International Journal of Food Science

and Technology (IJFST)

Vol. 6, Issue 2, Apr 2016, 11 - 22
TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.

DEVELOPMENT OF FOXTAIL MILLET BASED EXTRUDED FOOD PRODUCT

GEETHA H P1, P F MATHAD2, UDAYKUMAR NIDONI3 & C T RAMACHANDRA4
3

Head, Department of Processing & Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka, India
1,2,4

Assistant Professor Department of Processing & Food Engineering, College of

Agricultural Engineering, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka, India

ABSTRACT
The present study was aimed on the use of Foxtail millet (Setaria italica) along with other flour for production
of ready-to-eat snack products using extrusion cooking. The ultimate objective is to blend the millet with other crops to
enable their popularization, commercialisation and thereby provide additional opportunities to the farmers in semi-arid
regions. Amalgamated flours were prepared using whole Foxtail millet flour and other flours namely; rice flour, chick
pea, and flaxseed flour. Extrusion cooking was carried out using a twin screw extruder at optimised extrusion
parameters namely temperature: 115C and 90C for two different heating zones, die diameter: 3 mm and screw speed:
400 rpm. Nutritional analysis of extrudate were made along with physical properties namely mass flow rate, bulk density,
expansion ratio, water solubility index, water absorption index, water holding capacity, colour, texture and moisture
content were also analysed. The organoleptic qualities of extruded samples were analysed by panellists on a nine point

50:15:32:3) could be used to produce quality extrudates with acceptable sensory properties.
KEY WORDS: Extruder, Millets, Foxtail Millet, Amalgamated Flours, Ready to Eat Snacks

Received: Mar 02, 2016; Accepted: Apr 06, 2016; Published: Apr 09, 2016; Paper Id.: IJFSTAPR20162

Original Article

hedonic scale. The results indicated that composite flour (Foxtail millet; Rice; Chickpea; Flaxseed in the ratios of

INTRODUCTION
The major cereals and millets consumed in India are rice, wheat, sorghum, bajra, and ragi. These grains
are the main sources of energy as they contain 70-80% of starch and contributing about 70-80% of daily energy
intake of Indian diet. Since cereals/millets are the cheapest source of energy, their contribution of energy intake is
highest among the poor income families. Cereals contain protein, calcium, iron and B-complex vitamins and
provide more than 50% of daily protein intake.
Rice (Oryza sativa) is a staple food crop for a large part of the worlds human population, making it the
second most consumed cereal grain. Rice provides more than 1/5th of the calories consumed worldwide by
humans. Rice contains approximately 7.37% protein, 2.2% fat, 64.3% carbohydrate, 0.8% fiber and 1.4% ash
content (Zhoul et al., 2002).
Foxtail millet (Setaria italica) ranks second in the total world production of millets. It contains 914%
protein, 7080% carbohydrates and it is a rich source of dietary fiber (Hadimani and Malleshi, 1993). It contains
maximum amount of chromium among all the millets with an account of 0.030 mg per 100 g. Polymers of
hexoses, pentoses, cellulose and pectinacious material constitute the major portion of its dietary fiber (Malleshi,
1986). Millets are known for having amylase inhibitors. The carbohydrate digestibility of millet foods is not
affected because of heat-labile nature of the inhibitors (Chandrasekher et al., 1981).

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Geetha H P, P F Mathad, Udaykumar Nidoni & C T Ramachandra

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is another legume, grown in tropical and subtropical areas, that presents high
potential as a functional ingredient for the food industry. India grows chickpea on about 6.67 million ha area producing 5.3
million tonnes which represents 30 per cent and 38 per cent of the national pulse acreage and production, respectively. One
hundred grams of mature boiled chickpeas contains 164 calories, 2.6 g. of fat (of which only 0.27 g. is saturated), 7.6 g. of
dietary fibre and 8.9 g. of protein. Chickpeas also provide dietary phosphorus (4953 mg/100g), with some sources citing
the garbanzos content as about the same as yogurt and close to milk.
Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum): Flaxseed is a good source of phytochemicals and alphalinolenic acid, which is
converted to long chain omega-3 fatty acids in the nutraceutical and functional food area. Alpha linolenic acid is a
precursor to omega-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid. Although omega-3 fatty acids have been associated with
improved cardiovascular outcomes (Oomen, 2001). Flaxseeds contain high levels of dietary fiber as well as lignans, an
abundance of micronutrients Flax seeds lower cholesterol levels, especially in women. Flax may also lessen the severity of
diabetes by stabilizing blood-sugar levels. Flaxseed contains approximately 18.29% protein, 71.6% starch, 2.1%,
carbohydrates 28.8% sugars, 1.55 % dietary fibre and 42.16 % fat

