Question 1

A certain coaxial cable has characteristic impedance 50 ohms and velocity factor 0.63. Calculate
the wave velocity on this cable in cm/nanosecond; also the inductance and capacitance per unit
length of the cable.

The wave velocity in vacuum times the velocity factor is equal to the wave velocity on
the cable. The wave velocity in vacuum is 30 cm per nanosecond, or 3 times 10^8 metres
per second. Thus the wave velocity is 30*0.63 = 18.90 cm per nanosecond or in SI units,
1.89 times 10^8 metres per second.

The inductance per unit length L and capacitance per unit length C, in H/m or F/m
respectively, are related to the velocity u in SI units and the characteristic impedance Zo
in ohms by the relationships Zo = sqrt(L/C) and u = 1/sqrt(LC). Thus we see that L =
Zo/u and C = 1/(Zo*u). Using these we find L = 50/(1.89*10^8) = 264.55 nH/m and C =
1/(50*1.89*10^8) = 105.8 pF/m.

Let us suppose that this cable feeds a load impedance 75 + j150 ohms. Calculate the complex
reflection coefficient gamma, and express it both as real and imaginary parts, and also as
modulus and phase angle.

gamma = (ZL-Zo)/(ZL+Zo) = (75+j150-50)/(75+j150+50) = (1+j6)/(5+j6) = (honestly,

by calculator) 0.6721+j0.3934 = 0.7788*exp(j30.34deg)

Determine the normalised load impedance in this case and plot it on the Smith chart. Measure
gamma from the Smith chart plot and show that it agrees with the value you calculated.

Normalised load impedance = ZL/Zo = 1.5+j3

Calculate the return loss in dB.

The return loss = -20 log10(|gamma|) = -20 log10(.7788) = 2.17dB

At a frequency of 1.2 GHz calculate the wavelength. How long a cable is needed to make a 1/4
wavelength section?

at 1.2 GHz the wavelength in free space or vacuum is 30/1.2 cm or 25 cm. On the cable
the wavelength is smaller than this by the velocity factor 0.63. On the cable, the
wavelength is 25*0.63 = 15.75 cm.

For a 1/4 wavelength section we need 15.75/4 = 3.9375cm = 39.375mm of cable.

An 80 cm length of this cable is connected to the load. Calculate the input impedance (to the
combination of load and cable) from the formula for the transformation of impedance along the
line. Repeat graphically using the Smith chart. Compare results.

How many wavelengths of 15.75 cm are there in the 80 cm of cable? well, there are
80/15.75 = 5.0794 wavelengths. The phase shift is 360 degrees per wavelength, or
1828.5714 degrees. But because exp(j theta) is cyclic in theta every 360 degrees, this is
entirely equivalent to a phase shift of .0794*360 = 28.58 degrees.

The reflection coefficient at the input differs in phase from the reflection coefficient at the
load by -2*28.58 degrees, or -57.17 degrees. The modulus of the reflection coefficient is
unchanged along the line in a lossless line. At the input therefore, gamma(in) =
gamma*exp(-j57.17) = 0.7788 exp(j[30.34-57.17]) = 0.6950-j0.3515

Now Zin/Zo = (1+gamma(in))/(1-gamma(in)) = (1.695-j0.3515)/(0.3050+j0.3515) =

1.8165-j3.246

So Zin = 90.83-j162.3 ohms.

For this example, determine the two values of entirely real impedance which can be found along
the line. What is the VSWR on this line for this load impedance?

The maximum value of impedance occurs at a VSWR maximum where the voltages add
and the currents subtract, but all quantities are in phase. At this point the voltage is (1+|
gamma|)*(V+) and the current is (1-|gamma|)*(I+). The impedance is real and is equal to
Zo*(1+|gamma|)/(1-|gamma|) = 50*(1.7788/0.2212) = 402.1 ohms = 8.04*Zo =
VSWR*Zo

By a similar argument, the minimum value of impedance = Zo/VSWR = 50/8.04 = 6.218

ohms.

Clearly, the max voltage is (1+|gamma|) and the min voltage (1-|gamma|) times V+ in
each case, so the VSWR = (1+|gamma|)/(1-|gamma|) = 8.04 as above.

Question 2.
A certain 75 ohm coax cable feeds an antenna of (assumed) radiation impedance 80 + j15 ohms.
Calculate the return loss. Calculate the proportion of forward wave power which is radiated.

As in Qn 1, gamma = (80+j15-75)/(80+j15+75) = (5+j15)/(155+j15) = 0.0412+j0.0928 =

0.1015*exp(j66.04deg) so the return loss is -20*log10(0.1015) = 19.87dB.

The reflected power proportion is |gamma|*|gamma| = 0.1015^2 = 0.0103 or 1.03 percent.

Thus 98.97 percent is radiated.

Comment. This isn't bad. However, suppose your antenna is presented with transmitter
power of 100 kWatt. The 1.03 percent of reflected power represents 1030 watts which is
quite a lot of heat to absorb somewhere in the transmitter.

The antenna is to be matched using a single series shorted stub. Calculate the position of
attachment and length of this stub in terms of numbers of wavelengths. Calculate the physical
stub dimensions for signals at 400MHz on cable of velocity factor 0.70.

This is where the SMITH chart really comes in useful. The normalised antenna load
impedance is 80/75+j15/75 = 1.067+j0.2000

We plot this on the SMITH chart, place a ruler from the chart centre via the plotted point
to intersect the "wavelengths towards generator" scale and read off an angle 0.156
wavelengths.

We now transform the impedance towards the generator at constant radius (|gamma|) until
we hit the R=Zo circle at X = -j0.20 and plot this second point. The angle for this point is
0.366 wavelengths towards the generator.

We have moved through an angle 0.366-0.156 wavelengths or 0.21 wavelengths towards

the generator, to transform the impedance from 1.067+j0.200 to 1.000-j0.20 (within the
accuracy of our plot).

We cut the transmission line here and insert a pure reactive shorted stub having
normalised reactance 0.20j. On the generator side of the series stub we see 1.000j0.20+j0.20 = 1.000+j0 normalised impedance, and we have a match.

The stub length is, from the SMITH chart plots of short point and +j0.20 point, 0.0315
wavelengths.

In free space the wavelength at 400 MHz is 30/0.4 = 75 cm. The velocity factor is 0.7 so
on the transmission line the wavelength at 400 MHz is 0.7*75= 52.5 cm. The short series
stub is placed 52.5*0.21 cm from the load, or 11.03 cm from the load. The stub length is
52.5*0.0315 = 1.65 cm.

Calculate the return loss for this arrangement at 390MHz, assuming the antenna impedance has
not changed.

At 390 MHz the wavelength is 52.5*(400/390) = 53.85 cm and the stub attachment point
is 11.03/53.85 wavelengths from the load. This is 0.2048 wavelengths from the load. The
stub length of 1.65 cm is 0.0306 wavelengths so its (normalised) reactance (from the
SMITH chart) is j0.195

Transforming the antenna load impedance 0.2048 wavelengths towards the generator we
find the point 1.02-j0.21 normalised impedance, so adding the j0.195 of the stub we find
the point 1.02-j0.015 for the impedance.

As before, the return loss is found from |gamma| for this impedance which is
modulus[(1.02-j0.015-1)/(1.02-j0.015+1)] which my calculator makes 0.0124, so the
return loss is -20*log10(0.0124) = about 38dB.

Comment. This matching network isn't really necessary in this particular scenario; we
would be quite happy with a 20 dB return loss from the bare antenna. But if we put a
simple matching network in we can improve the matching which gives 20 dB reduction
in reflected power over a range 390-410 MHz. This is a bandwidth of 20 MHz, good
enough for a TV channel and more, and is a "fractional bandwidth" of 20/400 = 5%. Over
this range of frequencies the matched antenna radiates at least 99.99% of the incident
power.

Question 3.
A coaxial cable feeds a load (2+j1)Zo. The line is lossless and has characteristic impedance Zo.
Define, and find values for, the following:The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) on the line.

The VSWR is a property of the standing wave pattern on the line. It is a dimensionless
number, equal to the ratio of voltage at a standing wave pattern maximum to the voltage
at a standing wave pattern minimum, 1/4 of a transmission line wavelength away along
the line.

Numerically, the VSWR = (1+|s|)/(1-|s|) where |s| is the modulus of the complex
reflection coefficient or scattering parameter somewhere along the line. Strictly speaking,
the VSWR is only defined precisely in terms of the wave pattern on lossless lines.
However, the definition in terms of |s| extends the concept of the VSWR to lines having
attenuation or loss, and in this case the value of the VSWR depends on where it is
measured along the line.

In this case, s = (ZL-Zo)/(ZL+Zo) = (1+j)/(3+j) and |s| = sqrt(2/10) = 0.4472 so the

VSWR = 2.618

The return loss, in deciBels.

The return loss is defined as the number of dB by which the reflected power from a load
is less than the incident power. Again, it is a function of position along the line only on
lossy lines.

In this case, the return loss = -20 log10(|s|) = 6.99dB

The position (in numbers of guide wavelengths from the load) of the first standing wave voltage
minimum.

The position of the first standing wave minimum is measured from the position of the
load, and it is where a probe measuring the total voltage on the line would pick up the
smallest signal, as the probe was run back along the line from the load. It is also the place
where the scattering parameter s has phase angle 180 degrees modulo 360 degrees.

In this case, the phase of the scattering parameter s at the load is arctan(1/1)-arctan(1/3) =
45.00-18.43 degrees = 26.57 degrees. At the first VSWR minimum the phase of s is -180
degrees. A change in the s parameter phase angle of -360 degrees represents a translation
of 0.5 of a line wavelength away from the load and towards the generator. In this case the
phase shift is -206.57 degrees or 0.2869 wavelengths from the load to the first SW
minimum.

The value of impedance (ratio of total line voltage to total line current) at the first standing wave
voltage minimum.

The definition is inherent in this part of the question. Here, the voltage and currents at the
standing wave minimum are those that would be measured if we could include a current
meter in one of the wires of the transmission line, and measure the voltage between the
wires of the transmission line, both measurements being taken at the standing wave
minimum.

At the first standing wave minimum, the total line voltage = (V+)[1-|s|] and the total line
current = (I+)[1+|s|]. The ratio of these is therefore Zo([1-|s|]/[1+|s|]), since V+ = ZoI+

In our case using the results above, the impedance = Zo/(VSWR) = Zo/2.618 =
0.3820*Zo

The value of impedance at the first standing wave voltage maximum.

By direct analogy to the above part of the question, the value of impedance at the first
standing wave maximum is Zo*VSWR = 2.618*Zo

The scattering parameter (complex reflection coefficient) at the load.

The scattering parameter at the load is the complex ratio (backward wave voltage)/
(forward wave voltage), at the load, where the voltages are regarded as complex phasors
describing the oscillating voltages.

