A descriptive study is one in which information is collected without changing the

environment (i.e., nothing is manipulated). Sometimes these are referred to as

correlational or observational studies. The Office of Human Research
Protections (OHRP) defines a descriptive study as Any study that is not truly
experimental. In human research, a descriptive study can provide information
about the naturally occurring health status, behavior, attitudes or other
characteristics of a particular group. Descriptive studies are also conducted to
demonstrate associations or relationships between things in the world around
you.
https://ori.hhs.gov/education/products/sdsu/res_des1.htm

Descriptive studies, primarily concerned with finding out "what is," might be
applied to investigate the following questions: Do teachers hold favorable
attitudes toward using computers in schools? What kinds of activities that
involve technology occur in sixth-grade classrooms and how frequently do they
occur?
Descriptive research can be either quantitative or qualitative. It can involve
collections of quantitative information that can be tabulated along a continuum
in numerical form, such as scores on a test or the number of times a person
chooses to use a-certain feature of a multimedia program, or it can describe
categories of information such as gender or patterns of interaction when using
technology in a group situation. Descriptive research involves gathering data
that describe events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the
data collection (Glass & Hopkins, 1984).
Descriptive studies report summary data such as measures of central tendency
including the mean, median, mode, deviance from the mean, variation,
percentage, and correlation between variables. Survey research commonly
includes that type of measurement, but often goes beyond the descriptive
statistics in order to draw inferences.

The Nature of Descriptive Study

It is the best methods for collecting information to demonstrate

relationships and describe the world as it exists and are often done before
an experiment to know what specific things to manipulate and include in
an experiment (Bickman, L., & Rog, D.J. (1998). Handbook of
Applied Social Research Methods. Newbury Park, CA.)

because it can answer what is and what was the nature of a situation
as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the causes of particular
phenomena through the collection of census data. Travers R. (1978)
Introduction to Educational Research. (4th ed.). McMillan. London

useful when it is impossible to test and measure the large population

which is the subject of quantitative types of experimentation.

descriptive research may be more analytic. It often focuses on a particular

variable or factor.

low on the "control or manipulation of research context" scale. It is nonintrusive and deals with naturally occurring phenomena.
http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/henrichsenl/ResearchMethods/R
M_2_05.html

The answer in a descriptive research can no way be definitive.

https://explorable.com/descriptive-research-design

Aims of a Descriptive Study

provides a knowledge base which can be a springboard for other types of

quantitative research methods because it maps the terrain of a specific
phenomenon.

contribute in the formation of principles and generalization in behavioral

sciences contribute in the establishment of standard norms of conduct,
behavior, or performance.
reveal problems or abnormal conditions ; and if correctly interpreted, the
data gathered can provide useful insight which may lead to hypothesis
formation. Travers R. (1978) Introduction to Educational Research.
(4th ed.). McMillan. London

types of descriptive research:

observational methods, case-study methods and survey methods.
Observational Method
With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field
observation) animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two
main categories of the observational method naturalistic observation and
laboratory observation.
The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that
researchers view participants in their natural environments. This leads to
greater ecological validity than laboratory observation, proponents say.
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in
real-life situations. Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due
to more control in the laboratory, the results found when using laboratory

observation are more meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic

observation.
Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper
than naturalistic observations. Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory
observation are important in regard to the advancement of scientific knowledge.

Case Study Method

Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of
indviduals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study
rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and
effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions.

There are two serious problems with case studies expectancy effects
and atypical individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenters
underlying biases that might affect the actions taken while conducting research.
These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants descriptions. Describing
atypical individuals may lead to poor generalizations and detract from external
validity.

Survey Method
In survey method research, participants answer questions administered
through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions,
researchers describe the responses given. In order for the survey to be both
reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed properly.
Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend.
Jackson, S.L. (2009). Research Methods and Statistics: A Critical
Thinking Approach 3rd edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Correlational Research
Correlational research describes what exists at the moment (conditions,
practices, processes, structures, etc.) and is, therefore, classified as a type of
descriptive method. Nevertheless, these conditions, practices, processes or
structures described are markedly different from the way they are usually
described in a survey or an observational study. Correlational research comprises
of collecting data to determine whether, and to what extent, a relationship exists
between two or more quantifiable variables. Correlational research is aimed at
determining the nature, degree and direction of relationships between variables

or using these relationships to make predictions. Correlational study does not

specify cause-and-effect relationships between variables under consideration. It
merely specifies concomitant variations in the scores on the variables. Steps of a
Correlational Research: Selection of a Problem; Selection of the Sample and the
Tools; Design and Procedure; Interpretation of the Findings.