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Raw Materials
The raw material namely foxtail millet and broken rice were procured from Raichur local market. Chick pea and
flaxseeds were procured from local commercial supplier. All raw materials were cleaned and grounded separately in
grinder and passed through 0.88 mm sieve. The grounded chick pea flour was fried at 60 C for five minutes and allowed
to cool at room temperature (Deshpande and Poshadri, 2011).
Extruder
Extrusion trials were performed using a co-rotating twin-screw extruder (Basic Technology Pvt. Ltd. Kolkata,
India). The main drive was provided with 7.5 hp motor (400 V, 3 phase, 50 cycles). The output shaft of worm reduction
gear was provided with a torque limiter coupling. The standard design of screw configuration for processing of cereals and
flour-based product was adopted in the present investigation. Barrel length to diameter ratio (L/D) was 8:1. The barrel of
the extruded received the feed from a co-rotating variable speed feeder. The barrel was provided with two electric band
heaters and two water cooling jackets. A temperature sensor was fitted on the front die plate which was connected to
temperature control placed on the panel board. The die plate of the die was fixed by a screw nut and it was tightened by a
special wrench. The initial experimental temperature was reached within 30 min and samples were poured into feed hopper
and the feed rate was adjusted to 4 kg/h for easy and non-choking operation. The die diameter was selected at 3 mm as
recommended by the manufacturer for the product. The barrel zone temperatures were kept constant at 115 C throughout
the experiments but die temperature was according to the experimental design.
Samples were poured into feed hopper and the feed rate was adjusted for easy and non-choking operation. The
automatic cutting knife was fixed on a rotating shaft of knife powered by D.C. motor. The cutter was driven by variable
speed by D.C. motor which was controlled by a knob placed on the panel board. The speed of cutter was fixed at 400 rpm
for all experiments. Extrudates were cut with a sharp knife, at the exit end of the die and left to cool at room temperature
for about 20 min. The cylindrical extrudates were dried at 40 C for about 2 h to obtain dry extrudates (Bhattacharya,
1997).

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Development of Foxtail Millet Based Extruded Food Product

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Composite Flour Preparation

The blend of flour were prepared first by mixing foxtail millet, broken rice and calculated amount of water and
flour was allowed to equilibrate for 15 min. The fried chick pea flour and flaxseed powder were added one after another in
the different ratios on a dry-to-dry weight basis shown in the Table 1. The composition of raw material was chosen
according to preliminary trial tests without jamming of extruder and for acceptable physical characteristics as well as better
nutritive value in the final extruded product. The blended samples were conditioned to a moisture content of 21 to 22%
(w.b.) by spraying with a calculated amount of water and mixed uniformly. The samples were put in buckets and stored at
4 C overnight. The feed material was then allowed to stay for 3 h to equilibrate at room temperature prior to extrusion.
This pre-conditioning procedure was employed to ensure uniform mixing and proper hydration and to minimize variability
in the state of feed material. The moisture content of samples was determined by hot air oven method (AOAC, 2005).
Table 1: Composite Flour Used for the Preparation of Extruded Product
Foxtail
Millet
(%)

Chick Pea
(%)

70.00

2
3

Sl. No.