In this case, as before, s = (ZL-Zo)/(ZL+Zo) = (2+j1-1)/(2+j1+1) = (1+j)/(3+j) =

0.4472*exp(j26.57) = 0.4 + j0.2

The scattering parameter at the first standing wave voltage minimum.

The scattering parameter varies only in phase along a lossless line. Therefore its
magnitude is 0.4472 and the phase angle is -180 degrees at the first standing wave
minimum. In real and imaginary parts it is -.4472+j0

The input impedance if the line length is 1.73 wavelengths. and Zo is 75 ohms.

The input impedance is the ratio of line voltage to current at the input, or generator end,
of the line.

In our case Zin/Zo = (1+s)/(1-s) where s is taken at the line input. Again, |s| doesn't vary
along the line so it is still 0.4472 at the line input. The line length is 1.73 wavelengths =
3*0.5+.23 wavelengths. Each 0.5 wavelength represents a change in phase of the s
parameter of -360 degrees and can be ignored. Thus we are left with a phase shift input ->
load -> input of -360*.23*2 degrees = -165.60 degrees. At the input therefore the
scattering parameter has phase 26.57-165.60 = -139.03 degrees.

Converting to real and imaginary parts, at the input the scattering parameter s = -0.3377j0.2932 so Zin = Zo(0.6623-j0.2932)/(1.3377+j0.2932) with Zo=75 ohms. The trusty
calculator finds Zin = 31.99 -j23.45 ohms

The scattering parameter at the input to the transmission line.

See the previous section

Question 4.
Define the term "scattering matrix" for a 2-port microwave network. Explain carefully the output
and input variables related by the scattering parameters. Explain why the scattering parameters
have dimensionless complex character. Explain clearly the meaning of the term "reference plane"
with respect to which the scattering parameters are defined and measured. Explain what
difference in s parameters occurs if the reference plane is moved further from the 2-port. Explain
why scattering parameters are usually given in the form "modulus and phase angle".

Most of the section above is dealt with in the notes on scattering parameters .

If the reference plane is moved the s parameters change phase but not modulus. Thus it is
best to express them in this format.

Write down the 2 port scattering matrix for a lossless transmission line of electrical length 1/5
lambda, giving the scattering parameters in both "modulus and phase" and then "real and
imaginary" representations.

The round trip distance is 2/5 wavelength, or 360*2/5 degrees which is 144 degrees. The
phase retards as we move with the wave. One pass of the line is therefore -72 degrees,

and the line is lossless. Thus s12=s21 = 1 angle -72 degrees. s11=s22 = 0 because there
are no inherent reflections within the length of line.

In terms of real and imaginary parts, s12=s21= 0.309-j0.951

This transmission line is connected to an antenna which has scattering parameter 0.1 angle 0
degrees. Determine the fraction of the forward wave power which is radiated. Design a matching
network to be placed at the input to the transmission line so that the generator sees a perfect
match at its terminals.

The reflected wave power is 0.1*0.1 = 1% of the incident power. Thus 0.99 of the
incident power is radiated. (99%).
One might think this is a good enough match. However, at the input of the transmission
line the reflection coefficient (1-port s parameter) is 0.1 angle -144 degrees using the
results of the last section. This is 0.2 wavelengths towards the generator from the antenna
normalised impedance of
(1+0.1)/(1-0.1) = 1.2222 + j0
which gives us an input impedance of (read graphically)
0.84

- j0.1

from the SMITH plot 0.2 wavelengths towards the generator

or we can CALCULATE the reflection coefficient gamma
(0.1 angle -144 degrees) = -0.0809 - j0.0588
which gives us an input impedance of (calculated)
(1 - 0.0809 - j0.0588)/(1 + 0.0809 + j0.0588)
which evaluates to be
0.8449 - j0.1004
which is satisfactorily in agreement with the SMITH plot.

We therefore need a single stub match to the impedance

0.8449 - j0.1004

A stub of series impedance -j0.2 placed 0.186 wavelengths further towards the generator
does this. The stub length for an impedance -j0.2 is 0.468 wavelengths from a short.

Question 5
Calculate the range of frequencies over which only the lowest order waveguide mode will
propagate in rectangular waveguides having the following cross sectional dimensions.
20cm by 15cm

2cm
2cm
2cm
2cm
2cm

by
by
by
by
by

1.5cm
1cm
0.8cm
2cm
4cm

2mm by 1.5mm

The cutoff wavelength for the TE10 mode is twice the longest cross section dimension.
Remembering 30 = freq(GHz) times wavelength we have cutoff for the 2cm guides as
30/4 = 7.5GHz. For the 20 cm guide it is 750MHz and for the 2mm guide it is 75 GHz.

The next mode is either the TE20 mode at twice the cutoff frequency of the TE10 mode,
or the TE01 mode if this is lower.
o Thus, 20cm by 15cm has 750MHz to 1GHz
2cm by 1.5cm, 7.5GHz to 10GHz, and 2mm by 1.5mm, 75GHz to 100GHz.
2cm by 1cm and 2cm by 0.8cm both have 7.5GHz to 15GHz.
2cm by 2cm has two degenerate modes, TE10 and TE01 both with cutoff 7.5GHz.
There is thus no band of frequency over which only one mode will propagate.
2cm by 4cm has long dimension 4cm so the range is 3.75GHz to 7.5GHz.

For the 2cm by 1cm waveguide, determine the lowest frequency of the lowest mode which will
propagate. Calculate the guide group and phase velocities, and the propagation angle alpha, for
frequencies 100MHz 300MHz and 1GHz higher than the cutoff frequency.

From the geometry of TE10 mode propagation, refer to the book of your choice, if the
free space wavelength is lambda, the guide width a, the propagation angle alpha, and the
guide wavelength lambdaG we can write
o sin(alpha) = lambda/(2a)
o cos(alpha) = lambda/lambdaG
o tan(alpha) = lambdaG/(2a)

The cutoff of the 2cm by 1cm guide is 7500MHz so we want the values above at 7600,
7800, and 8500MHz.

The values of lambda respectively are 3.9474cm, 3.8462cm, and 3.5294cm.

The values of alpha are 80.70degrees, 74.06degrees, and 61.93degrees.

The values of lambdaG are 24.41cm, 14.0cm, and 7.50cm.

The group velocities are c cos(alpha) = 0.4848, 0.8239, and 1.412, all in units of 10^8
metres per second.

The phase velocities are c/cos(alpha) = 18.56, 10.92, and 6.376, all in units of 10^8
metres per second.

Question 6.
Calculate the scattering matrix of a 25 cm length of waveguide of internal rectangular cross
section 5cm by 2.2cm at a frequency of 4.0 GHz. Hint, you will need to find out the guide
wavelength.

The cutoff frequency is 3GHz. The guide wavelength is 11.3389cm. There are 2.2048
guide wavelengths in the 25cm length of guide.

The residual phase shift after allowing whole cycles is -73.73 degrees.

The s parameters are s11=s22=0, s12=s21 = 1 angle -73.73 degrees.

The wave impedance of a waveguide mode is defined as the ratio of the transverse component of
electric field strength to the transverse component of magnetic field strength. Show that the wave
impedance depends on the angle alpha and the guide wavelength, and derive expressions for the
dependencies.

For a TE mode, the electric field is wholly transverse and the same as it is in a free space
wave. The magnetic field is turned by cos(alpha) from being transverse, so is smaller than
the free space wave value by cos(alpha). Thus the wave impedance is 120 pi/cos(alpha)
or 120 pi lambdaG/lambda.

For a TM mode the electric field is rotates through alpha but the magnetic field is entirely
transverse. The wave impedance is thus 120 pi cos(alpha) or 120 pi lambda/lambdaG.

Calculate the wave impedance for the conditions of the first part of this question. Hint, you need
to know that in a free space wave the wave impedance is 120 pi ohms.

Applying the results above, the impedance at 4GHz is 570 ohms to the nearest ohm.

Question 7
Show that a condition for stability of a 2 port is that there is no reflection gain for connections
looking in to either port; and that such a circuit is unconditionally stable for any passive load
impedance and passive generator source impedance.

Here, the important point is that there must be no reflection gain at either port for any
conditions of passive load attached to the other port. If this condition is not met, the
return power is more than the incident power; we have in effect made a "reflection
amplifier" which can cause oscillations in a reactive load formed by a length of
transmission line attached to an open or short circuit.

The condition for a length of line to oscillate is that the round trip gain, accounting for the
losses of the line and the reflection coefficients at each end, be greater than one.

For a passive load the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is always less than one.
Therefore, for there to be round trip gain we require the other reflection to have
magnitude greater than one. If it doesn't, no oscillations will occur.

A certain 2-port has s parameters s11 = 0.1 angle -30 degrees, s12 = 0.05 angle -60 degrees, s21
= 30 angle -60 degrees, and s22 = 0.15 angles -20 degrees. All these s parameters are taken at a
spot frequency.

let us write these s parameters formally as

{0.1 -30}
{30 -60}

{0.05 -60}
{0.15 -20}

the defining equations are

b1 = s11a1 + s12a2
b2 = s21a1 + s22a2

Discuss which values of load impedance on port 2 just give rise to reflection gain on port 1.

let us call the reflection coefficient at the load

on port 2 gamma.
Then a2 = gamma b2 because the output b2 of the 2-port
is reflected from the load to form a2.

Using the equation b2 = s21a1 + s22a2

then we find a2(1/gamma - s22) = s21a1
Using the equation b1 = s11a1 + s12a2
then we find b1 = a1[s11 + s12s21/(1/gamma - s22)]
We want b1 to have magnitude less than a1
for there to be no reflection gain at port 1.
Thus the complex number s11 + s12s21/(1/gamma -s22)
has to lie inside the unit circle.
One can substitute the values above; I estimate
that if the reflection coefficient is less than
about |gamma| = 0.55 the circuit will be stable.
That puts the output transmission line VSWR as
being less than about 3.5

Question 8.
Write down the S matrices of the following microwave components.... You may assume they
have ideal characteristics.
A 30 dB amplifier
An isolator with 20dB front to back transmission ratio
A perfect 3 port circulator
A perfect 4 port dual directional coupler, with coupling strength -30 dB
A 2 metre length of 50 ohm coaxial cable at 400MHz, assuming a velocity factor of 2/3

answers.....

The 30dB amplifier

0
{31.6 -theta}

0
0

The 20 dB isolator
0
{1 -theta)

{0.1 - phi}
0

The circulator
0
{1 -phi}
0

0
0
{1 -phi}

{1 -phi}
0
0

Here the circulation is 123123123....

