AISC High Strength Bolts Webinar Handout - 4per PDF

High Strength Bolts - Geoff Kulak
April 14, 2011
American Institute of Steel Construction
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High-Strength Bolts: The Basics
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Presented by
Geoff Kulak, Ph.D.
Professor Emeritus at the University of Alberta
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April 14, 2011
High-Strength Bolts: The Basics

Fundamentals and Behavior
Specification Requirements (AISC 2010)
Role of the Structural

Engineer
Selection of suitable bolt

types and grades
Design of the fasteners

Responsibility for installation
Responsibility for inspection
ASTM A307 Bolts
ASTM A325 Bolts

Type 1 or Type 3 (weathering steel)
often a good choice when loads are

static
ASTM Spec.
strength level inferior to high-
RCSC Spec.
Minimum tensile strength: 120 ksi
strength bolts (60 ksi tensile ult.)
Pretension can be induced if desired
pretension indeterminate

April 14, 2011
Comparison of Bolts: Direct Tension
ASTM A490 Bolts
80
Types 1 or Type 3 (weathering steel)

Minimum tensile strength: 150 ksi,
bolt
tension
kips
(maximum 170 ksi)

RCSC Spec.
ASTM Spec.
Pretension can be induced if desired
7/8 in. dia. A490 bolt
60
40
20
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
elongation (inches)
9
comments contd
Comments
Nuts: ASTM A563

Washers: if needed, ASTM F436
Note: we quote the ultimate tensile

strength of the bolt
benchmark for strength statements (e.g.

shear strength is some fraction of
ultimate tensile strength)
Bolt nut washer sets implied so far,

but other configurations available
Bolt notation: Group A (A325, F1852)
What about yield strength?

What is proof load
and Group B (A490, F2280)
11
10
12

April 14, 2011
Loading of Bolts
Shear Loading
Shear
load transfer by shear in bolt and
bearing in connected material OR
load transfer by friction (followed by
shear and bearing)
Tension
Combined Tension and Shear
Truss Joint
13
14
Bolts in Tension prying
Bolts Loaded in Tension
Prying force
Bolt force
bolts in tension
Applied force
these
bolts in
shear
HighHigh-strength bolts in tension can

be a source of problems
15
16

April 14, 2011
Bolts in combined tension and shear

bolts in
combined
shear and
tension
bolts in shear
Consider a simple joint
P
P
17
18
Finally...
P
P{
and associated
shear stress
P
A
P/2
Free body
of bolt
P { a bearing force
P
19
P
P/2
this force is equal and

opposite to the bearing force
shown previously
20

April 14, 2011
In the example, we identified
AISC Standard 2010

Parallel LRFD and ASD rules
force in the bolt (a shear force)
LRFD uses a resistance factor,
force that the bolt imposed on the plate (a

bearing force)
ASD uses a safety factor,

Loads as appropriate:
force in the plate itself (a tensile force)
factored loads for LRFD

non-factored loads for ASD
force transfer could also be by friction:

friction:
not included in this illustration
21
Installation
AISC Specification contd

LRFD:
reqd strength LRFD R n
ASD:
reqd strength ASD R n /
22
SnugSnug-tight only
Pretensioned
Calibrated wrench
TurnTurn-ofof-nut
Other means:
Tension control bolts
LoadLoad-indicator washers
23
24

April 14, 2011
Behavior of a large joint (shear splice)
Bolts in Shear: Issues

Shear strength of bolt (single shear
or double shear, threads in shear
plane?)
average
bolt
shear
Bearing capacity of bolt (never
MPa
governs)
Bearing capacity of plate

Tensile (comp.) capacity of plate
deformation over , mm
25
26
Bolts in shear-type connections:
Slip in bolted joints

Can be as much as two hole
Specifications include information for:
clearances
Some bolts will already be in bearing

at start of loading
bearing type connections

slipslip-critical connections
Both laboratory tests and field
measurements indicate that slip is

more like 1/2 hole clearance
27
28

April 14, 2011
Bearing-type connections:
Bolts in bearing-type connections
Issues
Region of bearingbearingtype behavior
load
bolt shear strength

bearing capacity of connected material
member strength
Shear strength of bolts is not dependent

on presence or absence of pretension.
pretension
(How come?)
deformation
29
30
Individual bolt in shear
Bolt Shear Strength