Rice
(%)

Flax
Seed
(%)

Moisture
Content
(%)

5.00

24. 0

1.00

10.00

60.00

10.00

28.00

2.00

13.00

50.00

15.00

32.00

3.00

16.00

Temperature
(oC)

Screw
Speed
(rpm)

115.00

400.0
0

PRODUCT ANALYSIS
Mass Flow Rate
The mass flow rate was calculated by collecting the extrudates in a container for specific period of time as soon as
it comes out of the die and weighed instantly after cooling to ambient temperature (Singh et al., 1996). The experiments
were repeated thrice and the average mass flow rate was calculated by using the equation as follows:

3.1
Expansion Ratio
The ratio of diameter of extrudate and the diameter of die was used to express the expansion of extrudate (Fan et
al., 1996; Ainsworth et al., 2006). Six lengths of extrudate (approximately 120 mm) was selected at random during
collection of each of the extruded samples and allowed to cool at room temperature. The diameter of the extrudates was
measured, at three different positions along the length of each sample, using a digital vernier caliper with least count of 0.1
mm and their average was taken as the mean diameter of the extrudate. The experiments were repeated thrice and
calculated mean expansion ratio was calculated using the equation as follows:

3.2

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Geetha H P, P F Mathad, Udaykumar Nidoni & C T Ramachandra

Bulk Density (BD)

The bulk density (g/cm3) was calculated by measuring the actual dimensions of the extrudates (Chinnaswamy et
al., 1986). The diameter and length of the extrudates were measured by using digital vernier caliper with least count of 0.1
mm. The weight per unit length of extrudate was determined by weighing measured lengths (about 1 cm). The bulk density
was then calculated by using the following formula, assuming a cylindrical shape of extrudate. Ten pieces of extrudate
were randomly selected and average bulk density was taken (AOAC, 2005). The experiments were repeated thrice and
mean bulk density was calculated by using the equation as follows:

3.3
Where, m is the mass (g) of the extruded product, L and d are the length (cm) and diameter (cm) of the extrudate.

Water Solubility Index (WSI) and Water Absorption Index (WAI)

The WSI and WAI were measured using a technique developed for cereals (Anderson et al., 1969). The
extrudates were milled to mean particle size of 200-250 m. A sample of 2.5 g was dispersed in 25 ml distilled water at
room temperature for 30 min, with intermediate stirring using glass rod to break up any lumps. The dispersion was then
centrifuged at 3000 for 15 min. The supernatant was decanted into an evaporating dish with a known weight. The WSI was
the weight of dry solids in the supernatant expressed as a percentage of the original weight of sample, whereas WAI was
the weight of gel obtained after removal of the supernatant per unit weight of original dry solids. These were calculated
using following formulas;

3.4

3.5

Water Holding Capacity

Five gram of fine ground extruded sample was weighed and allowed to rehydrate overnight. It was reweighed and
water holding capacity was determined by using following formula;

3.6

Texture Profile Analysis (TPA)

Textural Analyzer (TA.XT Plus/TA.HD Plus) was used for measuring textural properties of extruded product. The
experiments were carried out by different tests that generated as plot of force (kg) vs. time (s), from which texture values
for extruded product were obtained. Three replications of each combination were taken for analysis. During the testing, the
samples were held manually against the base plate and the different tests were applied according to TA settings. The
textural properties such as hardness, fracturability, stickiness and work of shear were measured by using different tests viz.,

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Development of Foxtail Millet Based Extruded Food Product

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penetration test and bending test (Stable Micro Systems). A 2 mm cylindrical probe was used for the measurement of
hardness of the extrudates and three point bend ring was used for bending test.

Penetration Test by Using Cylindrical Probe

The penetration test is defined as one in which the depth of penetration (or the time required to reach a certain
depth) was measured under a constant load. In a penetration test, the 2 mm cylinder probe was made to penetrate into the
test sample and the force necessary to achieve a certain penetration depth or the depth of penetration in a specified time,
under defined conditions, was measured and used as an index of firmness. Cylinder probe used for penetration test on
extruded product to provide an index of firmness (hardness and fracturability). The probe was 2 mm in diameter.

Bending Test by Using Three Point Bend Rig

The textural property of extrudate was determined by measuring the force required to penetrate the extrudate. The
higher value of peak force required in gram, to breakdown the sample, means higher the hardness of the sample (Li et al.,
2005). In this test, the two adjustable supports of the rig base plate were placed at suitable distance apart so as to support
the sample. For comparison purpose, this gap was kept constant. The base plate was then secured onto the heavy duty
platform. The heavy duty platform was manoeuvred and locked in a position that enabled the upper blade to be equidistant
from the two lower supports. The sample was placed centrally over the supports and 3 point bend rig which provided a
variable support length up to 70 mm and width up to 80 mm was forced to bend the sample.