The dual directional coupler

0
{0.9995 -theta}
{0.9995 -theta}
0
{0.0316 -rho}
0
0
{0.0316 -phi}
Here we see the S
Adding the moduli
Also, theta-rho =
and, theta-phi =

{0.0316 -rho}
0
0
{0.9995 -psi}

0
{0.0316 -phi}
{0.9995 -psi}
0

matrix is reciprocal.
squared in the columns gives 1
phi-psi - 180 degrees
rho-psi - 180 degrees

The 2 metre length of cable

Well, the velocity is 20 cm/nsec so a wavelength
at 0.4GHz is 50cm and the line is 4 wavelengths long.
0
1

1
0

A generator is connected via the isolator described above to one of the ports of the three port
circulator. The circulator has a mismatch on its two other ports giving a reflection coefficient of
0.2 angle 0 on each load connected to the ports. The phase shift between successive ports of the
circulator is -45 degrees.

Calculate the magnitude of the reflection coefficient first at the driven port of the circulator, and
second, at the generator terminals.

The reflection coefficient at port 2 has size 0.2 so the wave incident on port 3 is 0.2 of the
size of the incident wave. It is reflected by the load on port 3 with another factor 0.2 so
the size of the reflection coefficient at port 1 is 0.04. Now the phase shift is -90 degrees if
you need to calculate the effective input impedance.

The isolator reduces the reflection coefficient by another 20 dB or factor of 10. Thus at
the generator terminals the reflection coefficient is 0.004 in size.

Question 9
Define the terms "characteristic impedance" and "velocity factor" for a lossless coaxial cable.
Derive formulas for the relationships between these quantities and the inductance and
capacitance of a 1 metre length of cable. [30%]

Characteristic impedance is the ratio of voltage to current on a coaxial cable carrying

waves travelling in a single direction only. It is that impedance, which, when used as a
load results in zero reflected energy, or a VSWR of 1.

Velocity factor:- the velocity of waves on a coaxial cable, in SI units, divided by the
velocity of light in a vacuum, also in SI units. The velocity factor is therefore a
dimensionless number. Typically it is about 2/3 for most coaxial cables.

Consider a cable with inductance L Henries per metre, and capacitance C Farads per
metre, as the quantities per unit length under consideration. Draw a diagram with series
inductance Ldx and shunt capacitance Cdx. This represents a little length of cable dx
metres long. We solve Kirchoff's laws to write down the voltage drop along the cable dV
= - Ldx di/dt and the current increment due to the shunt current through the capacitance
di = - Cdx dV/dt. This gives us the Telegraphers' equations dV/dx = -Ldi/dt and di/dx =
-CdV/dt which when combined give us the wave equation in V or i with wave velocity
1/sqrt(LC) and characteristic impedance sqrt(L/C).

The velocity factor eta is therefore [1/(3E8)][1/sqrt(LC)] and the characteristic impedance
Zo = sqrt(L/C)

Explain why a coaxial cable connected to a load impedance Z has, in general, an input
impedance which depends on the length of the cable. Derive a formula for this input impedance,
for a cable of length d metres, having velocity factor eta and characteristic impedance Zo ohms
at a frequency of f Hz. Under what conditions is the input impedance independent of the length
of this cable? [35%]

The wavelength on the cable is lambda, and f lambda is the velocity of waves. The
propagation constant beta is defined as 2 pi/lambda and forward waves propagate as

exp[-j beta distance] whereas backward waves travel as exp [+j beta distance]. If there is
any reflected power at all, these phase angles vary differently along the line, and the
phase angle between the forward and backward wave voltages and currents depends on
position. Since forward waves have V+ = +Zo I+ and backward waves have V- = -Zo I-,
the impedance V/I = [V+ + V-]/[I+ + I-] depends on distance unless V- and I- are zero,
that is, there is no backward wave. In general there will be waves travelling in each
direction, so in general the input impedance depends on the length of cable connected to
the load Z.

If the load is placed at distance x = 0, (with the input to the line at x = -d) then at the load
we have Z/Zo = [V+ + V-]/[V+ - V-] = [1+s]/[1-s] where s is the reflection coefficient
V-/V+ at x=0. At x = -d, the input to the line, the reflection coefficient s = [Z-Zo]/[Z+Zo]
must be multiplied by the phase factor exp [-j 2 beta d] to account for the delay in the
wave propagation. Let us assume this new reflection coefficient is called s'. Then the
input impedance Zin is given by Zin/Zo = [1+s']/[1-s']. Pull all this together and express
in terms of the quantities given in the question. If V- = 0 or if s = 0 then Z=Zo and the
line is matched; the input impedance does not then depend on the length of the cable.

A certain coaxial feeder cable has wave velocity 0.20 metres per nanosecond and a nominal
characteristic impedance of 50 ohms. It also has loss of 1dB/m at a frequency of 1 gigaHertz. It
is connected to a load impedance of 75 ohms. Estimate the input impedance of this cable at a
distance 5.73 metres from the load, for signals at 1GHz. [35%]

The wave velocity is 20 cm per nanosecond so at 1 GHz the wavelength is 20 cm, and
5.73 metres represents 28.65 wavelengths of cable between the input and the load. The
one way loss at 1GHz is 5.73 dB. At the load, the reflection coefficient s = [75-50]/
[75+50] = 1/5. The round trip attenuation generator-load-generator is 2 times 5.73 dB
which is an amplitude reduction of 3.74 so at the input the size of the reflection
coefficient is 1/5 times 1/3.74 = 1/18.71

The round trip phase delay is a whole number of wavelengths plus 0.3 wavelengths so the
reflection coefficient at the input is s(in) = 1/18.71 exp[-j 108 degrees] and using the
formula above we find at the input Zin = 48.13 - j4.91 ohms, that is, not far from a good
match.

Question 10.
Describe the principles behind the use of a network analyser to measure the scattering parameters
of a two-port microwave network. [30%]

A network analyser consists of a synthesised frequency source and two bridges which
measure port currents and voltages at the two ports. The ratios of outward to inward wave
amplitudes and phases are obtained directly from the bridge measurements. The network
analyser sets a frequency of the source, and applies an input signal first to port 1 and then
to port 2. For each of these two excitation conditions, the bridge derives the proportional

complex scattered amplitude from each port, making four complex dimensionless
measurements in all.

Calibration of the instrument is carried out by presenting it with known scattering

circuits; usually a short, a termination, and a "through" length of transmission line of
known electrical length. The instrument modifies the measurements which it has made on
the unknown scatterer and allows for its own imprecisions which are obtained from the
calibration procedure. The synthesised source scans at spot frequencies across the range
of frequencies specified externally by the software, and presents the results as a graph of
s parameters against frequency. Presentations can be either real and imaginary parts of the
s parameter, or modulus and phase, or the s parameter can be plotted as points on the
Smith chart.

Derive a matrix formula linking the two-port y-parameters with the scattering parameters. [30%]

In matrix notation, the matrix of n by n y parameters for an n-port network is written here
as Y. Then the n vector of port currents I is related to the n vector of port voltages V by
I=YV.

Suppose Y represents normalised admittances; that is we have divided all the y

parameters by the characteristic admittance of the transmission line in which the n-port
network is embedded. Y is then a dimensionless matrix.

If we consider the system in terms of normalised matrix elements, for which we may
consider Zo = Yo = 1, then the incoming wave amplitudes are proportional to V+I and the
outgoing wave amplitudes are proportional to V-I. (See the development of the solution to
the next part of this question.) Thus we can write [V-I] = S[V+I] where S is the scattering
matrix. (by definition). A simple substitution shows that S = [1-Y][1+Y]^(-1), where we
have post-multiplied the matrix [1-Y] by the inverse of the matrix [1+Y].

Looking at this in the inverse way, S+SY = [1-Y] so Y[S+1] = [S-1] and we obtain Y by
post-multiplying the matrix [S-1] by the inverse of the matrix [S+1]

Explain how measurements of terminal currents and voltages at the port terminals may be used
to determine the incoming and outgoing wave amplitudes for waves on the connecting
transmission lines of known characteristic impedance Zo. A totally absorbing two-port network
has no outgoing waves at either port under any excitation conditions. List its scattering
parameters.[40%].

We start from the incoming wave voltage V+ and current I+ and the outgoing wave
voltage V- and current I-. The definition of Zo and the direction of power flow gives us
V+=ZoI+ and V-=-ZoI-. The total port voltage V is V+ + V- and the total port current I is
I+ + I-. Multiplying I by Zo we see ZoI = V+ - V- by substitution.

Adding and subtracting V and ZoI gives us V+ = (V + ZoI)/2 and V- = (V - ZoI)/2. We

have expressed the incoming and outgoing wave voltage amplitudes in terms of the port
voltage V, port current I, and characteristic impedance Zo.

If there are no outgoing waves at all for any combination of input waves, all the
scattering parameters are identically zero. Listing them, s11=s12=s21=s22=0.

Funnily enough, in the actual exam in 1995 no one got this bit right. That demonstrated to
me that they hadn't understood what the S matrix actually represents.

Question 11.
Derive formulas for the phase velocity and group velocity of waves on a lossless rectangular
waveguide supporting a TE10 mode. Show that the product of these velocities is c^2. [35%]

There were two acceptable ways of answering this part of the question, one involving a
graphical construction showing the waveguide field patterns and angle of propagation,
and the other using the definitions (1) that the phase velocity = [angular frequency] /
[propagation constant] and (2) that the group velocity = d[angular frequency]
/d[propagation constant] (which is the derivative of angular frequency with respect to the
propagation constant).

As this is a standard piece of bookwork I refer you to J D Kraus Electromagnetics or

other standard text of your choice.

Geometrically, the guide wavelength is given by lambda/cos(alpha) where alpha is the

angle of propagation with respect to the guide axis, so the guide phase velocity is
c/cos(alpha) since f lambda = c. The guide group velocity is the component of velocity
along the guide axis and is c cos(alpha). Clearly the product of velocities is c^2.

Algebraically, one obtains the same results from the waveguide formula using the
relationships given above.

A certain cavity wavemeter has an accurate micrometer which gives a reading of the distance
between the moving short and the fixed short. The waveguide (a standard X band WG90 type)
has dimensions of 0.900 inches by 0.400 inches. Determine the micrometer readings when the
wavemeter absorbs at the following frequencies: (i) 8.58 GHz, (ii) 10.04 GHz, (iii) 11.38 GHz.
[35%]
We start our solution by calculating the three free space wavelengths for the problem, by
dividing 30 by the frequency in GHz. (That gives it in cm, and the waveguide dimensions are in
inches so you can convert one to the other, as long as you state which units you are using for the
end result). The free space wavelengths in cm are (i) 3.4965 (ii) 2.9880 (iii) 2.6362. We keep a
few more significant figures at this stage of the calculation as rounding occurs last.
We now find the guide wavelengths from the waveguide formula (you can quote this from
memory or derive it). The critical guide dimension is a=0.900 inches = 2.286 cm so 2a = 4.572

cm and (2a)^2 = 20.9032. The waveguide formula gives the guide wavelength as sqrt[1/
{(1/lambda^2)- (1/2a)^2}]. The respective guide wavelengths are (i) 5.4267 cm (ii) 3.9477 cm
(iii) 3.2266 cm.
Now when half a guide wavelength fits between the shorts the cavity wavemeter is resonant
and absorbs power from the waveguide to which it is coupled. That gives us a micrometer
reading of half the guide wavelength in each case, always assuming that we can neglect
perturbations of the field distributions due to the coupling hole.
The micrometer readings are therefore (i) 2.71 cm or 1.07 inches, (ii) 1.97 cm or 0.777
inches, and (iii) 1.61 cm or 0.635 inches. It is good practice to give the result to the same number
of significant figures as the original data in the question.
Describe how such a wavemeter can be used in conjunction with a 30dB dual directional coupler
to measure the frequency of a microwave test bench. Stating your assumptions, estimate the
achievable precision of the measurement. [30%].