Bolt shear strength 62% of bolt ultimate
tensile strength (theory
(theory + tests)
tests)
Design rule takes 90% of this value
Threads in shear plane?
Long joint effect: another discount
applied.
31
32

April 14, 2011
Physical test
Uneven loading
of bolts
(End four bolts of 13)
33
34
Back to bolt in shear
Bolt Pretension v. Shear

The bolt pretension is attained as a result of small
axial elongations introduced as nut is turned on
These small elongations are relieved as shear

deformations and shear yielding take place
Shear strength
of single bolt
(tests)
= 0.62 u bolt
Confirmed by both bolt tension measurements

and shear strength tests
So, bolt shear strength NOT dependent on

pretension in the bolt.
Shear deformation
35
36

April 14, 2011
Bolts in Shear AISC
nominal shear strength
R n = Fnv A b
Fnv = 90% (0.625 Fu ) = 0.563 Fu
R n = design shear strength

Fnv = nominal shear strength, ksi
e.g. A325 bolt, no threads in shear plane ,

Group A : see tabulated value in Table J3.2
(0.563 ksi Fu = 0.563 x 120 ksi = 68 ksi)
37
38
Comments
and
The discount for length (use of 90%) is
For threads included, the tabulated

values are 80% of the above.
If joint length > 38 in., a further reduction,
conservative
to 83%
The value used for this case (0.75) is

conservative
39
40
10

April 14, 2011
Lets return now to slip-critical

connections
Slip-Critical Connection
Clamping force from bolts (bolt pretension)
Load at which slip takes place

will be a function of ?
42
Bolts in slip-critical connections
Slip-critical joints specified when

Load is repetitive and changes
from tension to compression
(fatigue by fretting could
occur.)
load
Change in geometry of
structure would affect its

performance.
region of slipslip-critical
joint behavior
critical joints should be the

exception, not the rule (but,
see also seismic rules)
deformation
43
Certain other cases.

Comment:
Comment: for buildings, slipslip-
44
11

April 14, 2011
First principles, slip resistance is
Design slip resistance, AISC
R n = D u h f Tb n s
P = ks n Ti
ks = slip coefficient ()
n = number of slip planes (usually 1 or 2)
Ti = clamping force (i.e., bolt pretension)
slip coefficient
no. slip planes

clamping force
terms hf and Du need to be defined

and a value inserted for
45
and the modifiers
46
A note for advanced readers!!
h f = modifier re fills : either 1.0 or 0.85
= 1.0 for std. holes and for short slots
Du is a statistical parameter that

results in a probability of slip of 5% at
the service load level when the joint is
designed using factored loads.
= 0.85 for oversize and short slots parallel

= 0.70 for long slotted holes
D u = 1.13, ratio of installed bolt
The resistance factor reflects the

consequence of exceeding the slip
limit state. As the consequence of
slip gets more severe, the resistance
factor is decreased.
tension to specified minimum bolt tension

= 0.30 clean mill scale, hot dipped galvanized
and roughened, etc. (Class A surfaces)
= 0.50 unpa int ed and blast cleaned, etc.

(Class B surfaces)
47
48
12

April 14, 2011
Bolts in Tension
Bolts in Tension some comments
Capacity of a bolt in tension: product of

the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt
and the tensile stress area of the bolt
(i.e. Fu Ast )
Specifications directly reflect this

calculated capacity (
(to come)
Force in bolt must reflect any prying

action effect
Preference: avoid joints that put bolts
into tension, especially if fatigue is an

issue
Use A325 bolts rather than A490 bolts

Minimize the prying action
49
50
Bolt tension + external tension
Question
1. Pretension the bolt tension in

the bolt, compression in the plates
pretensioned bolt in a connection
2. Add external tension force on

connection
apply external tension force to the

connection
Bolt tension increases
do the bolt pretension and the
Compression between plates decreases
external tension add?
Examine equilibrium and compatibility

compatibility
51
52
13

April 14, 2011
And the result is
AISC rule, bolts in tension
The bolt force does increase, but not

by very much ( 7%)
This increase is accommodated
R n = Fnt A b
bolt area for nominal

diameter
nominal tensile strength
within the design rule.
R n = design tensile strength

