Sandra Ruiz

Dr. D. Kuwabong

The Portrayal of the Chinese Diaspora in Caribbean Literature

In this paper I will outline the history of the Chinese immigration to the Caribbean, the role of
indentureship, and the resulting culture which emerged and transformed as the Chinese became a
part of the social and economic context of the islands which they later decided to make their
homes. I will focus primarily on the islands mentioned in the books I chose to focus on; The
Messenger and Gloria, without forgetting the other important islands they made their new home
on. Finally, I will discuss the relationship between the historical data and fictional characters.

Early to mid 19th century

The Chinese migrated to the Caribbean in two main waves. The first one being that if the
indentured laborers who were brought to the islands of Trinidad, British Guiana and Cuba. These
laborers were brought to work on sugar plantations during the post Emancipation period.

From as early as 1802 the colony of Trinidad was suggested (by Captain William Layman) as a
place to take the laborers, since they could replace the African slaves. The Chinese, being free
and civilized, were expected to set an example I the agricultural industry. For this, the first
Chinese immigrants were brought to the Caribbean in 1806. There were a total of 192 laborers
who arrived in Trinidad on the Fortitude. Unfortunately, this experiment was unsuccessful due to
a high mortality rate and the massive abandonment of the plantations by their workers. This
pattern of importing these laborers continued until the mid 19 th century. By then a total of 18,000
Chinese had been brought to the Caribbean.

1
March 14, 2016

Cuba had a similar case. More than 120,000 male Chinese coolies were brought over under
contract. The contracts were for a term of three to five years. Upon the fulfillment of these
contracts, they would not be able to return to China. Unfortunately, what was expected to happen
with these immigrants, for them to save the sugar industry, did not happen. The fact was that
many of these Chinese laborers abandoned the plantations, many before their contract had ended,
by redeeming or purchasing the remaining years. This phenomenon occurred predominantly in
Trinidad. On other islands, many decided to stay and establish a life for themselves there.

Mid to late 19th Century

During this period, Chinese laborers were taken to other islands as well. For instance, the
Chinese immigration to Cuba started in 1847 when the Cantonese and Hakka contract workers
were brought in to work on the sugar fields. An interesting finding here is that they brought their
religion, Buddism, with them. At a later point I will present how this fact resurfaces in The
Messenger.

Hundreds of thousands of Chinese workers were brought in during the following decades to
replace or inclusive, to work alongside African slaves. Upon completing their eight-year
contracts (unless they had bought themselves out of the contract earlier), some of the Chinese
actually settled permanently in Cuba, while others opted to go back home.

In the case of the Bahamas, the Chinese presence there dates back to 1879. The first Chinese
immigrants there came from Cuba after completing their contracts, and got their start in the
restaurant, laundry and cleaning industries. To the Bahamians, the Chinese were hard-working
members of their society and were commonly known as Celestials.

2
March 14, 2016

In Jamaica, the Chinese were primarily Hakka. Between 1845 and 1884, nearly 5,000 arrived in
Jamaica. Most arrived as indentured servants too. Their contract allowed them to return freely to
their homeland. Most of them did return.
During the 1800s many Chinese migrated to other Caribbean- bordered areas. Among these are
the Caribbean islands and Central America.

Early 20th Century

The second wave of Chinese immigration consisted of free voluntary migrants. Usually, these
were relatives of those who established themselves permanently on the islands of British Guiana,
Jamaica, Trinidad and Cuba. Most modern Caribbean Chinese are descendants of this second
group. An important fact to note is that this wave consisted predominantly of males who were
looking to make a better life for themselves. They established businesses and became a part of
the society they chose to live in.

Occupations of the second wave immigrants

The occupational trajectory of the Chinese in the Caribbean depended largely on what was
available to them in the respective places they settled. In Trinidad they became handicraftsmen,
barbers, tailors, bakers, carpenters, goldsmiths and woodcutters. In addition, they cultivated
crops which supplied local markets.

In Jamaica, the story was similar. The Chinese made a reputation for themselves as shopkeepers
and small businessmen. They were largely known for their grocery retail trade and this in turn,
encouraged their relatives and friends to migrate in order to also make a better life for
themselves.

3
March 14, 2016

In British Guiana, the economic situation of the Chinese was different from that of the Jamaican
and Trinidadian context. Here, the Portuguese indentured immigrants who had been taken to the
island, dominated the shopkeeping trade, making it difficult for the Chinese to establish a
monopoly. Here, the Chinese remained tied to the large plantations for their livelihood even
after their contracts were up to the point of reindenturing themselves. For these people, it was
easier to return home or migrate to another island in search of better opportunities.