The directional coupler samples 1/1000 of the forward wave power and feeds it up a side
arm to a detector. The side arm is coupled by means of a small hole in the common wall
to the cavity wavemeter. The cavity wavemeter has a loaded Q of about 1000 to 10,000
depending on how the inside surfaces are coated (silver plating is common), on the
surface roughness, and on the coupling strength to the side arm waveguide. This gives an
achievable resolution in frequency of between 0.01% and 0.1%, or 1 to 10 MHz at X
band.

Question 12.
Give a brief description of the physical principles governing the behaviour of non-reciprocal
ferrite microwave components. Discuss the practical limitations imposed by power handling and
frequency-selective effects. [40%]

In ferrite biased by a DC magnetic field, the spins of the unpaired electrons precess
around the direction of the bias field. The strength of the bias field governs the rate of
precession, and it may be tuned so that the precession frequency lies near the frequency
of microwaves inside the ferrite loaded device. By placing the ferrite in a region where
the local RF magnetic field produced by the passing microwaves rotates in local direction
once a cycle, a resonance condition may be set up between the precessing spins and the
microwave magnetic field. The spins then absorb energy from the microwave radiation;
the spins pass this energy to phonons in the ferrite by a process known as "spin-lattice
relaxation", and the consequence is the ferrite gets warm, heated by the microwave
energy.

If the microwave radiation is travelling in the opposite direction along the transmission
line, the spins and microwave magnetic field are rotating in opposite directions and there
is no resonant absorption. Thus the ferrite device has low insertion loss for waves
travelling in this direction.

In general, even if the resonance condition is not satisfied exactly, there will be different
magnetic properties of the ferrite for forward and backward microwave propagation. This
gives rise to a difference in wave velocity which may be used to construct interference
devices such as the three port circulator, where the transmission is cyclic from ports 1->2>3->1-> etc. Such devices may be substantially lossless to the microwaves.

In a field displacement isolator, the differing field patterns for forward and backward
wave propagation give maximum electric field in different places across the waveguide.
A resistive card is placed at a region where the forward wave electric field is small, but
the backward wave electric field is large. This therefore gives non-reciprocal attenuation
properties. The advantage of this arrangement is that the ferrite does not get hot; as its
magnetic properties are temperature dependent, this is an advantage.

Thus power handling in a field displacement device is higher than in a resonance

absorption device. Typically, bandwidths of 2:1 frequency ratio between the top and
bottom frequency of operation are commonplace. This is because the resonant peak of the
spin system is broad, and many devices are constructed to lie on the shoulder of the
resonance and make use of the different permeability tensors for forward and backward
wave propagation.

An imperfect isolator has forward loss of 0.2 dB and unwanted reverse transmission of -11 dB. It
is used to connect a transmitter amplifier (HPA) to an irregular passive load which can have any
(positive) resistive and/or reactive impedance. Using a SMITH chart, draw an estimated contour
which represents the limits of the input impedance of the loaded isolator. [35%]

The round trip attenuation is 11.2 dB which is an amplitude attenuation factor of 3.63 (the
return wave is 3.63 times smaller than the incident wave if all the power is reflected
beyond the isolator). Thus the maximum modulus of the s parameter or reflection
coefficient is 1/3.63 = 0.275.

The input impedance must therefore lie within a circle centred on the SMITH chart
centre, of radius 0.275 of the radius of the periphery of the SMITH chart.

The outputs of three HPAs in differing frequency bands are to be combined so that no HPA
output is driven by the others. With the aid of a diagram, explain how this may be achieved by
means of a circulator tree arrangement. [25%]

The diagram you need must show each HPA passing its output through a bandpass filter
which has a stop band for the outputs of the other HPAs. The filter outputs are fed into
the circulator tree arrangement; each circulator has three ports 1,2,3 and port 1 is fed by
the filter, port 2 of the lower circulator is fed to port 3 of the one above it. At the top, port
2 feeds the output transmission line, and at the bottom port 3 is terminated. Power travels
cyclically 123123123 etc. Return power is never presented to a filter output, passing from
port 2 to 3 (top) to 2 to 3 (middle) to 2 to 3 (bottom) where it is absorbed in the
termination.

Since the filters are perfect reflectors of power in their stop bands, it is clear that no HPA
output can drive any other HPA's output terminals.

Question 1 3
Define the terms "characteristic impedance", "velocity factor", "forward travelling wave",
"reflection coefficient", and "return loss", in the context of propagation on a transmission line.
[25%]

The characteristic impedance is the ratio of voltage to current in a forward travelling

wave, when there is no reverse travelling wave. A transmission line presents the
characteristic impedance to a generator for times until the first reflection arrives at the
generator.

The velocity factor eta is the ratio of the "wave velocity or wave phase velocity" to the
"speed of light in vacuum".

The forward travelling wave is any disturbance travelling from generator to load.

The reflection coefficient gamma is the complex ratio of backward wave amplitude to the
forward wave amplitude, considering monochromatic waves (waves of a single
frequency).

The return loss is the amount in dB by which the reflected wave power is less than the
forward wave power. Numerically, the return loss is -20 log[10](|gamma|).

A building is wired with Ethernet cable having velocity factor 0.6. There is a break in this cable
22 metres from a time domain reflectometer (TDR) which emits rectangular pulses of rise and
fall times 0.5 nanoseconds and duration 5 nanoseconds. What is the time delay until the return of
the first reflection from this break? [35%]

The pulse velocity is 0.6 times 30 cm per nanosecond, or 18 cm per nanosecond.

The round trip distance to the break is 2 times 22 times 100 cm, or 4400 cm.

The round trip time is 4400/18 = 244 nanoseconds to the nearest nanosecond. This is
0.244 microseconds.

A shunt open circuit spur of length 12 metres is added at a distance 10 metres from the TDR. The
rest of the cable is undamaged and is correctly terminated. Describe quantitatively the pulse
sequence seen on the TDR. [40%]

Draw a diagram with G the generator, which has internal impedance Zo matched to the
line so that it doesn't produce reflections, placed 10 metres from P the junction which

feeds a shunt matched load Zo and a side arm 12 metres long to Q which is an open
circuit.

Measuring the impedance at G in the steady state we of course see just a matched load
Zo. One might be fooled by this into thinking that there would be no reflections from the
system.... This is the point of the question.

The reflection coefficient at P is formed by the Zo of the matched arm in parallel with Zo
for the open spur. Thus gamma = (0.5-1)/(0.5+1) which is -1/3.

The reflection coefficient at Q is similarly +1.

The round trip time GPG is 2000/18 = 111 nanoseconds to the nearest nanosecond.

The round trip time PQP is 2400/18 = 133 nanoseconds.

The transmission coefficient at the junction P in any direction is calculated as follows:

power reflected = (-1/3)(-1/3) = 1/9 of the incident power. Power transmitted = 1-1/9 =
8/9 of the incident power. This splits so that 4/9 of the incident power is transmitted down
each of the connected arms,

The transmitted amplitude on each arm is therefore 2/3 of the incident amplitude.

The sequence of pulses at the generator end is therefore amplitude 1 at time zero (initial
pulse) followed by -1/3 at 111 nanoseconds and then a pulse which has travelled once up
and down the spur, having amplitude 2/3 times 1 times 2/3 = 4/9 at 111+133 = 244
nanoseconds. The next pulse has travelled twice up and down the spur, and has amplitude
2/3 times 1 times -1/3 times 1 times 2/3 or -4/27 at time 111 + 2 times 133 = 377
nanoseconds. If you can get this far you can work out the rest for yourselves. The next
pulse has travelled three times up and down the spur...

Question 14
Describe the construction and principles of operation of a waveguide dual directional coupler
having coupling strength -30 dB and fractional bandwidth about 10% for use at X band
frequencies. [30%]

For a 30dB dual directional coupler, narrow band, a two hole waveguide coupler is
sufficient. Draw two waveguides with the broad face common, with two small x shaped
holes on the centre line of the common face and spaced a quarter of a guide wavelength
apart.

The coupling strength depends on the hole size. The forward coupled waves add in phase,
giving a combined coupling strength with coupled power 1/1000 of the incident power in

the other waveguide. The waveguide dimensions are about 0.900 inches by 0.400 inches
(WG90).
A -30dB coupler is used to sample the forward and backward wave amplitudes on a waveguide
connected to an antenna. The detectors on the sampling arms consist of totally absorbing
matched diode detectors which have accurate square law characteristics. Determine the ratio of
output voltages on the detectors if the reflection causes a VSWR of 1.8 on the main arm of the
coupler. [25%]

The VSWR is 1.8 so the modulus of the reflection coefficient, |gamma|, is (1.8-1)/(1.8+1)
= 0.8/2.8 = 0.2857 and the square of this is 0.0816 so 8.16% of the power is reflected.
The detector voltages are proportional to the coupled wave powers, so the backward
wave detector voltage is about 8% of the forward wave detector voltage. The ratio of
voltages is therefore 12.25.

A mismatch is introduced at each of the detector diodes, giving a reflection coefficient of

magnitude 0.1. For the same conditions as part (b), estimate the ratio of output voltages at the
detectors. [25%]

We are not told of the phase delays in the system. The first assumption is that the phase is
arbitrary and we add powers. The power at the backward wave detector is therefore
1/12.25 of the forward wave power plus 0.1 times 0.1 of the power incident on the
forward wave detector. Now 1/12.25 + 1/100 = 1/10.9. Of course there will be some
reflected power on the forward wave detector which comes from the backward wave
detector, but this is less than 1/1000 of the original forward wave detector power and we
neglect it.

If you like you can do a phasor addition wherein the amplitudes rather than the powers
are added. This is not necessary in this particular example.

We learn from this example that it is most important to have a good match on the
detectors, particularly the one sampling the forward wave power.

Explain how the fractional bandwidth of the dual directional coupler may be increased to 50% or
more. [20%]
To increase the fractional bandwidth we add more coupling holes, having the same
total coupling strength as the two original holes. They are spaced so that the resultant
reverse wave amplitude phasor is small; the contributions from each hole add in a straight
line for forward wave coupling, but for reverse coupling they add in a polygonal manner
until the resultant is minimised. The bandwidth enhancement depends on the number of
holes. For this application a collection of 20 holes spread out over several guide
wavelengths would work nicely.