53
What is nominal tensile strength, Fnt ?
Adjusted area
Call this Fnt

55
where Fnt = 0.75 Fu as tabulated

in the Specification
As we now know, the 0.75 really
has nothing to do with Fu
Pult = 0.75 Fu A b
So, the AISC rule for bolts in tension
R n = Fn t A b
Pult = Fu A st = Fu (0.75A b )
or,
54
56
14

April 14, 2011
Returning to shear splice joints,

we still have to deal with the
bearing capacity of the connected
material.
Bearing capacity (of

connected material)
ShearShear-out of a
block of material
or yielding
t
P/2
P
P/2
57
Bearing stresses at bolt holes

s Le
58
Shear-out rule
Shear - out is 2 ( ult Lc t )

Lc
t1
t2
Needed:
1. shearshear-out rule
2. yield rule
(deformation)
or, R n = 2 ( 0.75 u Lc t )
and AISC rule is: R n = 1.5 Fu Lc t
d
59
60
15

April 14, 2011
Plate bearing
from tests:
b
pl
u
Plate bearing
Le
d
Making the substitution and using
Fu pl
u
L
..after some arithmetic R n = b d t = upl e d t
d
R n = 3 d t Fu
valid for L e 3 d
61
Further note re bearing
Finally, the AISC rule for

plate bearing capacity is
When deformation a consideration,

use
R n = 1.5 Fu Lc t 3.0 d t Fu
R n = 1.2 Fu L c t 2.4 d t Fu
(with a -value still to be inserted)
Why this difference, and when do we

use the latter? (value of still to be
applied)
63
62
64
16

April 14, 2011
Failure (ult. load) is

by tensile fracture at
location shown,
regardless of
geometric
proportions.
Block shear
rupture
Shear yield along vertical

planes.
Failure is controlled by
ductility not strength.
65
Basics
An example of
shear + tension
failure in a
coped beam
Tr + Vr = A nt Fu + 0 .60 A gv Fy
where A nt = net area in tension
and
66
A gv = gross area in shear
tension fracture
shear yield
and some other requirements, including

specific case of coped beams, limit on shear
67
68
17

April 14, 2011
Back to installation
Bearing-Type Connections
Installation of Bolts
Bolts can be installed to snugsnug-tight
condition ordinary effort of worker using
a spud wrench. (Pretension unknown, but
usually small)
69
70
1. Calibrated Wrench
Installation
Installation
Reliable relationship between torque

and resultant bolt tension?
NO ! (and forbidden by RCSC)
Establish relationship by calibration

of the installing wrench.
bring parts together, continue turning nut,

bolt elongates, tension develops in bolt, and
clamped parts compress
71
72
18

April 14, 2011
Calibrated wrench, contd
Hydraulic calibrator
Adjust wrench to stall or cut out at
desired level of bolt pretension

Target value of pretension (RCSC) is
1.05 times specified min. value
Calibrate using at least three bolts
Calibration is unique to bolt lot,
length, diameter, grade of bolt
Washers must be used
73
2. Turn-of-Nut Installation
74
Does this
definition of
snug-tight
seem a little
vague?
Run nut down, bring parts into close

contact
Work from stiffer regions to edges

Establish snugsnug-tight
tight condition (first
impact of impact wrench or full effort of

worker using a spud wrench)
Apply additional oneone-half turn (or other

value, depending on bolt length)
How influential is snug-tight?

75
76
19

April 14, 2011
60
Bolt Tension by Turning the Nut
bolt
tension 40
(kips)
60
Bolt Tension by Turning the Nut
bolt
tension 40
(kips)
specified minimum
tension
20
specified minimum
tension
20
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.02
0.08
0.04
bolt elongation (in.)
bolt elongation (in.)
range of bolt
elongations
at snug
bolt elongation at one-half turn
bolt elongation at one-half turn

77
Inspection of Installation
78
Inspection of Installation
Principles:
Is bolt tension required? if not, why
Determination of the bolt pretension

after installation is not practical
inspect for it !
Know what calibration process is required
Understand the requirements e.g., are

pretensioned bolts required?
and monitor it on the job site
Observe the work in progress on a regular
Monitor the installation on the site
basis
Proper storage of bolts is required

79
80
20

April 14, 2011
Inspection of installation:
Snug tight only reqd.
Consider the following AISC cases
Bearing-type connections
1. Bolts need be snugsnug-tight only

