggerationinthe
denialofthedivineattributesandintheTheoryof
Predestination.

Thefollowingisthegistofhisideas.

(1)DenialofDivineKnowledgeMu'ammarmaintainsthat
theessenceofGodisfreefromeveryaspectofplurality.He
isoftheviewthatifwebelieveintheattributesofGod,
thenGod'sessencebecomespluraltherefore,hedeniesall
theattributes,andinthisdenialheissovehementthathe
saysthatGodknowsneitherHimselfnoranyoneelse,for
knowing(orknowledge)issomethingeitherwithinor
withoutGod.Inthefirstcase,itnecessarilyfollowsthatthe
knowerandtheknownareoneandthesame,whichis
impossible,foritisnecessarythattheknownshouldbe
otherthananddistinctfromtheknower.Ifknowledgeisnot
somethingwithinGod,andtheknownisseparatefromthe
knower,itmeansthatGod'sessenceisdual.Further,it
followsalsothatGod'sknowledgeisdependentonandisin
needofan"other."Consequently,Hisabsolutenessis
entirelydenied.

ByMu'ammar'stimes,moreandmorepeopleweretaking
interestinphilosophyandNeoPlatonismwasgaining
ground.IndenyingtheattributesMu'ammarwasfollowing

inthefootstepsofPlotinus.Accordingtothebasic
assumptignsofPlotinus,theessenceofGodisoneand
absolute.Godissotranscendentthatwhateverwesayof
HimmerelylimitsHim.HencewecannotattributetoHim
beauty,goodness,thought,orwill,forallsuchattributesare
limitationsandimperfections.WecannotsaywhatHeis,
butonlywhatHeisnot.Asapoethassaid,Heis

"TheOnewhomthereasondoesnotknow,
TheEternal,theAbsolutewhomneithersensesknownor
fancy.
HeissuchaOne,whocannotbecountedHeissuchaPure
Being!"

ItisuniversallybelievedinIslamthathumanreason,
understanding,senses,orfancycannotfathomtheessence
ofGodortherealityofHisattributesorHisorigin.Says
`Attar

"WhyexerttoprobetheessenceofGod?
Whystrainthyselfbystretchingthylimitations?
Whenthoucanstnotcatcheventheessenceofanatom,
HowcanstthouclaimtoknowtheessenceofGod
Himself?"

ToreflectontheessenceofGodhasbeenregardedas
"illegitimatethinking."TheProphetofIslamisreportedto
havesaid:"Weareallfoolsinthematterofthegnosisof
theessenceofGod."[22]Therefore,hehaswarnedthe
thinkersthus:"Don'tindulgeinspeculatingonthenatureof
Godlestyemaybedestroyed."[23]Hehassaidabout
himself:"IhavenotknownTheetotheextentthatThy
knowledgedemands!"[24]Hafizhasexpressedthesame
ideainhisownwordsthus

"Takeoffthynetthoucanstnotcatchanqa[25]
Forthatislikeattemptingtocatchtheair!"

(2)DenialofDivineWillMu'ammarsaysthat,like
knowledge,willtoocannotbeattributedtotheessenceof
God.NorcanHiswillberegardedaseternal,because
eternityexpressestemporalpriorityandsequenceandGod
transcendstime.WhenwesaythatthewillofGodis
eternal,wemeanonlythattheaspectsoftheessenceof
God,likeHisessence,transcendtime.

(3)GodastheCreatorofSubstancesandnotofAccidents
AccordingtoMu'ammar,Godisthecreatoroftheworld,
butHedidnotcreateanythingexceptbodies.Accidentsare
theinnovationsofbodiescreatedeither(i)bynature,e.g.,
burningfromfire,heatfromthesun,or(ii)byfreechoice,
suchastheactionsofmenandanimals.Inbrief,God
createsmatterandthenkeepsHimselfalooffromit.
AfterwardsHeisnotconcernedatallwiththechangesthat
areproducedthroughmatter,whethertheymaybenatural
orvoluntary.Godisthecreatorofbodies,notofaccidents
whichflowoutofthebodiesastheireffects.[26]

(4)Mu'ammarregardsmanassomethingotherthanthe
sensiblebody.Manisliving,knowing,abletoact,and
possessesfreewill.Itisnotmanhimselfwhomovesor
keepsquiet,oriscoloured,orsees,ortouches,orchanges
fromplacetoplacenordoesoneplacecontainhimtothe
exclusionofanother,becausehehasneitherlengthnor
breadth,neitherweightnordepthinshort,heissomething
otherthanthebody.