Question 15

Describe the principal uses of components in microwave transmission systems which contain
ferrites. Explain what is the most important property of the components which is due to the
presence of the ferrite. [30%]

Ferrites have the property that their wave propagation behaviour can depend on the
direction of power flow along a transmission line into which they are incorporated. This
property is referred to as being "non-reciprocal". This is contrasted with most other nonmagnetic passive components where transmission does not depend on the direction of
power flow between two of the ports of a network. Ferrite devices share the property of
non-reciprocity with active devices such as transistor amplifiers.

They are used to "isolate" a generator from reflections caused by load mismatch. They
can be used in power combiners and in switching applications. They make excellent
microwave absorber for lining anechoic chambers; the magnetic field due to microwaves
is large near a metal reflecting surface, and magnetic loss placed here is more effective at
absorbing power than is resistive dielectric loss; electric transverse fields are small close
to a metal surface.

Circulators are used to separate forward waves from backward waves in many
applications. They can be used in combination with a passive matched load to construct
an equivalent 2-port to an isolator.

A ferrite isolator is imperfect, having forward loss of 1 dB and a forward/backward transmission

ratio of 18 dB. It is connected between a generator and a load. Calculate the VSWR on the
generator side of the isolator if the load consists of
(i) A short circuit
(ii) A mismatch produced by a load 2Zo where Zo is the characteristic impedance of the
transmission system.
[35%]

The forward loss is 1 dB, and the backward insertion loss is 18dB more than this, that is,
it is 19dB in total. The round trip attenuation for passes both ways through the isolator is
therefore 20dB, and the reflected wave amplitude is only 1/10 of what it would be in the
absence of the isolator.

If the load is a short, all the power is reflected. Therefore on the generator side of the
isolator the return wave amplitude is 0.1 times the incident wave amplitude, and the
VSWR is [1 + 0.1]/[1 - 0.1] which is 1.22

If the load is 2Zo, the reflection coefficient from the load is [2-1]/[2+1] = 1/3. The return
wave amplitude on the generator side of the isolator is therefore 1/30 of the forward wave
amplitude, and the VSWR is [1+1/30]/[1-1/30] which is 1.069

In the absence of the isolator, the VSWR values for these two cases would have been
infinity and 2.0 respectively. Thus we see the isolator, which does not have a
tremendously large front to back ratio, is nevertheless very effective at reducing the
possible values of VSWR seen at the generator side of the isolator.

Show, with a diagram, how a circulator tree may be used to combine the outputs of a number of
amplifiers in a frequency division multiplex system, without any of the amplifiers driving power
into the other amplifiers. Explain the use of bandpass filters in this arrangement. [35%]

Question 16
Write comprehensive notes on TWO of the following topics. [50% for each topic].
(i) Scattering parameter descriptions of microwave n-port networks.

See the notes on scattering parameters

(ii) Gunn diode microwave reflection amplifiers.

For the purposes of this answer we can consider a Gunn diode load on a transmission line
to be a shunt combination of negative resistance and capacitance. The capacitance C has
normalised susceptance s =[omega C/Yo] where Yo is the characteristic admittance of the
transmission line. The shunt negative resistance has a normalised conductance value -g
where g is a positive number.

Using a normalised load admittance yL = -g + js together with the formula for reflection
coefficient or scattering parameter gamma = [1-yL]/[1+yL] we see that gamma = [(1+g)
-js]/[(1-g) + js] from which we find that the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is
[(1+g)^2 + s^2]/[(1-g)^2 + s^2].

For small and very large values of g the reflection gain is about unity. There is a
maximum reflection gain when g=1, that is the real part of the shunt negative admittance
of the Gunn diode equals the transmission line characteristic admittance. The gain is then
[1+ 4/s^2].

One can also do a bandwidth calculation similarly to find the range of frequencies
between which the gain is more than half its peak value.

For large gain-bandwidth products the shunt capacitance and susceptance needs to be as
small as possible.

The reflected power is separated from the incident power using a circulator. The
circulator forward transmission is 123123 etc, and the signal source is connected to port
1. The Gunn diode is connected to port 2 and a matched load (or isolator driven load) is

connected to port 3. It is important that the source does not see reflection gain on its own
transmission line.
(iii) Microwave bandpass filter design and construction.

Filters are usually designed to work between known generator and load impedances.
Microwave filters are no exception and it is usual to take the reference impedances of
source and load to be the transmission line characteristic impedance.

For the purposes of this answer it is assumed that it is known how to design lumped
component bandpass filters working between known specified impedance levels.

Reactive components can be generated, at least at a single frequency, by shorted lengths

of transmission line of known length.

A bandpass filter is usually constructed from reactive components only, as this keeps its
in-band insertion loss low and its noise performance is good.

Admittance to impedance transformation can be accomplished by means of quarter wave

sections of transmission line. Thus we see that we can used shunt reactive stubs placed at
intervals along a transmission line to make a filter.

The shunt elements can be physical lengths of line, or in waveguide they and be irises, or
apertures between coupled cavities.

Microwave filters have a frequency response which, in principle, repeats indefinitely as

the frequency is raised and the line lengths become progressively longer by added
amounts of half a wavelength. Thus they are by no means direct equivalents of their
lumped constant templates.

They can be fabricated from coupled microstrip lines, dielectric resonator sections,
waveguide with irises, or acoustic delay lines. They are reciprocal and it is often assumed
that they are lossless.

For a lossless bandpass filter the sum of the reflected and transmitted powers must equal
the incident power. Thus filters can be constructed in reflection mode as well as in
transmission mode; in reflection mode the pass band becomes a stop band and vice versa.

Group delay as well as amplitude response is usually an important design parameter of

the microwave filter.

Question 17

Define the terms "directivity", "gain", "efficiency", and "effective area" for an antenna array.
Explain how the boresight gain of an antenna is related to its effective area and efficiency. [25%]

The directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the power directed along boresight to the
power which would be radiated equally in all directions if the antenna was isotropic.
Usually the directivity is assumed to be equal to the boresight gain assuming no losses in
the antenna.

The gain of an antenna is usually specified in the direction of maximum radiation, the
boresight, and is equal to the total power radiated in this direction assuming it was
radiated isotropically (uniformly in all directions) divided by the input power to the
antenna structure. The gain is less than the directivity because of antenna losses, spillage,
blockage, and so on.

The efficiency of an antenna is the gain divided by the directivity. It is a measure of what
proportion of the input power is usefully radiated.

The effective area of an antenna is numerically equal to the gain times 4 pi/(lambda^2),
and is the area of a perfect antenna which had that particular value of gain. The effective
area is usually (in the case of an aperture antenna) somewhat smaller than the physical
area.

A square array of 4 by 4 elements consisting of lambda/2 dipoles each having a maximum gain
3dB is fed by 16 signals of adjustable relative phase and equal amplitudes. Assuming 90%
efficiency, calculate the boresight gain when the signals are all in phase. [50%]

Let us call the amplitude of the individual signals driving each element A. Then the input
power to an element is |A|^2 (modulus of A squared, or AA*). The efficiency is 90%, or
0.9, and the square root of this is 0.95 which represents how much of the individual
amplitude A is radiated.

The gain of an individual element, in terms of power, is 2, or in terms of amplitude, is

sqrt(2). This is 3dB.

When all the signals add up in phase, the boresight amplitude is A times sqrt(2) times
0.95 times 16 since there are 16 equally contributing elements.

However the total input power is 16|A|^2, that is, 16 times the input power to each
element.

The boresight power is (16 times 0.95 times sqrt(2))^2 in units of |A|^2 so the power gain
is 16 times 0.95^2 times 2 which is 28.8 or 14.6 dB

Explain with a diagram how the direction of the beam from this array may be altered without
moving the positions of the elements. [25%]

The principle here is to delay the arrival in signals in time at successive elements across
the array. The principle is called "phased array" and is achieved by incorporating variable
phase shifts in the feeds to the various elements. If along the new boresight direction, the
wave from the further element has to travel a distance d further than the wave from its
neighbour, the phase shift we need to incorporate is theta = 360 degrees times d/lambda.

The direction of the beam boresight is at an angle phi from the broadside direction of the
array. Here, a simple diagram will show that sin(phi) = d/(element spacing) or phi =
arcsin [(lambda theta)/360 degrees times the element spacing] where the phase shift theta
is expressed in degrees and the element spacing and lambda have the same units.

Clearly, for our square array we can steer the beam in both azimuth and elevation by
applying this principle to both directions of the array plane.

Question 18
For waves travelling on a real coaxial cable connected to a linear antenna, define the following
terms: (i) characteristic impedance (ii) complex reflection coefficient (iii) return loss (iv)
complex voltage amplitude (v) propagation constant. [25%]

The characteristic impedance is the ratio of voltage to current in a wave travelling in a

single direction on transmission line, where the current sense is taken in the direction of
travel of the wave.

The complex reflection coefficient, measured at a point along the transmission line, is the
ratio of complex backward wave voltage to complex forward wave voltage at that point.

The return loss is the amount in dB by which the reflected POWER is less than the
incident POWER.

The "complex voltage amplitude" is the size of the voltage phasor at a point along the
line, with phase angle determined by the origin of time. By redefining the zero of time the
voltage amplitude can always be made real.

The propagation constant is the amount by which the phase of the forward wave
decreases (in radians) per unit distance travelled along the line, in the forwards direction.
Numerically, it is equal to 2 pi divided by the wavelength.

Assuming that the line is nearly lossless, express the forward and backward wave power flows,
in watts, in terms of the quantities defined above. [10%]
Derive an expression for the stored energy per unit length, on the cable, for waves travelling in a
single direction only. [15%]

If the forward wave "complex voltage amplitude" is written V+, and the backward wave
"complex voltage amplitude" is written V-, then the forward wave power flow is |V+||
V+|/(2Zo) where |V+| represents the modulus of the forward wave "complex voltage
amplitude". The 2 is necessary to convert from peak to rms value.

Similarly the backward wave power flow is |V-||V-|/(2Zo).

The (stored energy per unit length) times the (propagation velocity) equals the (forward
wave power flow). Thus the stored energy per unit length = |V+||V+|/(2Zo times wave
velocity). Looking at the units, (energy)/(length) times (length/time) gives us
(energy/time) = power [because Joules/sec=watts]

A 75 ohm cable, assumed lossless, feeds an antenna having radiation resistance (30+j120) ohms
at the signal frequency. If the forward wave power is 10 watts, calculate the return loss and the
radiated power. [25%]

The characteristic impedance Zo = 75 ohms, and the load impedance ZL = 30+j120

ohms. The reflection coefficient is, at the load terminals, (ZL-Zo)/(ZL+Zo) = -45+j120
divided by 105+j120 which gives us 0.3805+j0.7080 whose modulus squared is 0.6460.

The return loss in dB is therefore -10 log10 (0.6460) which is 1.898 dB, which is the
amount by which the return power is smaller than the incident power. The return power is
therefore 10 times 0.6460 = 6.46 watts, and the radiated power is what is left, namely 106.460 = 3.540 watts.