2. Bolts are pretensioned (but not a slipslipcritical joint)
Bolts in tension (A325 only)

only when no fatigue or vibration (bolt
could loosen)
3. SlipSlip-critical joint
81
82
Inspection: if pretensioned bolts required

required
Inspection snug tight

Bolts, nuts, and washers (if any) must meet
the requirements of the specifications
All of requirements for snugsnug-tight case

Observe the prepre-installation verification process
Hole types (e.g., slotted, oversize) must
turn of nut, or;
Contact surfaces are reasonably clean

Parts are in close contact after bolts
other (direct tension washers, tensiontension-control

bolts)
meet specified requirements
calibrated wrench, or;
Calibration process done minimum once per day
snugged
All material within bolt grip must be steel
Calibration process done any time conditions

change
83
84
21

April 14, 2011
An inspected joint (turn-of-nut)
Inspection: for slip-critical joints

All of the above, plus
Condition of faying surfaces, holes, etc.
In addition to observing the calibration
process, the inspection must ensure that

the same process is applied to the field
joints
85
86
87
88
and some other comments

Pretension values greater than
those specified are not cause
for rejection.
Rotation tests are useful for
short-grip bolts or coated
fasteners (requirement is in
ASTM A325 spec. and is for
galvanized bolts)
22

April 14, 2011
Actual pretensions, contd
Actual pretensions, contd

For A325 bolts, turn-of-nut:
Average tensile strength exceeds spec.
min. tensile by about 1.18
A325, turn-of-nut: 35% increase

A490, turn-of-nut: 26% increase
A325 and A490, calibrated wrench: 13%
increase
etc. for other cases
Average pretension force is 80% of

actual tensile
Result is that actual bolt tension is

about 35% greater than specified bolt
tension
Note: these increased pretensions are

embodied in the specification rules
89
Some other options for bolts
90
Tension Control Bolts

region of
constant torque
ASTM F1852,
F2280
groove at which shear
will take place
91
92
23

April 14, 2011
Tension-Control Bolts
Tension control bolts.
NOTE: evidence that tips have
Advantages
sheared off is not in itself evidence

that desired pretension is present
Installation is from one side

Electric wrench is used
Installation is quiet
Consider limits:
Friction conditions are very high
high
Disadvantages
Friction conditions are very low

low
More expensive
Pre-installation calibration required
Hence, calibration is essential!

93
94
Direct Tension Indicators
Direct tension indicators
Protrusions formed in
special washer
Protrusions compress
as force in bolt is
developed
Use feeler gage to
measure gap (or refusal)
User must verify the process
(like calibrated wrench)
95
ASTM 959
96
24

April 14, 2011
Reliability of these...
Some additional topics
Calibration required
Details, other topics
Reliability same as calibrated wrench
washers (but not today!)
TensionTension-control bolt is torquetorque-dependent
slotted or oversize holes (but not today!)
LoadLoad-indicating washer is elongationelongationdependent
seismic design
97
Seismic design of connections
98
Pre-qualified bolted connections
Analyze structure in order to

compute the forces
Use FEMA 350 and/or AISC Seismic

Design Spec.
With forces now known, design

connectors
Advisable to use pre-qualified

configurations
Note: some details not shown,

e.g., continuity plates
99
100
25

April 14, 2011
bolted joints, seismic design

All bolts pretensioned
Faying surfaces as per slip-critical
Use bearing values for bolts
AllAll-bolted connection
moderate quakes: no slip

major quakes: slip will occur and bolts go into bearing
Normal holes or short slotted only (perpendicular)

No bolts + welds in same faying surface
101
Seismic design, contd
102
It all started with rivets.
Non-ductile limit state in either member or

connection must not govern.
Calculate bolt shear strength as per
bearing type but use 2.4 d t Fu bearing rule
Must use expected yield and ultimate

strengths, not the specified values
e.g. A36 plate : use 1.3 y spec.