6.Thamamah

ThamamahibnAshrasalNumahilivedduringthereignof
CaliphsHaranalRashidandalMamun.Hewasinthose
daystheleaderoftheQadarites.HarunalRashid
imprisonedhimonthechargeofheresy,buthewasinthe
goodbooksofalMamunandwasreleasedbyhim.Hedied
in213/828.Thefollowingisthesubstanceofhisideas.

(1)Asgoodandevilarenecessarilyknownthroughthe
intellectandGodisgood,thegnosisofGodisan

intellectualnecessity.HadtherebeennoShari'ah,thatis,
hadwenotacquiredthegnosisofGodthroughthe
prophets,eventhenitwouldhavebeennecessitatedbythe
intellect.

(2)TheworldbeingnecessitatedbythenatureofGod,it
has,likeGod,existedfrometernityandwilllasttill
eternity.FollowinginthefootstepsofAristotle,hethinks
thattheworldiseternal(qadim)andnotoriginated(hadith)
andregardsGodascreatingthingsbythenecessityofHis
natureandnotbywillandchoice.

(3)BishribnalMu'tamir,whohadputintousagethe
theoryofgeneratedactsamongtheMu'tazilites,waswrong
inthinkingthatmenarenotdirectlybutonlyindirectlythe
authorsofsuchacts.NeitherGodnormanistheauthorof
generatedactstheyjusthappenwithoutanyauthor.Manis
nottheirauthor,forotherwisewhenadeedhasbeen
generatedafteraman'sdeath,he,asadeadman,willhave
tobetakenasitsauthor.Godcannotberegardedasthe
authoroftheseacts,forsomegeneratedactsareeviland
evilcannotbeattributedtoGod.

(4)Christians,Jews,andMagians,aftertheyaredead,will
allbecomedust.Theywillneithergotoheavennortohell.
Loweranimalsandchildrenalsowillbetreatedinthesame
manner.Theunbeliever,whodoesnotpossessandisnot
keentopossessthegnosisofhisCreator,isnotunderthe
obligationtoknowHim.Heisquitehelplessandresembles
theloweranimals.

7.AlJahiz

`AmribnBahralJahiz,acontemporaryofMu'ammar,was
apupilofalNazzamandwashimselfoneoftheImamsof
theMu'tazilites.Boththemasterandthedisciple,itwas
held,werealmostofonemind.AlJahizhaddrunkdeepof
Greekphilosophy.Hehadakeensenseofhumourandwas
agoodanecdotist.Heusuallylivedinthecompanyofthe
CaliphsofBaghdad.Hispermanentresidencewasthe
palaceofibnZayyat,thePrimeMinisteroftheCaliph
Mutawakkil.WhenibnZayyatwasputtodeathbythe
ordersoftheCaliph,Jahiztoowasimprisoned.Hewas
releasedaftersometime.Hewastheugliestofmenhis
eyesprotrudedout,andchildrenwerefrightenedathisvery
sight.Inhislastyearshehadastrokeofparalysis.Hedied
inhisninetiethyearatBasrahin255/869.Duringhisillness
hewouldoftenrecitethefollowingcouplets

DostthouhopeinoldageTolooklikewhatyouwerein
youth?
Thyheartbelieththee:anoldgarmentneverturnsintoa
newone."

Hewastheauthorofanumberofbooksoutofwhichthe
followingarenoteworthy:KitabalBayan,Kitab
alHayawan,andKitabalGhilman.Healsowroteabook
dealingwithMuslimsects.