A generator feeds the 75 ohm cable and antenna of the last part. The generator has negligible
internal impedance and is connected at a voltage standing-wave maximum. For a forward wave
power of 10 watts, calculate the rms voltage at the generator terminals. Give a qualitative
description of a method by which the antenna may be matched to the cable. [25%]

Now the forward wave voltage modulus is given by |V+| and we know from earlier parts
of the question that |V+||V+|/(2Zo) = 10 watts with Zo = 75 ohms. Thus |V+| = sqrt[10
times 2 times 75] = sqrt[1500] so the forward wave voltage size is sqrt[1500] = 38.73
volts. The backward wave power flow is similarly 6.46 watts so the backward wave
voltage size is sqrt[6.46 times 2 times 75] = sqrt[969] = 31.13 volts.

At a voltage standing wave maximum, the forward and backward wave voltage phasors
add in phase, so the peak generator voltage is the sum 38.73+31.13 = 69.86 volts; to find
the rms voltage we divide by sqrt(2) to find 49.90 volts.

The generator may be matched by using a single shorted stub which may be either series
or shunt; by a double or triple stub tuner, or with some power loss by an isolator, although
in this case the radiated power will be less than that supplied by the generator. In the case
of a stub match, the reflections from the stub(s) just cancel the reflection from the load.

Question 19
Describe the s-parameter representation of the properties of a linear microwave 2-port circuit,
giving the defining equations and also stating precisely which variable are related by the sparameters. [25%]

The s-parameters relate inward and outward wave complex amplitudes. They are
measured at a "reference plane" with respect to each port. The reference planes are
positions along the transmission lines feeding the ports; if moved, the phases of the sparameters will alter. It is usual to define the wave amplitudes so that the square moduli
of the amplitudes represent the wave power flows.

The amplitudes are complex phasors and so the s-parameters are complex quantities. If
we call the input amplitudes a1 and a2 at ports 1 and 2 respectively, and the outward
wave amplitudes b1 and b2 similarly, the defining equations are....

b1 = s11 a1 + s12 a2
b2 = s21 a1 + s22 a2
where the four complex s-parameters are s11 s12 s21 s22.

In terms of the port 1 rms voltage V and rms current I, and the port 1 transmission line
characteristic impedance Zo, we have for the normalised wave amplitudes a1 and b1

a1 = (V+ZoI)/(2Zo)
b1 = (V-ZoI)/(2Zo)
and similar relationships hold for the amplitudes a2 and b2

State, giving reasons for your choice, which microwave components are described by the
following collections of s-parameters. [15% for each of the three parts below]

s11=0
s21=1exp(-j720)

s12=1exp(-j720)
s22=0

This is a section of lossless transmission line, two wavelengths long (720 degrees of
phase shift = 2 times 360). All the incident power is transferred to the output; there is no
reflection at all if the output port is terminated.

s11=0
s21=1exp(-j60)

This is an isolator, having no insertion loss in the forward direction, so that all the power
in port 1 comes out of port 2 and there is no intrinsic reflection from the isolator. In the
reverse direction, the isolator produces no intrinsic reflection, but attenuates the wave
passed back to the port 1 by -20 log10(0.07) dB which is 23.1 dB. It is a good isolator.

s11=0.1exp(-j30)
s21=9.7exp(-j80)

s12=0.07 exp(-j40)
s22=0

s12=0.3exp(-j80)
s22=0.15exp(-j60)

This is an amplifier. It has forward gain of 20log10(9.7) or 19.7dB, and reverse

transmission loss of -20log10(0.3) or 10.45dB. If the output is matched, the input return
loss is 20dB, and if the input is matched and the output driven, the return loss from the
output port is -20log10(0.15) or 16.5dB. If placed between gross miss-matches it would
oscillate because of the round trip gain being greater than unity.

A one-port circuit is created by taking a two-port device D, with generalised scattering matrix S,
and adding a load to port 2 of D. The load has complex reflection coefficient gamma. Derive an
algebraic formula for the complex reflection coefficient seen looking into port 1 of D. If a
generator is attached to port 1 of D, what is the condition for this arrangement to be stable for all
values of generator source impedance? [30%]

The wave leaving port 2 of D is reflected by the load and the reflected wave forms the
input wave to port 2. Thus we have a2 = gamma b2. Substituting into the defining sparameter equations we find the following formulae....

b1 = s11 a1 + s12 gamma b2

b2 = s21 a1 + s22 gamma b2
From the second of these equations we find, rearranging, that

b2(1-s22 gamma) = s21 a1

and we substitute for b2 in the first equation so that
b1 = s11 a1 + (s12 s21 gamma a1)/(1 - s22 gamma)

The complex reflection coefficient at port 1 is just b1/a1

which is clearly

(b1/a1) = s11 + (s12 s21 gamma)/(1 - s22 gamma)

If this quantity has modulus less than unity, there can be no
reflection gain, and the circuit arrangement will be
unconditionally stable.

Question 20
Describe the behaviours of an ideal isolator and an ideal 3-port circulator. Give examples of the
applications of these components. State which kind of material, used in their construction, gives
rise to their unique properties. [40%]

An ideal isolator transmits waves in one direction without any attenuation, but possibly
some phase shift; it absorbs completely waves in the reverse direction. Reverse waves see
a matched impedance at the output port of the isolator so at that port s22 is zero and so
there is no reflection of waves impinging on the output port (2) of the isolator. Ideally the
isolator works over a significant bandwidth and is essentially a non-resonant device.

An ideal 3-port circulator transmits power from port 1 to port 2, from port 2 to port 3, and
from port 3 to port 1 without attenuation. Intrinsically it has no loss. It is matched on each
port; thus there is no reflected wave from port 1 if ports 2 and 3 are terminated and not
driven. The same remarks apply to cyclic rotation of the port numbers.

Isolators are used to prevent the pulling of low Q oscillators such as Gunn oscillators by
resonant loads whose coupling may be time-dependent. They are used to protect high
power generators and amplifiers from the effects of gross miss-match at the loads. They
are used to reduce the VSWR on transmission line and the reverse transmission through
amplifiers which might otherwise go unstable.

Circulators are used in power combiners, and to separate forward from backward waves
so that the return loss of a load may be measured directly. They are used with antennas to
separate the received signal from the transmitted signal.

Both isolators and circulators contain magnetised ferrite; ferrite is insulating magnetic
material and when it is placed in a steady magnetic field the spins in the unpaired
electrons in the ferrite precess around the DC magnetic field and couple with differing
strengths to forward and backward waves, which have rotating RF magnetic fields in
opposite senses of rotation. This gives the devices the intrinsic and unique property, for
passive circuits, of non-reciprocal behaviour.

An ideal 3-port circulator is embedded in a transmission line of characteristic impedance 50

ohms. An engineer attempts to measure the complex reflection coefficient at port 1 when ports 2
and 3 are each loaded with 75 ohms resistance. Assuming that the phase shift between successive
ports is -60 degrees, calculate the complex reflection coefficient that the engineer would expect
to measure. [35%]

The reflection coefficient from the 75 ohm load at the port reference planes on ports 2
and 3 is given by gamma = (75-50)/(75+50) = 25/125 = 0.2 = 1/5.

The signal travels without loss from port 1 to port 2, with a phase shift of -60 degrees en
route. It is reflected at the load and reduced in amplitude by a factor of 5. It has another
-60 degrees of phase shift to get to port 3, where it is reduced in amplitude by another
factor of 5. Finally, it has another -60 degrees or phase shift to get to port 1 again. The
total reduction in amplitude is 1/5 times 1/5 and the total phase shift is 3 times -60
degrees. Thus the output wave at port 1 is 0.04 angle -180 degrees with respect to the
input wave; and this is the complex reflection coefficient.

Explain how a circulator may be used in place of an isolator, stating any advantages of this
arrangement. [25%]

If the circulator has a matched load placed on port 3, and the load of interest is attached
on port 2 and the generator on port 1, any reflected power from the load on port 2 is all
absorbed in the matched termination on port 3. It is therefore a perfect isolator and has
better isolation properties than a 2-port isolator. The power is absorbed by a resistive
load, which can be cooled by a fan or water circulation, and the ferrite does not get hot.
This is a technological advantage as its magnetic properties are temperature dependent.

Question 21
Give a justification of the formula, stated below, for the fundamental TE10 mode in a rectangular
waveguide of cross-sectional dimensions a (cm) by b (cm).
1
--=
(lambdag)^2

1
--(lambda)^2

1
--(2a)^2

Sketch the waveguide cross-section, indicating clearly which dimension is a. State the equivalent
formula for the guide wavelength of the TE11 mode. [40%]

In a waveguide, the electrical conductivity of the metal of the guide walls results in the
parallel components of electric field, and the perpendicular components of time-varying
magnetic field, vanishing at the walls.

In a wave propagating in free space in a single direction only (a "plane wave") the
magnetic field, electric field, and direction of travel, are all mutually at right angles to

each other. Thus to satisfy the boundary conditions in our rectangular guide it is
necessary for there to be more than one propagating plane wave giving rise to the field
patterns.

If we regard propagation as being at an angle to the guide walls, there are three
components of propagation constant; namely, two transverse and one along the guide.
The repetition distance or wavelength associated with the propagation along the guide is
called the "guide wavelength" lambdag. The wavelength associated with the vector
resultant of these three orthogonal propagation constants is just the free space wavelength
lambda.

In order for the fields to vanish at the guide walls there must be standing wave patterns in
the transverse propagation. The transverse propagation constants must have wavelengths
or repetition distances such that an integral number of half-wavelengths fit inside the
lateral guide dimensions. If a is the longest lateral dimension, then 2a must be the longest
transverse guide repetition distance or wavelength, and the reciprocal of this times 2 pi is
the associated transverse propagation constant.

Adding the components by Pythagoras theorem, and cancelling the factors of 2 pi, we
arrive at the formula stated. It is not necessary, for the fundamental mode, to have
standing waves patterns in both lateral directions at once, for we are allowed electric
fields normal to guide walls, and changing magnetic fields parallel to guide walls.

The equivalent formula for the TE11 mode is

1/(lambdag)^2 = 1/(lambda)^2 - 1/(2a)^2 - 1/(2b)^2

If a = 3 cm and b = 1.2 cm, calculate the cutoff frequencies of the TE10, TE01, and TE11 modes,
assuming that the waveguide is filled with air. Calculate the guide wavelength, the phase
velocity, and the group velocity, for propagating signals having a frequency 100MHz above the
TE10 mode cutoff frequency. [35%]

At the cutoff frequency lambdag increases without limit and the waves bounce laterally
across the guide without making progress along it. Using the relation [1/(lambdag)] = 0
we find the following free space guide wavelength cutoffs:
TE10 = 6 cm
TE01 = 2.4 cm
TE11 = sqrt(1/(1/36 + 1/5.76)) = 2.228 cm
using (frequency times wavelength) = 3 times 10^10 cm per sec,
the velocity of microwave radiation in air, we find cutoff
frequencies of 5GHz, 12.5GHz, and 13.46GHz respectively.