Sensory Evaluation
Sensory analysis is the scientific discipline used to measure, analyse and interpret reactions to those characters of
food material, as they are perceived by the sense of sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. In general, the sensory quality of
food is the consumer reaction to the physical and chemical constituents of food in the prepared and formulated form.
Sensory evaluation indicates the acceptability of the product. Acceptability of extrudate was judged, on a ninepoint hedonic scale. The sensory evaluation was carried out on the basis of colour, flavour, taste, hardness and overall
acceptability of the developed product. The sensory evaluation of the extruded product revealed that there were significant
differences among the treatments for the organoleptic qualities (Ranganna, 1995).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Physical Characteristics
The physical properties of developed extruded product such as expansion ratio, bulk density, mass flow rate,
water absorption index, water holding index, texture and colour were determined. The average values of physical
properties of foxtail millet based extruded product for all treatments are given in Table 2.

Table 2: Physical Properties of Foxtail Millet Based Extruded Product

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SI. No.

Treatments

ER

BD (g/cc)

MFR (g/s)

1
2
3
4

M1C1
M1C2
M1C3
M2C1

3.32
3.34
3.33
3.64

0.087
0.086
0.083
0.11

2.2
2.2
2.3
2.1

WAI (g)

WSI (g/g)

4.124
4.292
4.316
4.42

0.172
0.176
0.176
0.148

WHC (%)
371.5
366.5
388.2
315.4
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Geetha H P, P F Mathad, Udaykumar Nidoni & C T Ramachandra

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

M2C2
M2C3
M3C1
M3C2
M3C3
CFM1
CFM2
CFM3
F test
CD@1 %
SeM

3.65
3.66
3.67
4.01
4.05
3.34
3.58
4.00
**
0.32
0.0795

0.078
0.089
0.082
0.078
0.074
0.071
0.76
0.081
**
0.018
0.004

2.4
2.5
2.1
2.3
2.6
2.2
2.4
2.6
**
0.205
0.051

4.492
4.532
6.31
6.796
7.024
4.608
4.688
4.856
**
0.455
0.11

0.196
0.204
0.164
0.192
0.216
0.128
0.132
0.215
**
0.0161
0.0004

445
457.3
436.1
366.4
477.6
368
389.7
465.8
**
35.96
9.03

M-Moisture Content, C-Compositions of Different Combinations: F-Foxtail Millet Flour: ER: Expansion Ratio;
BD: Bulk Density; MFR: Mass Flow Rate; WAI: Water Absorption Index; WAI: Water Solubility Index; WAI: Water
Holding Capacity; T: Temperature; M: Feed moisture; R: Screw speed.
Expansion Ratio
Expansion is the most important physical property of the snack food. Starch is the main component in cereals
which plays major role during expansion process (Kokini et al., 1992). The expansion ratio of the extrudate ranged from
3.32 to 4.05 as given in Table 2. The maximum expansion ratio (4.05) was observed for treatment M3C3 i.e. 115 C
temperature, 16 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm whereas, minimum expansion ratio (3.32) was observed for treatment
M1C1 i.e. 115 C temperature, 10 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm.
The extruded product expansion increased with increase in the screw speed. The longer residence times associated
with low screw speed might be responsible for this, the material requiring more shear for a developed dough, resulting in
better expansion. (Senol et. al., 2006). However, increasing the level of feed moisture content resulted in increase in
expansion of extrudate as sufficient water was available for expansion of the extrudate and also water in the extruder works
as a heat sink/trap and lubricant and reduces shear strength. The similar findings have been reported by Park et al. (1993)
for extruded product prepared by defatted soy flour, corn starch and beef blends. Sun and Muthukumarappan (2002)
prepared extruded product by using corn flour and soy flour blends in a single-screw extruder and reported that expansion
ratio increased with increasing in feed moisture. It appeared that the expansion ratio during the process increased by 27.84
% for the treatments from minimum level (3.32) to maximum level (4.05).
Mass Flow Rate
The mass flow rate of the extrudate was ranged from 2.1 to 2.6 g/s as given in Table 2. The maximum mass flow
rate (2.6 g/s) was observed for treatment M3C3 i.e. 115 C temperature, 16 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm whereas,
minimum mass flow rate (2.1 g/s) was observed for treatment M1C1 i.e. 115 C temperature, 10 % feed moisture and 400
screw rpm. The variations in the mass flow rate of extrudate samples were less, due to constant maintenance of barrel
temperature (Deshpande et al., 2011).
Bulk Density
Bulk density is a major physical property of the extrudate product. The bulk density, which considers expansion in
all direction, was ranged from 0.074 to 0.11 kg/m3 for the extrudates. It was observed that the minimum bulk density
(0.074 kg/m3) was observed for treatment M3C3 i.e. 115 C temperature, 13 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm whereas,
maximum bulk density (0.1 Kg/m3) was observed for treatment M2C1 i.e. 100 C temperature, 13 % feed moisture and 350
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Development of Foxtail Millet Based Extruded Food Product