Causal-Comparative Research.
It is a type of descriptive research since it describes conditions that
already exist. It is a form of investigation in which the researcher has direct
control over independent variable as its expression has already occurred or
because they are essentially non-manipulable. It also attempts to identify
reasons or causes of pre-existing differences in groups of individuals, i.e. if a
researcher observes that two or more groups are different on a variable, he tries
to identify the main factor that has led to this difference. There are two types: a)
Relationship Studies. These attempts to gain insight into the variables that relate
to complex variables such as academic performance, self-concept, stress,
achievement motivation or creativity; and (b) Prediction Studies: These are
conducted to facilitate decisions about individuals or to aid in various types of
selection. They are also conducted to determine predictive validity of measuring
tools as well as to test variables hypothesized to be predictors of a criterion
variable.

Ethnography.
Ethnographic studies are usually holistic, founded on the idea that human
beings are best understood in the fullest possible context, including the place
where they live, the improvements they have made to that place, how they make
a living and gather food, housing, energy and water for themselves, what their
marriage customs are, what language(s) they speak and so on. Ethnography is a
form of research focusing on the sociology of meaning through close field
observation of socio-cultural phenomena. Typically, the ethnographer focuses on
a community (not necessarily geographic, considering also work, leisure,
classroom or school groups and other communities)

Document Analysis.
Documentary Analysis is closely related to historical research since in such
surveys we study the existing documents. But it is different from historical
research in which our emphasis is on the study of the past; and in the descriptive
research we emphasize on the study of the present. Descriptive research in the
field of education may focus on describing the existing school practices, the
attendance rate of the students, health records, and so on.

6. Analytical Method. It involves the identification and interpretation of data

already existing in documents, pictures and art facts. It is a form of research in
which events, ideas, concepts or artefacts are examined through analysis of
documents, records, recordings or other media. Here, contextual information is
very essential for an accurate interpretation of data. Historical research
comprises of systematic collection and analysis of documents, records and
artefacts with the objective of providing a description and interpretation of past
events or persons.
Wikipedia.com

Advantages

Data Collection - Using a descriptive research design requires the use of

specific forms of data collection. This can include case studies, observation
or surveys. These data collection techniques present several advantages
as they provide a multifaceted approach for data collection. For example,
a survey can provide statistics about an event while also illustrative how
people experienced that event.
Life Experiences - Descriptive research designs also offer a unique means
of data collection. Case studies can be based on various sources such as
newspaper reports or personal accounts. These accounts provide insight
into life experiences. An observational technique for data collection can be
an organic means to study life experiences and can often remove the
barriers of strict academic approaches as the researcher witnesses how
others experience an event.
http://classroom.synonym.com/strengths-weaknesses-descriptiveresearch-2596.html
gives researchers the opportunity to use both quantitative and qualitative
data in order to find data and characteristics about the population or
phenomenon that is being studied,
http://science.blurtit.com/316422/what-are-some-advantages-anddisadvantages-of-descriptive-research

disadvantages

Confidentiality - Confidentiality is the primary weakness of descriptive

research. Often subjects are not truthful as they feel the need to tell the

researcher what they think the researcher wants to hear. This is

particularly difficult during interviews. Participants may also refuse to
provide answers to questions they view to be too personal. Furthermore,
the idea that someone is watching can turn an observation into an event
where people are acting how they perceive they should act.

Objectivity and error - Descriptive research also presents the possibility

for error and subjectivity. For example, when a researcher designs a
questionnaire, questions are predetermined and prescriptive. Furthermore,
the study may contain errors, as the researcher may record what she
wants to hear and ignore data that does not conform to the research
project's hypothesis. Overcoming a research bias is an extreme difficulty
for descriptive research practitioners and those who chose to use a
descriptive research approach must be aware of their influence on the
outcome of the research. http://science.blurtit.com/316422/what-aresome-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-descriptive-research