The signal frequency for this problem is therefore 5.1GHz and the corresponding free
space wavelength is 3/0.51 = 5.8824 cm. Using the waveguide formula we find that
lambdag = 29.85 cm. Multiplying this by the signal frequency 5.1 GHz we find the guide
phase velocity 1.522 times 10^11 cm per second, and using the result given in the
following part of the question the guide group velocity is 5.912 times 10^9 cm per
second.

Give a derivation of the relationship: (guide phase velocity)x(guide group velocity) = (velocity
of light in waveguide medium)^2. [25%]

Given the angular frequency omega, and the guide propagation constant beta, the phase
velocity which is frequency times guide wavelength is easily seen to be omega/beta. The
group velocity is d(omega)/d(beta), the derivation of which is not needed here, and
expressing the waveguide formula given in the earlier part of this question in terms of
omega and beta, having translated the free space wavelength lambda into frequency by
using c = frequency times free space wavelength, the result follows transparently on
differentiation.

It is also possible to use a geometrical construction showing the propagation directions in

the waveguide as being angle alpha to the guide wall. Inspection shows that the phase
velocity is given by c/cos(alpha) and the group velocity by c times cos(alpha) from which
the result also follows transparently.

There was a wide spread of quality in the written answers. Most people managed to write a
significant amount on the questions they attempted. Question 4 was popular, being largely
bookwork. There were not many good answers to the s-parameter question 2 particularly on the
descriptions of components, and the problem, although the bookwork part of the question was
quite well handled. Question 1 caused difficulties for some people who didn't realise that what
isn't reflected from the antenna has to be transmitted. Many people transposed the reflected and
transmitted powers here. The precision of some people in giving definitions needed
improvement.
Most people seemed a lot happier with descriptive answers than with answers requiring a little
thought and calculation. There were some over-long answers to question 3 which must have
taken time away from attempts at other questions. Incidentally, there are three sections of phase
shift to get round a three port circulator, not two.
Finally, well done everyone in what is generally accepted to be a difficult subject. I promise
microwaves will become clearer to you all in the future as the ideas sink in deeper. Remember
you only had 13 weeks from your first introduction to the subject until you were asked to write
an exam. Remember also the objective of an exam is not primarily to "grade" people but to fix
the ideas more firmly in memory by generating a little stress.

Question 22

Define the terms "Velocity factor", "Characteristic Impedance", "Return Loss", "Complex
reflection coefficient" and "Phase delay" for waves travelling on a lossless transmission line.
[25%]
A certain coaxial line is lossless, and has inductance L Henries/metre and capacitance C
Farads/metre. Give expressions for the characteristic impedance in ohms and the velocity factor
(dimensionless) for this line. Calculate the inductance and capacitance of a 1 metre length of this
line if it has impedance 50 ohms and velocity factor 0.6. [25%]
Calculate the complex reflection coefficient and return loss (dB) for reflections at a load
impedance 75+j13 ohms connected to this 50 ohm transmission line. State the complex reflection
coefficient in real and imaginary parts, and also as modulus and phase angle. How does the
complex reflection coefficient transform as the reference plane at which it is measured moves
towards the generator? [25%]
For the load impedance above, and by using the SMITH chart, estimate the position (in
wavelengths from the load) of the reference plane at point P at which the real part of the
transformed admittance is equal to the line characteristic admittance of 0.02 Seimens.. Estimate
the length of a shunt short circuit stub that would provide a matching network if attached to the
transmission line at point P. [25%]

Outline solution 1.

The velocity factor is the ratio of the speed of waves on the transmission line
to the speed c of light in vacuum, where c = 3E8 metres/sec. The velocity
factor is a dimensionless number less than one. The characteristic impedance
is the impedance of an infinitely long length of transmission line, or of a finite
length of line at times before any reflection has arrived back at the
measuring source. The return loss is the number of dB by which the return
wave power is less than the forward wave power. The complex reflection
coefficient is the complex ratio of return wave amplitude to forward wave
amplitude. The phase delay is the amount of phase shift suffered by the wave
in travelling along a certain length of transmission line. [25%]

The characteristic impedance Zo is given by sqrt(L/C), and the wave velocity

by the quantity 1/(sqrt(LC)). By the definition of velocity factor above, we
have to divide the wave velocity 1/(sqrt(LC)) by the velocity of light c in
vacuum. Thus the velocity factor eta = [1/(sqrt(LC))]*[1/3E8] and is
dimensionless. If Zo = 50 and eta = 0.6 we readily calculate L/C = 2500 and
LC = 3.09E-17 so that L = 278 nH and C = 111 pF for a 1 metre length of line.
[25%]

The load impedance is 75 + j13 ohms, so the normalised load impedance for
a 50 ohm line is 75/50 + j 13/50 ohms, or 1.5 + j0.26. Call this normalised

impedance zL. Then the complex reflection coefficient gamma is given by the
formula gamma = (zL-1)/(zL+1) = (0.5+j0.26)/(2.5+i0.26) = 0.21 + j0.08 or
in polar form 0.22 angle 21.54 degrees. The return loss is given by -20
log[10](0.22) or 13dB to the nearest dB. As the reference plane is moved
towards the generator the modulus of the complex reflection coefficient stays
the same (assuming the line is lossless), but the phase angle is reduced by
360 degrees for each half-wavelength of displacement of the reference plane
from the load. [25%]

The normalised load admittance yL = 1/zL gives us the same complex

reflection coefficient gamma. yL calculates to be 1/(1.5+j0.26) = 0.65-j0.11.
The expression for the transformed admittance y'L in terms of the
transformed complex reflection coefficient gamma' at P is y'L = (1+gamma')/
(1-gamma') A SMITH chart plot gives the point P at 0.17(5) wavelengths
towards the load, where the real part (conductance) of the transformed
normalised admittance is 1 and the residual normalised susceptance as
+0.48. A further SMITH chart plot gives the length of a shorted stub needed
to make a normalised susceptance of -0.48 as about 0.18 wavelengths [25%]

Question 23.

State the electromagnetic boundary conditions that constrain electromagnetic wave propagation
at the interface between air and a perfect conductor. Define what is meant by the term "transverse
electromagnetic wave", and give a diagram showing the directions of propagation, electric field,
and magnetic field in such a wave. Give another diagram showing the orientation of a stack of
metal plates spaced an arbitrary distance apart which may be introduced into this transverse
electromagnetic wave without disturbing it. [30%]
Give a qualitative description of how the boundary conditions are satisfied for propagation in a
rectangular hollow metal waveguide of cross sectional dimensions A metres by B metres, with A
> B. If the large dimension A is 1 cm calculate the lowest mode cutoff frequency of this guide, if
it is air-filled. [30%]
A certain researcher proposes a scheme to make a waveguide for use over the frequency range
110GHz to 140GHz, using rectangular metal pipe filled with a substance of relative dielectric
constant 9 at these frequencies. Suggest suitable waveguide dimensions, and calculate the guide
wavelength at a frequency of 125GHz. Comment on the probable sources of attenuation in such a
waveguide, and estimate the surface roughness (in microns) of the internal guide walls that it
would be possible to tolerate. [40%]

Outline solution 2.

The electric fields meet the perfect conductor walls at right angles. There can
be no component of electric field parallel to the metal wall, close to the wall.
The time-varying magnetic fields are parallel to the metal walls but have no
perpendicular-to-the-wall component. The direction of magnetic field is at
right angles to the local surface current on the metal walls. In a transverse

electromagnetic wave, the electric field vector and magnetic field vector are
both at right angles to each other and to the direction of travel of the wave. A
stack of metal sheets may be placed so that the electric field is at right
angles to the surfaces of the plates, and the magnetic field parallel to the
surfaces of the plates, without violating the boundary conditions. [30%]

In a rectangular pipe waveguide the electric fields can run normal to the A
faces and the magnetic fields can lie parallel to the A faces thereby satisfying
the boundary conditions on the A faces. Standing waves can exist with a
transverse component of propagation between the B faces, which can be
regarded as short circuit ends of transmission line, without requiring the
fields to be zero everywhere within the guide. The lowest mode cutoff
frequency happens when a half wavelength of free space radiation just fits
into the longest transverse dimension of the guide. In the case here that
gives a free space wavelength of 2 cms which occurs at a frequency of
15GHz, which is therefore the cutoff frequency of a 1cm guide. [30%]

If the relative dielectric constant is 9, the wave velocity in the material filling
the guide is slower than the speed of light in vacuum by a factor of sqrt(9) =
3. If we assume the cutoff frequency of the required guide is 100GHz, in free
space the wavelength would be 3 mm and in the dielectric the wavelength
would be 1 mm. The guide cross section dimensions could therefore be 1/2
mm by 1/4 mm, or 500 by 250 microns. Attenuation would be provided by
dielectric loss, and by the resistance of the guide walls since the skin depth
would be small. At 125 GHz the free space wavelength in the dielectric would
be 1/1.25 = 0.8 mm, and using the waveguide formula we discover the guide
wavelength to be 1/(sqrt[(1/(0.8)^2 - 1] = 1.33 mm. It would be appropriate
to keep the surface roughness below about 1/100 of a wavelength, so we
would like a surface polish to better than 10 microns. [40%]

Question 24.

Define the term "scattering matrix" and state carefully the quantities related by this matrix. For a
2-port network state how many elements there are in this matrix. Define the term "reciprocity"
and state the maximum number of independent elements there can be for a reciprocal scattering
matrix used to describe a 3-port junction. [30%]
Give a brief description of how a ferrite displacement isolator works. A certain isolator has
forward insertion loss of 0.5dB and reverse insertion loss of 11.5dB. It is placed between a
generator and a short circuit load impedance. Calculate the minimum value of normalised
resistive impedance which can be seen by the generator in this arrangement. [40%]
With the aid of a diagram, show how four 3-port ferrite circulators may be made to combine the
output from four high power amplifiers to feed a common antenna. Assume the amplifiers
operate on different channels with spacing of channels equal to the channel widths. Explain how
it may be arranged that no amplifier feeds power into any of the others, and explain what

happens to reflected power from the antenna if it is mismatched by placing an obstacle in its near
field region. [30%]

Outline solution 3.