103
104
26

April 14, 2011
Determine ultimate load for this gusset

plate (which is one that was tested)
Design
example:
gusset plate
connection
14.76
2
30
Fy = 39.9 ksi
Fu = 69.0 ksi
15.75
3@2.76=8.27
7/8 A325 bolts

(holes 15/16 in.)
2.68
t = 0.26 in.
7.22
Pu test =164 kips

(compression)
19.69
105
106
Set out the issues
Continuing
Brace force in tension
Brace force in compression
slip load of bolts (no slip at service load)
slip capacity of bolts (already checked for load

in tension)
shear load of bolts
shear capacity of bolts (already checked for

load in tension)
bearing capacity of plate
bearing capacity of plate (already checked)
block shear
block shear (doesn

(doesnt apply)
capacity of gusset plate in compression (New)
107
108
27

April 14, 2011
Slip load (calculate at factored load level)
R n = D u h f Tb n s (per bolt )
= 0.30 (clean mill scale)
h f = 1.0 (no fills))
Slip load calculation contd.
R n = D u h f Tb N s (per bolt )
= 0.30 1.13 1.0 37.88 kip 2 slip planes (std.holes) :
= 25.68 kips / bolt
A b = d 2 / 4 = 0.60 in.2 (7/8 in.dia.)

Fu = 120 ksi (A325 bolts)
n s = 2 slip planes
or, for 8 bolts, ( = 1.0); R n = 205 kips
Tb = spec. min. bolt pretension = (0.75 A b )(Fu )70%

= 0.75 0.60 in.2 120 ksi 70% = 37.88 kips
109
Shear resistance of bolts
110
Bearing resistance (use = 1.0)
R n = Fv A b
R n = 1.5 Fu L c t 3.0 d t Fu
Use =1.0 so that we can compare this

load with the test load, assume threads in
shear plane, no joint length effect
3 d t Fu =
Fv = 90% [0.62 120 ksi] = 68 ksi
3 7 / 8 in. 0.26 in. 69.0 ksi = 47.1 k/bolt
R n = 1.0 68 ksi 0.60 in.2 = 41.0 kips (per bolt )
1.5 Lc t Fu =
or, for 8 bolts, 2 shear planes, threads in shear plane

= (41.0 8 2)kips 0.80 = 525 kips
1.5 1.53 in. 0.26 in. 69.0 ksi = 41.2 k

111
112
28

April 14, 2011
Block shear
Bearing resistance
2.00
the governing value is 41.2 kips/bolt

and, for 8 bolts
3@2.76=8.27
Bearing resistance is 330 kips

2.68
A nt = (0.26)( 2.68 15 / 16) = 0.45 in.2
A gv = (8.27 + 2.00)2 0.26 = 5.34 in.2
Tr + Vr = A nt Fu + 0.60 A gv Fy
113
114
Brace force in compression:
Block shear, contd
Tr = 0.45 in.2 69.0 ksi = 31.0 kips

Vr = 0.60 5.34 in.2 39.9 ksi = 127.8 kips
and the total block shear resistance
(unfactored) is (31 +128) =159 kips
issue is sway
buckling in
this region
115
116
29

April 14, 2011
Whitmore
method.
Checking the buckling
30
Use beam formulae to
Whitmore method (checks yield)

Thornton method (checks buckling)
Modified Thornton method (checks
buckling)
check perceived
critical sections
Use 30o , as shown to
check yielding at
location shown.
Does not predict
ultimate capacity very
well, usually
conservative but
sometimes nonnonconservative
117
118
Thornton method, modified
Thornton method
Use longest (or
average) of L1, L2, L3

to compute a
buckling load on a
unit width column,
then apply this to the
total width.
Use k = 0.65 in the

column formulae
As per Thornton
method but
spread load out
at 45o
30
L1
45o
L2
L2
L3
L3
119
L1
120
30

April 14, 2011
Calculations for buckling capacity:
Yam & Cheng gusset plate tests

(U of A, 13 tests)
Pu
PW
Pu
PT
Pu
PT '
mean
1.33
1.67
1.06
std. dev.
0.26
0.12
0.08
Using scale dwg.

L2 = 9.65 in.
L1
Width of the 45o

base is 19.2 in.
L2
L3
c Pn = c A g Fcr (use c = 1.0)

well use this method
Fcr = (0.658
Fy / Fe
) Fy
use k = 0.65
121
Consider a 1 in. wide

strip that is 9.65 in. long
length =9.65
And applying this to the total width

Pu = (6.91 k/in.) (19.2 in.) = 132 kips
width = 1
and the test ultimate load on this particular

specimen was 164 kips
t = 0.26
r=
I
=
A
1
1 0.263
12
= 0.0751 in.
0.26 1
and then completing the calculations,