ItwasthebeliefofalJahizthatallknowledgecomesby
nature,anditisanactivityofmaninwhichhehasno
choice.Hewasascientistphilosopher.Intheintroduction
tohisKitabalHayawan,hewritesthatheisinspiredbythe
philosophicalspiritwhichconsistsinderivingknowledge
fromsenseexperienceandreason.Itemploysobservation,
comparison,andexperimentasmethodsofinvestigation.
Heexperimentedondifferentspeciesofanimals,
sometimesbycuttingtheirorgans,sometimesevenby
poisoningthem,inordertoseewhateffectswerethus
producedonanimalorganism.Inthisrespecthewasthe
precursorofBaconwhomheanticipatedsevenandahalf
centuriesearlier.AlJahizdidnot,however,base
knowledgeonsenseexperiencealone.Since
senseexperienceissometimeslikelytogivefalsereports,it
needsthehelpofreason.Infact,inknowledgereasonhas
toplaythedecisiverole.HeSays,"Youshouldnotaccept

whateveryoureyestellyoufollowtheleadofreason.
Everyfactisdeterminedbytwofactors:oneapparent,and
thatissensorytheotherhidden,andthatisreasonandin
realityreasonisthefinaldeterminant."

AccordingtoalJahiz,thewillisnotanattributeofman,
forattributesarecontinuallysubjecttochange,butthewill
isnonchangingandnontemporal.

Heholdsthatthesinnerswillnotbecondemnedtohell
permanentlybutwillnaturallyturnintofire.Godwillnot
sendanybodytohell,butthefireofhellbyitsverynature
willdrawthesinnerstowardsitself.AlJahizdeniesthat
Godcancommitamistakeorthatanerrorcanbeimputed
toHim.AlJahiz,alsodeniesthevisionofGod.

8.AlJubba'i

Abu'AlialJubba'iwasbornin235/849atJubba,atownin
Khuzistan.Hispatronymicnameisabu`Aliandhisdescent
istracedtoHamran,aslaveof`Uthman.AlJubba'i
belongedtothelaterMu`tazilites.Hewastheteacherof
abualHasanalAah`ariandapupilofabuYa'qubbin`Abd
AllahalShahhamwhowastheleaderoftheMu'tazilitesin
Basrah.

OncetherewasadiscussionbetweenhimandImam
alAshariinrespectoftheTheoryoftheSalutarytowhich
referencehasalreadybeenmadeintheforegoingpages.
ThestorygoesthatonedayheaskedImamalAsh'ari:
"Whatdoyoumeanbyobedience?"TheImamreplied,
"Assenttoacommand,"andthenaskedforalJubbaisown
opinioninthismatter.AlJubba'isaid,"Theessenceof
obedience,accordingtome,isagreementtothewill,and
whoeverfulfilsthewillofanotherobeyshim."TheImam
answered,"Accordingtothis,onemustconcludethatGod
isobedienttoHisservantifHefulfilshiswill."AlJubba'i
grantedthis.TheImamsaid,"Youdifferfromthecom
munityofMuslimsandyoublasphemetheLordofthe
worlds.ForifGodisobedienttoHisservant,thenHemust
besubjecttohim,butGodisabovethis."

AlJubba'ifurtherclaimedthatthenamesofGodare
subjecttotheregularrulesofgrammar.He,therefore,
considereditpossibletoderiveanameforHimfromevery
deedwhichHeperforms.OnthisImamalAsh`arisaidthat,
accordingtothisview,Godshouldbenamed"theproducer
ofpregnancyamongwomen,"becausehecreates
pregnancyinthem.AlJubba'icouldnotescapethis
conclusion.TheImamadded:"Thisheresyofyoursis
worsethanthatoftheChristiansincallingGodthefather
ofJesus,althougheventheydonotholdthatHeproduced
pregnancyinMary."[27]Thefollowingareothernotable
viewsofalJubba'i.

(1)LikeotherMu'tazilites,hedeniesthedivineattributes.
HeholdsthattheveryessenceofGodisknowingno
attributeofknowledgecanbeattributedtoHimsoasto
subsistbesidesHisessence.Noristhereany"state"which
enablesHimtoacquirethe"stateofknowing."Unlike
alJubba'i,hissonabuHashimdidbelievein"states."To
saythatGodisallhearingandallseeingreallymeansthat
GodisaliveandthereisnodefectofanykindinHim.The
attributesofhearingandseeinginGodoriginateatthetime
oftheoriginationofwhatisseenandwhatisheard.