As far as Puerto Rico goes, the information collected suggests that the immigration process was
the most difficult given the political situation of the island. The Chinese were forbade from
entering the United States (and Puerto Rico by means of being a US territory) until 1943. Shortly
after the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed (1943) and in the years after, hundreds of Cuban
Chinese fled from Cuba to Puerto Rico escaping Fidel Castro.

Changes came about later when the second and third generations of the immigrants moved away
from the routine jobs of their parents being that they were able to receive an education. They
became upward mobile establishing their own businesses and practicing their professions. This
caused traditional Chinese culture to be challenged, since this population shed aspects of their
ethnic identity in order to enter the ranks of the upper middle class and the business elite.

Marriage and Relationships

The Chinese indentured laborers brought to the Caribbean, were in the most part males. What
this logically meant was that they had few options as far as forming families. The indentured
immigrants married and co-habited with women of other ethnic groups. These interracial unions
also included Portuguese and Indians, leading to a mixed Chinese group ( la China from the
Messenger). This relationships with mulatto, black and white women resulted in a creole
Chinese population. The practice of buying slave women and then freeing them for the purpose
4
March 14, 2016

of marriage was greatly utilized. These free Chinese immigrants were known to have
relationships with women who would not only satisfy them but help them. In keeping with this
philosophy, many men married women who were also shopkeepers. This would help them gain
power businesswise but also create more trust in them from the society.
The Chinese immigrants who arrived in the 20th century did not intermarry with other ethnic
groups to the extent that their indentured laborer ancestors did. By means of interviews with
older Chinese revealed that it was very common for a young man to send away for a mail order
bride when the time for him to settle down and so Chinese women were shipped to the Caribbean
for this purpose. This practice was established in order for the Chinese to reconstruct their
families in the Caribbean. It is important to note however, that these single Chinese males whom
found themselves in the Caribbean during the first half of the 20 th century had children with
African women before they married their Chinese wives. This being the case, it was very
common for these immigrants to have dual families, one Chinese and one creole.

At the end of World War II and with the creolization of second third and fourth generations, the
traditional arranged marriages (mail order brides) became rare and only took place amongst
those few who were born in China.

As far as the domestic unit is concerned, the traditional Chinese patriarchal family is virtually
nonexistent. The household unit is the nuclear family in which the women work and have an
equal participation and voice in family affairs. The households however, are linked to the
extended family with whom they depend on or child care among others.

Chinese Religious Practices

The Chinese who came to settle in the Caribbean during the first wave o immigrants chose to, in
some form or another settle for syncretism between their religion and that of their new living
5
March 14, 2016

situation. Such is the case of those who chose to adopt the Catholic faith. By 1891, a majority
had become Anglican. These Chinese understood that upward mobility had to be on Creole
terms, requiring them to assimilate the religions of the Westerners, and in turn, have a better
chance for educating their families since the churches sponsored many off the better schools. On
the other hand, others usually of the lower class, preferred more exuberant forms of worship like
Shango, Spiritual Baptists, etc. (as depicted in The Messenger).

The Chinese Presence in the Messenger and Gloria

The research done in order to provide the summary above of the impact of the Chinese in the
Caribbean has greatly helped me to understand how the characters presented in these two novels
fit into the society they were written into.

In the case of The Messenger, Yuan Pei Fu was the main Chinese character presented. Pei Fu
was one of the last original coolies in Cuba. He had sailed on The Oquendo in 1847 with his
father among others. When Yuan Pei Fu arrived at the age of eight in Cuba, he was given the
task to take care of the image of Cuang Cong by his father. He then carried on the religious
beliefs which were brought by the indentured laborers like him from China. But, in order to fit in
with the society which they were, Sanfancon, was born; a Chinese-Cuban saint, which allowed
religious syncretism for them. This way, they could continue practicing their beliefs while fitting
in to the new society. Yuan Pei Fu was known as a very well respected Chinese babalaow, who
practiced Chinese Santeria. Together with his Chinese paisansos, they worshipped this Cuban
saint.

This group of Chinese men (the story fits in to the historical fact that there were no women
brought over), in addition, formed a tight knit circle where they lived together, helped each other,
and worked as shopkeepers and businessmen. The novel states that his fellow Chinamen sold
6
March 14, 2016

different types of foods. As my research revealed, these were the typical jobs held by these
laborers who decided to stay on the islands after their term was completed.

As far as the family unit as previously discussed, (where men often having little to no access to
Chinese women), had relationships and therefore children with the creole mulattas, held true.
Yuan was the biological father of Aida. Although he did not marry nor live with her mother, he
provided economically for and looked after them. In fact, Aidas mother was married off to
another Chinese man, a much older one, who raised Aida in Yuans place. This fact was
unbeknownst to her growing up. In any case, Aida grew up surrounded by a mix of heritages:
Chinese, African and Cuban. This is a clear example of how being true to historical data, the
Chinese immigrants, in their quest to blend in with other members of their community/society,
established new bloodlines, perpetuating their race in the only way they possibly could given the
lack of Chinese women.

