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Total Raffinage Chemie Explosion Loading and Response Seminar, 26 September 2012, Brussels
Gas Explosion Basics

Kees van Wingerden
GexCon AS
Bergen, Norway
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GexCon AS
Contents
General
Basic parameters; explosion properties
Flame propagation and acceleration
mechanisms
Factors affecting explosion
effects/consequences
Explosion loads
Summary
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Gas explosions: general course of events
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Definition explosion
An explosion is a chemical
process which causes a very fast
and considerable pressure
increase
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Fire triangle and explosion pentagon
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Contents
General
mechanisms
Explosion loads
Summary
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Explosive part of cloud
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Release - dispersion
Gas concentration in
monitoring point
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Explosion limits
LEL/LFL = Lower explosion limit / Lower
flammability limit
UEL/UFL = Upper explosion limit / Upper
flammability limit
These values can be found in literature for
atmospheric conditions.
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Explosion limits
Methane
5.0 15 %
Propane
2.1 10.1 %
Acetone
2.6 13 %
Cyclohexane 1.3 7.8 %

Heptane
1.1 6.7 %
Hexane
1.2 7.4 %
Ethanol
3.3 19 % (temp. = 13 42 C)
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Flashpoint: ethanol
1
Vapour
pressure,
Damptrykk
Ethanol
Etanol
Damptrykk
[bar]
Vapour
pressure
[bar]
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-40
-20
20
Temperatur, 0C.
40
60
80
Temperature [degC]
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Flash point examples

Methane
-188 C
Propane
-104 C
Acetone
-19 C
Ethanol
+12 C
Petrol
ca 45 C
Diesel
> 55 C
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Ignition energy (electric spark)
Hydrocarbons: MIE = 0.1 0.3 mJ

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Auto-ignition temperature (hot surfaces)
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Auto-ignition temperature
The lowest temperature of a hot surface at which
a mixture of fuel and air can ignite
Hydrogen
580 C
Methane
537 C
Propane
493 C
Acetone
535 C
Ethanol
363 C
Petrol
ca 250 C
Diesel
ca 220 C
Main rule; Increasing length of C-chain, - lower ignition

temperature.
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Chemical reaction
Simplified equation:
CH4+2O2+7.52N2
2H2O+CO2+7.52N2 +
heat
In reality: 100 equations

Product composition depends on
mixture, temperature, pressure
CO, CO2, H2O, H2, OH, CH4, N2
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Combustion at constant pressure

and volume
Combustion at
constant volume
P/P0=8
Burnt
gas cloud
Combustion at
constant pressure
V/V0=8
Unburnt
gas cloud
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Pressure development in
deflagrations
In closed vessels:
Pmax/Pin=(nexpl/nin)Tmax/Tin (nexpl/nin = ca.
1)
In vented vessels: usually: Pin<P<Pmax
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Explosion loads
Pressure
Drag (1/2u2)
Blast waves in the surroundings
Flames (direct contact)
Flying debris
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Contents
General
mechanisms
Explosion loads
Summary
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21

mechanisms
Laminar combustion
Flame instabilities
Explosion generated turbulence dominated flame
propagation
Deflagration-Detonation-Transition (DDT),
Detonation
Detonation
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Laminar flame propagation

Slow process (dominated by diffusion)
Typical velocities (burning velocities): 0.5
m/s
Expansion velocity: total velocity
becomes: 3-4 m/s
=
Sf
= Su +
Sg
Sf = Suub
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23
Laminar flame propagation
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Laminar combustion
Flame thickness: typically 1 mm
Typical laminar burning velocities
methane: 0.40 m/s
propane: 0.46 m/s
ethylene: 0.75 m/s
acetylene: 1.55 m/s
hydrogen: 3.25 m/s
Expansion ratio typically 7-10 (a=n2T2/n1T1)
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25
Laminar burning velocity
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Laminar flame propagation (in real cloud)

Terneuzen 1982: Ignition of vapour clouds resulting from
realistic releases of propane (up to 40 kg/s) into open
area (no congestion) results in low flame speeds and
negligible overpressures
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27
Flame instabilities
Flame instabilities will cause laminar flames
to accelerate, especially due to increase of
flame area
Examples:
Intrinsic instability
Chemo-diffusive instability
Acoustically driven flame instability
Taylor instability
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Intrinsic flame instability
Methane-air
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Intrinsic flame instabilities: DDT?