(2)AlJubba'iandtheotherMu'tazilitesregardtheworldas
originatedandthewillofGodasthecauseofitsbeing
originatedtheyalsothinkthatthewillofGodtoois
somethingoriginated,forifthetemporalwillisregardedas
subsistinginGod,Hewillhavetoberegardedasthe"locus
oftemporalevents."Thisviewheheldagainstthe
KarramiteswhoclaimedthatthewillsubsistsinGod

Himself,iseternalandinstrumentalincreatingtheworld
whichisoriginated,and,therefore,noteternal.

AgainstalJubba'iithasbeenheldthatindependent
subsistenceofthewillisentirelyincomprehensible,forit
tantamountstosayingthatanattributeexistswithoutits
subjectoranaccidentexistswithoutsomesubstance.Be
sides,itmeansthatGodwhohasthewillisdevoidofit,
i.e.,doesnothaveitaclearcontradiction.

(3)Fora1Jubba'ithespeechofGodiscompoundedof
lettersandsound:andGodcreatesitinsomebody.The
speakerisHeHimselfandnotthebodyinwhichitsubsists.
Suchspeechwillnecessarilybeathingoriginated.There
fore,thespeechofGodisathingoriginatedandnoteternal.

(4)LikeotherMu'tazilities,alJubba'ideniesthephysical
visionofGodinthehereafter,forthat,accordingtohim,is
impossible.Itisimpossiblebecausewhateverisnot
physicalcannotfulfiltheconditionsofvision.

(5)HeequallyagreeswithotherMu'tazilitesregardingthe
gnosisofGod,theknowledgeofgoodandevil,andthe
destinyofthosewhocommitgravesins.Withthemhe
holdsthatmanistheauthorofhisownactionsandthatit
liesinhispowertoproducegoodorevilorcommitsinsand
wrongs,andthatitiscompulsoryforGodtopunishthe
sinnerandrewardtheobedient.

(6)InthematterofImamate,alJubba'isupportsthebelief
oftheSunnites,viz.,theappointmentofanImamistobe
foundedoncatholicconsent.

9.AbuHashim

AlJubbaisson,abuHashim`AbdalSalam,wasbornin
Basrahin247/861anddiedin321/933.Inliteraturehe
eclipsedalJubba'i.Bothofthemundertooknewresearches
intheproblemsofKalam.Ingeneral,abuHashimagreed
withhisfather,butinthematterofdivineattributeshe
widelydifferedfromhim.ManyMuslimthinkersofthe
timebelievedthattheattributesofGodareeternaland
inherentinHisessence.Contrarytothisbelief,theShi'ites
andthefollowersoftheGreekphilosophersheldthatitis
byvirtueofHisessencethatGodhasknowledge.Hedoes
notknowbyvirtueofHisknowledge.Thedivineessence,
whichiswithoutqualityandquantity,isoneandinnoway
doesitadmitofplurality.AccordingtotheMu'tazilites,
attributesconstitutetheessenceofGod,i.e.,Godposses
knowledgeduetotheattributeofknowledge,butthis
attributeisidenticalwithHisessence.Godknowsbyvirtue
ofHisknowledgeandknowledgeisHisessencesimilarly,
HeisomnipotentbyvirtueofHispower,etc.AlJubbais
theoryisthatthoughGodknowsaccordingtoHisessence,
yetknowingisneitheranattributenorastate,owingto
whichGodmaybecalledaknower.

Asasolutiontothisproblem,abuHashimpresentsthe
conceptionof"state."Hesaysthatweknowessenceand
knowitindifferentstates.Thestatesgoonchanging,but
theessenceremainsthesame.Thesestatesarein
themselvesinconceivabletheyareknownthroughtheir
relationtoessence.Theyaredifferentfromtheessence,but
arenotfoundapartfromtheessence.Toquotehisown
words,"Astateinitselfisneitherexistentnornonexistent,
neitherunknownnorknown,neithereternalnorcontingent
itcannotbeknownseparately,butonlytogetherwiththe
essence."