Yuan was portrayed in a very historically believable light. Whether it is in terms of his religious
beliefs, his economic contribution to society, or his romantic relationships, Montero definitely
did her research for this book.

As far as Gloria is concerned, again we see the presence of the Chinese immigrants, this time in
Jamaica. This was one of the first islands to which the laborers were brought. The Chinese first
arrived in Jamaica in the 1840s, also as indentured laborers. Having escaped this indignity, they
set up business in the Jamaican capital of Kingston selling lychee ice cream, oysters and booby
(sea bird) eggs. They also owned betting parlors, laundries, fortune-telling shops, supermarkets
and (business being a hard game in Jamaica) gang warfare. Racial tensions developed between
them and their black neighbors; mixed marriages were generally frowned on.

7
March 14, 2016

In this novel, Kerry Young, takes advantage of her Chinese-African heritage and her past life
experience of growing up in the Jamaican Chinatown to her advantage. Yang Pao, is a
reoccurring character, since he was the central figure of her first novel (called Pao) and in it, she
initially wrote about the Chinese community in Jamaica. Gloria, then becomes another chapter in
Paos life. In this novel, Young presents Pao as the Chinese man who, is involved in shady
business, for lack of better term. Pao finds himself attracted to Gloria but swayed into marrying a
Chinese woman for racial purposes. He accepts, although he is not happy with her because in
Jamaica, at that time in history, interracial marriages were frowned upon. At least with his
Chinese wife he can have the racially correct children.

Pao lives a tumultuous life, not being able to obtain his true happiness at home, but
unfortunately, Gloria doesnt feel the same for him. She accepts his advances only in return for
money. Unexpectedly, Gloria gets pregnant by him and has his child. This was a common
occurrence in men who were not able to marry a Chinese woman, although in this case, he
couldnt use that as an excuse.

Gloria, ironically, falls in love with another Chinese man, Henry Wong, a Chinese store owner.
Wong sees something in Gloria that reminds him of his daughter, Faye who is not really his
biological daughter. Again we see here the situation with the nontraditional family unit. Wong is
raising his non biological child, similar to the situation in The Messenger, where Aida was raised
by her Chinese non-biological father.

Wong tries to get to know Gloria and looks out for her as much as she will allow. She and Wong
develop a deeper friendship and he turns to Gloria when he can't talk to his overbearing African
wife who is obsessed with having more money, even though the couple is filthy rich. In this case,
Wong goes against what is expected and married an African woman, whom however, doesnt
make him happy either. Both men are looking for extramarital happiness in Gloria, although in
8
March 14, 2016

two different ways.

The Messenger and Gloria present an insight into the Chinese African and Chinese- Cuban
societies of the times in Jamaica and Cuba respectively. These characters are historically
accurate representations of what was occurring in the Caribbean. The arrival of the Chinese to
the Caribbean further complicated the already mixed cultures on these islands. The creole that
consisted of the African-Indigenous mix of the specific islands became a broader and more
complex culture with the arrival of the Chinese. To this day, the Chinese have remained to be
part of Caribbean societies where they are an integral part and contribute to the economy, arts,
sports, science and overall culture. The mixture of races nowadays is not as frowned upon as it
once was, so it is not a scandal to see interracial marriages, such is the case here on our island.

In this research, I learned about a historical past I was unfamiliar with. It would be interesting to
continue this research from a linguistic perspective, in order to see if there are linguistic traces of
the Chinese in the Caribbean.

9
March 14, 2016

Works Cited
Cohen, Lucy. The Chinese in the Caribbean (review) The Americas. 2007.
https://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/the_americas/v063/63.3cohen.
html
Claire Allfree. Kerry Young: Most people think of Jamaica as a place where people go round
killing each other. Metro. April 9, 2013 http://metro.co.uk/2013/04/09/kerry-young-mostpeople-think-of-jamaica-as-a-place-where-people-go-round-killing-each-other3588051/#ixzz42cS2HJnR
Ho, Christine. Chinese in the English-Speaking Caribbean. Encyclopedia of World Cultures.
1996. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3458001331.html

Rajkumar, F. "The Chinese in the Caribbean during the colonial era" in Cruse & Rhiney
(Eds.), Caribbean Atlas, (2013). http://www.caribbean-atlas.com/en/themes/waves-ofcolonization-and-control-in-the-caribbean/daily-lives-of-caribbean-people-undercolonialism/the-chinese-in-the-caribbean-during-the-colonial-era.html.
Wilson, Andrew. Chinese in the Caribbean. http://www.markuswiener.com/books/chinese-inthe-caribbean/

10
March 14, 2016