20m diameter balloon hydrogen (Fh-ICT
1982) resulted i max. 60 mbar overpressure
Lind-Whitson,
1977, various
gases, max. flame
speed 35.4 m/s
(acetylene)
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Taylor instability
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31
Turbulent combustion
Turbulence causes an increase of
burning velocities due to mixing of
combustion products and reactants and
due to an increase of the flame surface
area
Flame speeds (expansion + combustion)
can vary from 5-600 m/s
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Turbulent combustion
Flame thickness: dependent on
turbulence length scale
Turbulent burning velocity dependent on
turbulence properties
Flame quenching in case of intensive
turbulence and/or low reactivity mixtures
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33
> lt
< lt
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Explosion generated turbulence

Positive feedback mechanism of explosion
generated flow and combustion
Increased
pressure
Expansion
Combustion
Flow
interaction
Turbulence
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35
Explosion generated turbulence

Positive feedback
mechanism of explosion
generated flow and
combustion
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Flame acceleration
Pressure
300
10
Maximum Pressure [barg]
Flame speed
Mean flow velocity
Velocity (m/s)
36
200
100
Planar
1
Spherical
.1
.01
10
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
100
1000
Maximum Flame Speed [m/s]
Distance (m)
Front elevation of test vessel
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37
Experiments in a 50 m3 pipe
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Experiments 3-D corner
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39
P > 4.0 bar
P = 0.025 bar
Experiments in 3-D
corner
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Experiments 45 m long array of cross

flow obstructions; no confinement
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41
Experiments obstructed vs. non-obstructed
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Experiments obstructed vs. non-obstructed
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43
Detonation propagation process
High pressure (~20 bar) and high propagation

velocity (~2 km/s)
ZND-theory: shock wave followed by reaction
zone
Actual detonation: 3-D shock wave followed by
reaction zone
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Deflagration to Detonation
Transition (DDT)
Strong deflagrations can
transit into a detonation
Pipes: explosion
generated turbulence at
walls results in flame
accelerations and possibly
DDT
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45
Experiments in congested area

DDT and detonation
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Experiments DDT and detonation
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47
Experiments DDT and detonation
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Contents
General
mechanisms
Explosion loads
Summary
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49
Obstructions
The strength of gas explosions is strongly related to

the degree of congestion: confinement and presence
of obstructions
Important obstruction parameters are:
Obstruction diameter
(Volume)blockage
Dimensions obstructed area (length of flame path in
obstructed area); number of obstructions along flame path
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Confinement: flow field divergence

(5 obstacles, BR = 0.5)
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51
Effect of confinement (venting):

50 m3 representation of separation module
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Confinement
Gas explosions often occur in semiconfined geometries (mezzanines)
Confinement directs flow
Max. pressure is determined by
pressure developed by combustion
and pressure release through
openings
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53
Type of Fuel
(Wedge-shaped
vessel)
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Fuel Concentration
(wedge-shaped vessel)
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Overpressure ignition source location

500
edge ignited
centrally ignited
400
300
200
100
0
0
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Distance (m)
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57
Effect of ignition source position

(length of flame path)
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Effect of gas cloud size