AbuHashimsupportshisconceptionofstatesbythis
argument:Reasonevidentlydistinguishesbetweenknowing
athingabsolutelyandknowingittogetherwithsome
attribute.Whenweknowanessence,wedonotknow,that
itisknowingalso.Similarly,whenweknowasubstance,
wedonotknowwhetheritisboundedorwhetherthe
accidentssubsistinit.Certainly,manperceivesthe
commonqualitiesofthingsinonethingandthe

differentiatingqualitiesinanother,andnecessarilygains
knowledgeofthefactthatthequalitywhichiscommonis
differentfromthequautywhichisnotcommon.Theseare
rationalpropositionsthatnosanemanwoulddeny.Their
locusisessenceandnotanaccident,forotherwiseitwould
necessarilyfollowthatanaccidentsubsistsinanother
accident.Inthisway,statesarenecessarilydetermined.
Therefore,tobeaknoweroftheworldreferstoastate,
whichisanattributebesidestheessenceandhasnotthe
samesenseastheessence.InlikemannerabuHashim
provesthestatesforGodthesestatesarenotfoundapart
butwiththeessence.

AlJubba'iandtheotherdeniersofstatesrefutethistheory
ofabuHashim.AlJubba'isaysthatthesestatesarereally
mentalaspectsthatarenotcontainedinthedivineessence
butarefoundinthepercipient,i.e.,intheperceiverofthe
essence.Inotherwords,theyaresuchgeneralizationsor
relationsasdonotexistexternallybutarefoundonlyinthe
percipient'smind.IbnTaimiyyahalsodeniesstates.Inthis
respectoneofhiscoupletshasgainedmuchfame

"AbuHashimbelievesinState,alAsh'ariin
AcquisitionandalNazzam
inLeap.
Thesethreethingshaveverbal
andnorealexistence."[28]

Afteralittlehesitation,ImamBaqilanisupportedabu
Hashim'sviews.ImamalAsh'ariandthemajorityofhis
followersdisputedthemandImamalHaramainfirst
supportedbutlateropposedthem.

THEEND

BesidestheMu'tazilitesanaccountofwhoseviewshas
beengivenaboveinsomedetail,thereweresomeothers
thedetailsofwhosebeliefsaregivenintheMilal
walNahalofShahrastaniandalFarqbainalFiraqof
alBaghdadi.Theywere`Amribn`Ubaidabu'Ali`Amr
binQa'idAswariwhohadalmostthesamepositionas
alNazzam,butdifferedfromhimintheviewthatGodhas
nopoweroverwhatHeknowsHedoesnotdo,orwhatHe
saysHewouldnotdo,andmanhasthepowertodothat
abuJa'farMuhammadibn`AbdAllahwhoshared
alNazzam'sviewsbutbelievedthattoGodcanbe
attributedthepowertooppresschildrenandmadmen,but
notthosewhoareintheirfullsensesJafaribnBishrand
JafaribnHarbwhoheldthatamongthecorruptofthe
Muslimcommunitythereweresomewhowereworsethan
theJews,Christians,andMagians,andthatthosewho
committedtrivialsinswouldalsobecondemnedtoeternal
hellHishamibn`AmralFuwatiwhohadveryexaggerated
viewsontheproblemofpredestinationanddidnotascribe
anyacttoGodandabuQasim`AbdAllahibnAhmadibn
MahmudalBalkhi,aMu'taziliteofBaghdadknownas
alKa'bi,whousedtosaythatthedeedofGodis
accomplishedwithoutHiswill.WhenitissaidthatGod
willsdeeds,itisimpliedthatHeistheircreatorandthereis
wisdominHisdoingsoandwhenitissaidthatHeof
Himselfwillsthedeedsofothers,allthatismeantisthat
Hecommandsthesedeeds.AlKa'bibelievedthatGod
neitherseesHimselfnorothers.Hisseeingandhearing
meannothingotherthanHisknowledge.AlKa'biwrotea
commentaryontheQur'anwhichconsistedoftwelve
volumes.Noonetillthenhadwrittensuchavoluminous
commentary.Hediedin309/921.