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screw rpm, as given in Table 2. The higher bulk density might be due to the presence of more crude fiber.
Water Solubility Index (WSI)
WSI is used as an indicator of degradation of molecular components. It measures the amount of soluble
polysaccharide released from the starch component after extrusion (Ding et al., 2005). The WSI was ranged from 0.128 to
0.216 (g/g) for the extruded product. The maximum WSI (0.216 g/g) was observed for treatment M3C3 i.e. 115 C
temperature, 16 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm whereas, minimum WSI (0.128 g/g) was observed for treatment
CFM1 i.e. 115 C temperature, 10 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm., as given Table. The water solubility index of the
extrudates increased when Bengal gram flour incorporation increased from 10 to 30 % in the composite flour.

Figure 1
Water Absorption Index (WAI)
WAI measures the amount of water absorbed by starch that can be used as an index of gelatinization and it is
generally agreed that barrel temperature and feed moisture exert greatest effect on the WAI of the extrudate by promoting
gelatinization (Ding et al., 2005). The WAI ranges from 4.12 to 7.02 g/g for extrudate. The maximum WAI (7.02 g/g) was
observed for treatment M3C3 i.e. 115 C temperature, 16 per cent feed moisture and 400 screw rpm whereas, minimum
WAI (4.12 g/g) was observed for treatment M1C1 i.e. 115 C temperature, 10 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm as given
in Table.
With increase in level of feed moisture content, there were increase in WAI. The available moisture was absorbed
by starch during gelatinization which caused increase in expansion. Also, it was might be due to the fact that moisture
content, acting as a plasticizer during extrusion cooking, reduces the degradation of starch granule, resulting in increased
capacity for water absorption (Hagenimana et al., 2006). In addition, water absorption was increased with the increase in
raw material moisture. Higher WAI values were recorded at higher feed moisture levels at lower WSI values as reported
for corn grits and corn starch (Anderson et al., 1969).

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Geetha H P, P F Mathad, Udaykumar Nidoni & C T Ramachandra

Figure 2
Water Holding Capacity
WHC measures the amount of water held by extruded product and it is generally agreed that barrel temperature
and feed moisture exert greatest effect on the WHC of the extrudate by promoting gelatinization (Ding et al., 2005). The
WHC was ranged from to 315.4 to 477.6 % for extrudate. The maximum WHC (477.6 %) was observed for treatment
M3C3 i.e. 115 C temperature, 16 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm whereas, minimum WHC (315.4 %) was observed
for treatment M1C1 i.e. 115 C temperature, 10 % feed moisture and 350 screw rpm as given in Table 2.
Increasing level of feed moisture content there were increase in WHC as shown in Figure *******The available
moisture was absorbed by starch during gelatinization which caused increase in expansion. Also it was might be due to the
fact that moisture content, acting as a plasticizer during extrusion cooking, reduces the degradation of starch granule,
resulting in increased capacity for water holding capacity (Hagenimana et al., 2006). According to Colonna et al. (1989)
the increased degradation of the molecular mass of the starch polymers could be the reason for lowered extrudate water
holding capacity. It was observed that the WHC was increased by 12.33 % for all treatments carried out from minimum
(315.4) to maximum level (477.6).