Scenario 4
485
Process deck
75
65
62
72
475
Scenario 6
485
61
57
39
38
43
475
57
100
Process deck
44
32
61
321
689
553
11
206
683
360
288
1071
425
951
826
1144 1424
86
492
435
467
216
568 546
197
470
333
543
425
324
505
788 836
558
355
468
1292
548
524
152
302
142
75
75
85
95
105
115
125
75
26
18
18
9
12
165
172
122
10
385
75
85
95
105
115
125
385
75
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22
18
405
189
385
385
20
20
395
388
385
84
54
28
18
15
395
596
63
39
425
436
405
631
395
91
35
415
1811 1465
405
37
435
446
415
2108
30
445
1058
415
20
26
48
455
427
805 902
185
445
774
385
11
17
91
168
539
455
628
5
8
304
445
435
465
138
253
795
35
48
465
455
Process deck
475
37
63
59
465
Scenario 9
485
33
75
85
95
105
115
125
GexCon AS
29
59
Gas explosions in industrial installations
Main parameters affecting the course

of an explosion:
Number / orientation / location of
equipment, pipes & structural
components Degree of congestion
Vent openings / panels (size and
location) Degree of confinement
Gas cloud size and location upon
ignition
Gas concentration, inhomogenieties
Gas type (reactivity)
Moment of ignition
Active mitigation measures
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Contents
General
mechanisms
Explosion loads
Summary
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30
61
Explosion loads: pressure

Pressure affects in general walls / decks / big objects
where a pressure difference can be maintained during
a while
The pressures are highly dynamic and may vary
strongly in space (very complicated loading pattern)
P = 0.10 barg
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62
Explosion loads: drag

Explosion wind (drag) = 1/2u2 affects especially
slender objects (e.g. pipes) where pressure
differences across the object are quickly diminished.
Also drag pressures and

resulting drag forces
(1/2u2CDA) are highly
dynamic
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63
Explosion loads: blast

Far field effects: pressure- or shock wave generated
by initial explosion propagating into surroundings
Maybe important for loads on LQ or fire-screens on
e.g. neighbouring platform
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64
Contents
General
mechanisms
Explosion loads
Summary
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32
65
Thank you very much for your

attention!!
kees@gexcon.com
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33

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Total Raffinage Chemie Explosion Loading and Response Seminar, 26 September 2012, Brussels

Gas Explosion Basics

Gas explosions: general course of events

Fire triangle and explosion pentagon

Explosive part of cloud

Cyclohexane 1.3 7.8 %

Flash point examples

Ignition energy (electric spark)

Hydrocarbons: MIE = 0.1 0.3 mJ

Auto-ignition temperature (hot surfaces)

Main rule; Increasing length of C-chain, - lower ignition

In reality: 100 equations

Combustion at constant pressure

Blast waves in the surroundings

Flames (direct contact)

Flame propagation and acceleration

Laminar flame propagation

Laminar flame propagation

Flame thickness: typically 1 mm

Typical laminar burning velocities

methane: 0.40 m/s

propane: 0.46 m/s

ethylene: 0.75 m/s

acetylene: 1.55 m/s

hydrogen: 3.25 m/s

Expansion ratio typically 7-10 (a=n2T2/n1T1)

Laminar burning velocity

Laminar flame propagation (in real cloud)

Intrinsic flame instability

Intrinsic flame instabilities: DDT?

Explosion generated turbulence

Explosion generated turbulence

Maximum Flame Speed [m/s]

Front elevation of test vessel

Experiments 3-D corner

P > 4.0 bar

Experiments 45 m long array of cross

Experiments obstructed vs. non-obstructed

Experiments obstructed vs. non-obstructed

Detonation propagation process

High pressure (~20 bar) and high propagation

Experiments in congested area

Experiments DDT and detonation

Experiments DDT and detonation

The strength of gas explosions is strongly related to

Confinement: flow field divergence

Effect of confinement (venting):

Overpressure ignition source location

Effect of ignition source position

Effect of gas cloud size

Gas explosions in industrial installations

Main parameters affecting the course

Explosion loads: pressure

Explosion loads: drag

Also drag pressures and

Explosion loads: blast

Thank you very much for your

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