Notes:
[1]Thenameofthissectisahladwa'id.

[2]ThisgroupiscalledtheMurji'ites.Thesamewasthe
beliefofJahmbinSafwaalso.
[3]Hiscompanion,`Amribn`Ubaid,fromthebeginning,
sharedthisviewofhisI'heKhawarijtoocomeunderthe
samecategory.
[4]AlShahrastani,KitabalMilalwalNihal,quotedbyA.
J.WensinekinTheMuslimCreed,Cambridge,1932,p.62.
[5]Ibid.,pp.62,63.
[6]SiddiqHasan,KashfalGhummah`anIftiraqal
Ummah,Matb'ahLahjahani,Bhopal,India,1304/1886,p.
19.
[7]Ibid.
[8]Cf.Urdutranslation:Madhaqal`Arifin,NewalKishore
Press,Luclmow,p.135.
[9]Qur'an,ciii,13.
[10]Ibid.,lxxii,23.
[11]Ibid.,xx,82.
[12]Ibid.,iv,48.
[13]Ibid.xviii,30
[14]Ibid.,xi,115.
[15]AlShahrastani.op.cit.,p.21
[16]Ibid.,p.24.
[17]Ibid.
[18]T.J.deBoer,"MuslimPhilosophy,"Encyclopaediaof
ReligionandEthics.
[19]AlShahrastani,op.cit.,ChapKhanehi`Ilmi,Teheran,
1321/1903,p.77.
[20]Quran,ii,120
[21]Thetradition:Innakumsataraunarabbakumkama
taraunahadhalqamar.
[22]Thetradition:KullualnasifitdhatiAllahihumaqa'.
[23]Thetradition:LatufakkirufiAllahifatahlaku.
[24]Ma'arafnakahaqqama'rifatika.
[25]'Anqa'isafabulousbirdsaidtobeknownastoname
butunknownastobody.
[26]AlShahrastanihascriticizedthisstatementof
Mu'ammar,op.cit.,p.29.
[27]AlBaghdadi,op.cit.,pp.18889.
[28]MuhammadNajmalGhaniKhanMadhahibalIslam,
Lucknow,1924,p.132.

AbdalKarimalShahrastani,alMilalwalNihal,Bombay,
1314/1896.TheodorHaarbrucker,Religionspartheinand
PhilosophenSchulen,2Vols.,Halle,185051theArabic
texteditedbyCureton,London,1846alBaghdadi,alFarq
bainalFiraq,tr.KateChambersSeelye,PartI,Columbia
UniversityPress,NewYork,1920ibnHazm,alMilal
walNihal,partlytranslatedbyProf.Friedlenderinthe
JAOS,Vols.XXVIIIandXXIXKrehl,Beitragezur
CharacteristikderLehrevomGlaubeninIslam,Leipzig,
1865H.Ritter,UberUnesreKenntnissderArabischen
Philosophie,Gottengen,1844I3.B.Macdonald,
DevelopmentofMuslimTheology,Jurisprudenceand
ConstitutionalTheory,London&NewYork1903A.J.
Wensinck,TheMuslimCreed,Cambridge,1932T.J.de
Boer,TheHistoryofPhilosophyinIslam,tr.E.R.Jones,
London,1903TheEncycdopaediaofIslam,prepared
underthesupervisionofM,Th.Houtsmaandothers,4
Vols.andSupplementLeiden,191338MuhammadNajm
alGhaniKhan,MadhahibalIslam,Luknow,1924al
Ghazali,Ihya'`UlumalDin,tr.intoUrdu:Madhaq
al`ArifinbyMuhammadAhsan,Lucknow,1313/1895
MubammadRidaHusain,alKalam`alaFalasifatalIslam,
Lucknow,1905MubammadImam'AliKhan,Falsafahi
IslamLucknow,1890abuMuzaffaralIsfra'ini,alTabsirfi
alDin,Egypt,1359/1941Mahmudbin`Umar
alZamakhshari,alKashshaf.