Pn = 6.91 kips (on a 1 in. wide strip)
123
122
so, Pu / PT = 1.23
(The corresponding ratios for Whitmore
and Thornton for this specimen were 1.31
and 1.80)
124
31

April 14, 2011
Some references
Summary of our calculations

Brace
Force
Tension
Compress.
slip bolt
plate block buckling test
load shear bearing shear
load
205
525
330
159
132
164
Load and Resistance Factor Design

Specification for Structural Joints
Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts,
Research Council on Structural
Connections, 2004 (RCSC)
(free download available at
boltcouncil.org)
boltcouncil.org)
125
126
References, contd.
G.L. Kulak, J.W. Fisher, and J.A.H. Struik,
Struik, Guide to Design
Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints,

Joints, Second Edition, John
Wiley, New York, 1987 (free download at RCSC website)
Bickford, John H., "An Introduction to the Design and

Behavior of Bolted Joints," Second Edition, Marcel Dekker
Inc., New York, 1990
Thank You!
G.L. Kulak, A Bolting Primer for Structural Engineers,

Engineers, AISC
Design Guide 17, Chicago, 2002
Larry Kloiber and Larry Muir, The 2010 AISC Specification:

Changes in Design of Connections,
Connections, Modern Steel
Construction, Sept. 2010
127
Please give us your feedback!

www.aisc.org/cesurvey
128
32

April 14, 2011
AISC Seminars
AISC Seminars
2011 Spring Schedule 6 seminar topics coming to

26 cities
Upcoming Cities for April:
Detroit Houston Denver
Upcoming Cities for May:
St. Louis Boston - Miami
Philadelphia Sacramento
2nd Thursday of the month
No webinar in May
June 9, 2011: Extended Shear Plate Connections
Larry Muir
July 14, 2011: Design For Stability Lou
Geschwindner
www.aisc.org/seminars
www.aisc.org/webinars
AISC eLearning
AISC SteelCamp
Over 60 hours of presentations available

anytime, online.
2 day, 4 topics, 15 hours of Continuing

Education,
One low price.
CEUs/PDHs are available.
New York City June 16-17

San Francisco July 21-22
www.aisc.org/elearning
www.aisc.org/steelcamp
33

AISC High Strength Bolts Webinar Handout - 4per PDF

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AISC High Strength Bolts Webinar Handout - 4per PDF

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High Strength Bolts - Geoff Kulak

April 14, 2011

American Institute of Steel Construction

AISC Live Webinars

AISC Live Webinars

Thank you for joining our live webinar today.

Todays audio will be broadcast through the internet.

Theres always a solution in steel.

Theres always a solution in steel.

AISC Live Webinars

High-Strength Bolts: The Basics

Todays live webinar will begin shortly.

Todays audio will be broadcast through the internet.

Theres always a solution in steel.

There's always a solution in steel.

Theres always a solution in steel.

High Strength Bolts - Geoff Kulak

American Institute of Steel Construction

High-Strength Bolts: The Basics

Role of the Structural

Selection of suitable bolt

Design of the fasteners

ASTM A307 Bolts

ASTM A325 Bolts

often a good choice when loads are

strength level inferior to high-

Minimum tensile strength: 120 ksi

strength bolts (60 ksi tensile ult.)

Pretension can be induced if desired

There's always a solution in steel.

High Strength Bolts - Geoff Kulak

American Institute of Steel Construction

Comparison of Bolts: Direct Tension

ASTM A490 Bolts

Types 1 or Type 3 (weathering steel)

(maximum 170 ksi)

7/8 in. dia. A490 bolt

7/8 in. dia. A325 bolt

7/8 in. dia. A307 bolt

Nuts: ASTM A563

Note: we quote the ultimate tensile

benchmark for strength statements (e.g.

Bolt nut washer sets implied so far,

Bolt notation: Group A (A325, F1852)

What about yield strength?

and Group B (A490, F2280)

There's always a solution in steel.

High Strength Bolts - Geoff Kulak

American Institute of Steel Construction

Bolts in Tension prying

Bolts Loaded in Tension

HighHigh-strength bolts in tension can

There's always a solution in steel.

High Strength Bolts - Geoff Kulak

American Institute of Steel Construction

Bolts in combined tension and shear

Consider a simple joint

There's always a solution in steel.

this force is equal and

High Strength Bolts - Geoff Kulak

American Institute of Steel Construction

In the example, we identified