Figure 3
Textural Properties of Extruded Product
A value which the textural properties of developed extruded product, like hardness, fracturability, work of shear
and stickiness were obtained. Average values and its range of the textural properties of all the treatments obtained from the
TP are presented in Table 3.
Hardness (H)
Hardness of the extrudate was ranged between 162.2 and 535.6 g. The minimum hardness (162.2 g) was

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Development of Foxtail Millet Based Extruded Food Product

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observed for treatment CFM1 i.e. 115 C temperature, 10 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm whereas, maximum
hardness (535.6 g) was observed for treatment M3C3 i.e. 115 C temperature, 13 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm
given in Table 2.
Feed moisture content was found to have the most significant effect on extrudate hardness. Feed rate was also
found to have a significant effect.(Qing-Bo Ding et al.,2004).

Figure 4
Fracturability
Fracturability of the extrudate was ranged between 235.8 and 101.6 g. Results showed that the minimum
fracturability (101.6 g) was observed for treatment M3C3 i.e. 115 C temperature, 16 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm
whereas, maximum fracturability (235.8 g) was observed for treatment M1C1i.e. 115 C temperature, 10 % feed moisture
and 400 screw rpm given in Table 2.
Feed moisture was found to have the most significant effect on the fracturability of the extrudate. Increase in feed
moisture content significantly decreased the fracturability of corn based extrudate. Temperature had significant effect on
fracturability of the developed extruded product. However, increasing temperature decreases the fracturability of the
extrudate. Similar results were obtained by Ding et al. (2005) for rice-based expanded snacks.

Figure 5
Work of Shear
The shear of the extrudate was ranged between 715.2 and 350.8 g. It is observed that the minimum work of
shear (350.8 g) was observed for treatment i.e. 115 C temperature, 16 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm whereas,
maximum work of shear (715.2 g) was observed for treatment M1C1 i.e. 115 C temperature, 10 % feed moisture and 400
screw rpm given in Table 2. Similar findings were reported by Ding et al. (2005) and Camire and King (1991). It was
observed that work of shear value decreased as the feed moisture is increased.

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Geetha H P, P F Mathad, Udaykumar Nidoni & C T Ramachandra

Figure 6
Sensory Characteristics
Sensory evaluation indicates the acceptability of the product. Acceptability of extrudate was judged, on a ninepoint hedonic scale. The sensory evaluation was carried out on the basis of colour, flavor, taste, hardness and overall
acceptability of the developed product. The sensory evaluation of the extruded product revealed that there were significant
differences among the treatments for the organoleptic qualities. The quality was judged by the consumer panel team
consisting of fifteen members. Overall acceptability of extrudate ranged from 9.00 to 4. The treatment M3C3 i.e. 115 C
temperature, 16 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm mostly accepted by sensory panel (overall acceptability 9 ) whereas,
the treatment M1C1 i.e. 115 C temperature, 10 % feed moisture and 400 screw rpm was rejected by sensory panel (overall
acceptability 6.00). The second best treatment selected by sensory panel was M3C2 i.e. 115 C temperature, 16 % feed
moisture and 400 screw rpm with overall acceptability 8.75.

CONCLUSIONS
The developed composite flour (Foxtail millet; Rice; Chickpea; Flax seed in the ratios of (50:15:32:3) showed the
maximum physical characteristics such as expansion ratio, water solubility index, water absorption index, water holding
capacity, colour values which are 4.05, 0.216 g/g, 7.02 g/g, 477.6% and 79.01%(L*), minimum bulk density of
0.074 kg/m3.
The textural properties of developed composite flour showed maximum hardness of 535.6 g and minimum
fructurabilty and work of shear of 101.6 g and 350.8 g respectively. The composite flour could give acceptable sensory
properties. The present study revealed that, composite flour (Foxtail millet; Rice; Chickpea; Flax seed in the ratios of
(50:15:32:3) could be used to produce quality extrudates with acceptable sensory properties.
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