The scattering matrix for an N port network consists of N*N complex numbers
which are dimensionless. Let us call these numbers sij where the suffices i
and j run over 1-N each. Suppose there is an input wave amplitude aj on the
jth port, and we measure the output on the ith port with all the other ports
terminated. Reference planes are defined for each port at which the input and
output wave amplitudes are defined. Then the element sij is numerically
equal to the complex ratio of the output complex amplitude bi to the input
complex amplitude aj. For a 2-port network there are 4 elements, s11, s12,
s21, s22. The term reciprocity applies to most networks for which the
scattering parameters are the same under interchange of the ports. Thus for
a reciprocal 2-port network, s12=s21. In practice this means that the
insertion characteristics between ports i and j are independent of the
direction of travel of the wave between i and j. For a reciprocal 3-port junction
we can have 6 independent s parameters, s11, s22, s33, s12, s23, s13. [30%]

A ferrite isolator contains magnetically biased insulating magnetic material

called ferrite. The electron spins in the ferrite precess around the direction of
the applied magnetic bias field in a certain direction. The local rf magnetic
field in the forward and backward waves rotate either in the same direction
as the precessing electrons, or in the opposite direction. This gives the ferrite
an effective permeability that differs for forward and backward propagating
waves. The field distributions in the waveguide have different patterns for the
forward and backward waves ("field displacement") and a resistive card
placed in the guide will attenuate forward waves differently from backward
waves. In the problem, the round trip loss is 12 dB and so the return wave
amplitude is 1/3.98 times the amplitude of the incident wave, since the
magnitude of the reflection at the short is unity. Thus the minimum value of
normalised resistive impedance is given by [1-1/3.98]/[1+1/3.98] = 0.60.
[40%]

Each high power amplifier (HPA) directs its output through an associated
bandpass filter which has a stop band for the frequencies of all the other
amplifiers, into a circulator tree of 3-port circulators. The bottom circulator
passes its HPA signal to the next one up, and so on, and any return power to
the bottom circulator is absorbed in a matched termination on its spare port.
The top 3-port circulator has its output port connected to the antenna. The
bandpass filters are perfect reflectors for signals in their stop bands. Thus the
signal from the bottom HPA proceeds via each circulator, rflected from the
other filters, to the antenna. Clearly no power from the lower HPAs enters any
of the higher HPAs because it is prevented by the stopbands of the associated
filters. Return power from the antenna is passed directly to the termination at
the bottom of the tree. [30%]

Question 25.

Define the terms "isotropic radiator", "boresight direction", "directivity", "gain", and "E- plane
radiation pattern" in the context of antenna design. Explain why it is impossible to construct an
isotropic radiator in practice. [30%]
A certain transmitter has a final amplifier that delivers 10 kW to an antenna with 85% efficiency.
The antenna has boresight directivity of 14dBi above an isotropic source. Calculate the r.m.s.
electric field strength at a distance of 50 km from an ISOTROPIC source radiating 10 kW with
100% efficiency, and compare it with the field strength at this distance from the hypothetical
transmitter-antenna combination described above. [40%]
Give a formula relating the effective area of an antenna to its boresight gain and to the
wavelength of the radiated signal. Estimate the area of a horn aperture antenna required to give a
gain of 14dBi at 13 GHz. If such a dish were used to transmit the 10kW signal described above,
estimate the power flow in watts per square metre at a distance of 10m from this horn along
boresight, and comment on the safety implications. [30%]

Outline solution 4.

An isotropic radiator is one that radiates uniformly in all directions, both in

azimuth and elevation. The power density and field strengths radiated by an
isotrope do not depend at all on the direction of radiation. For a directional
antenna, if there is a single direction in which the radiated power is
maximum, this is termed the boresight direction. The directivity of an
antenna is a dimensionless number representing the ratio of the radiated
power density on boresight to the radiated power density at the same place
in space which would exist if radiated by an ideal isotrope having the same
total radiated power. Often the directivity is given in dB. The gain is similarly
defined, except that the powers referred to are input powers to the antenna.
The gain is less than the directivity if the antenna is less than 100% efficient,
due to resistive loss, absorption in the near field, spillover and blockage. The
E-plane radiation pattern is a polar plot of either the power radiated or the
field amplitude radiated as a function of direction in a plane containing the
electric field vector of a linearly polarised antenna. Since there has to be a
unique transverse polarisation direction for radiated transverse
electromagnetic waves, one finds that this cannot be arranged for radiation in
every direction from a point. Therefore isotropic radiators are impossible.
Consider a radiator with E field everywhere directed North on a reference
sphere. The direction is undefined on the polar axis. [30%]

The surface area of a sphere of radius 50Km is 4*pi*50*50*10^6 square

metres, and the 10 kW isotropic power is spread uniformly across this area at
a power density of 0.32 microwatts per square metre. The power density p in
a free-space wave is related to the rms electric field strength e by p = e*e/Zo
where Zo is 377 ohms (120 pi ohms), the impedance of free space. From this
we calculate e = 11 mV/metre approximately. The radiated power is

0.85*10,000 or 8500 watts. The antenna directivity of 14dBi increases the

effective isotropic radiated power on boresight by a factor 10^1.4 or 25.12 so
the e.i.r.p is 213.5 kW. The field strength on boresight at 50Km from our
hypothetical antenna is therefore 11 * sqrt(21.35) = 50.75 mV/metre. [40%]

The gain G and effective area A of an antenna are related by the formula G =
4*pi*A/(lambda)^2, where lambda is the wavelength of the radiation. At 13
GHz lambda = 3/1.3 cms = 2.31 cms and we found above that the 14dBi
directivity is a factor of 25.12. From these, the area of the dish is A =
25.12*2.31*2.31/(4 pi) = 10.65 square cms. At 10m from the horn, in the far
field region, the boresight power density is 25.12*10000/(4 pi 10*10) =
nearly 200 watts per square metre, or 20 mW per square cm. This is
comparable with the US allowed safety limits of 10mW/ square cm averaged
over 6 mins. [30%]

Question 25.

a)
Define the terms "characteristic impedance", "wave velocity", "velocity factor", "reflection
coefficient" and "voltage standing wave ratio VSWR" for waves on a coaxial transmission line.
[25%]
b)
Derive a formula for the VSWR in terms of the magnitude of the reflection coefficient. Explain,
with a formula, why and how the impedance measured at the generator end depends both on the
normalised load impedance ZL and the frequency f.
[30%]
c)
A certain coaxial cable has loss 0.4 dB per wavelength at a frequency of 100 MHz. The cable has
velocity factor 0.6 and characteristic impedance 50 ohms. It feeds an antenna load of 75 + j 25
ohms. If the cable is 10m long, estimate the VSWR at the mid point of the cable, and also at the
generator end.
[30%]
d)
Estimate, using the SMITH chart, the impedance seen by the generator when connected to this
system. Calculate the return loss at the generator.
[15%]
Outline solution (1).

Definitions.

Characteristic impedance: equal to sqrt(L/C) for waves on a lossless

transmission line having distributed inductance L Henries/metre and
distributed capacitance C Farads/metre. It is the ratio of voltage to
current in a forward travelling wave on the line; it is equal to the input
impedance of a very long length of line for times shorter than the time
it takes the reflections to return from the far end. It is that impedance
which, when used as a load, gives rise to no reflected wave, or a
perfect match.

Wave velocity. On a coaxial transmission line the waves propagate as

TEM modes. The wave velocity is therefore either the phase velocity or
the group velocity; it is the speed (and direction) with which the wave
crests travel along the coaxial cable, and it is also the speed with
which the energy and the modulations travel.

Velocity factor: This is a dimensionless number, less than unity, which

is the ratio of the speed of waves on the coaxial line to the speed of
light in vacuum, 3E8 metres per second. Typically the velocity factor
for coax lies between 0.55 and 0.8; it is closely given by 1/sqrt(epsilon)
where epsilon is the "effective relative dielectric constant" of the
insulator forming the line spacer.

Reflection coefficient: A complex dimensionless number which

describes, at a given point along the transmission line called the
"reference plane", the ratio of return wave amplitude to forward wave
amplitude. The phase of the reflection coefficient changes as the
reference plane is moved along the transmission line. On a lossless
line, the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is the same everywhere
along the line. There are important special cases of the reflection
coefficient when the reference plane coincides with the terminals of
the load impedance, or the generator terminals.

VSWR: The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio is a dimensionless number

representing the ratio of the maximum voltage of the standing waves
on the transmission line, at a reference plane where the forward and
backward waves are in phase, to the minimum voltage at a reference
plane (lambda/4 away from the maximum) where the forward and
backward waves are in anti-phase. The VSWR is a sensitive measure of
the mismatch on the line, and is closely related to the magnitude of
the reflection coefficient.

[25%]

Calling the forward wave complex amplitude V+ and the backward wave
complex amplitude V-, the magnitude |gamma| of the reflection coefficient
gamma is given by |V+| / |V-| so the VSWR is given by
VSWR = (|V+| + |V-|)/(|V+| - |V-|) = (1 + |gamma|)/(1 - |gamma|)

At the load, the reflection coefficient is gammaL, say, and at the generator it is gammaG
= gammaL (exp{2j 2 pi d/lambda}) for a line of length d and waves of wavelength
lambda. Using the relationships
gammaL = (ZL-Zo)/(ZL+Zo) and gammaG = (Zg-Zo)/(Zg+Zo)
we can determine Zg in terms of the quantities ZL, Zo, lambda, and d by
algebra.
[30%]

The wave velocity is 0.6*30 = 18 cm/nanosec. So at 100MHz = 0.1 GHz, the

wavelength lambda = 180 cm =1.8 metres. So the 10 metre cable is 10/1.8
wavelengths long. Total cable loss, one pass, = 10*0.4/1.8 = 2.2dB. Round
trip loss midpoint-load-midpoint = 2.2 dB. Round trip loss generator-loadgenerator = 4.4 dB. Magnitude of reflection coefficient at load = 1/(sqrt[13]).
(see last part to this question).
2.2 dB loss is a factor 1.66 in power or 1.29 in amplitude.
4.4 dB loss is a factor 2.75 in power or 1.66 in amplitude.
At the mid point, |gamma| = (1/sqrt[13])/1.29 so VSWR = 1.55
At the generator, |gamma| = (1/sqrt[13])/1.66 so VSWR = 1.40
[30%]

At the generator, the line length to the load is 5.5555 lambda or integer
number of half wavelengths plus 0.0555 wavelengths. Plot 1.5 + j 0.5,
transform 0.0555 lambda towards the generator, read off |gamma| = 0.28 so
that the generator end reflection coefficient including the loss is 0.17, read
off Zg/Zo = 1.4 - j 0.05.
[15%]
Question 26.

a)
State the boundary conditions for microwave electromagnetic field components adjacent to a
perfect conductor. Explain the difference between Transverse Electric [TE] modes and
Transverse Magnetic [TM] modes, and show how these modes satisfy the boundary conditions in
rectangular waveguide.
[30%]
b)
Determine the cutoff frequencies of the TE10, TE01, TM11, and TE11 modes in a waveguide
filled with a lossless dielectric of relative permittivity epsilon(r) = 6.5, for guide dimensions 1.8
cm by 0.8 cm. State which of these modes are degenerate .
[30%]

c)
List any advantages and disadvantages of using dielectric filled waveguide, compared to airfilled.
[20%]
d)
Estimate the power handling capacity of this guide for the TE10 mode if the dielectric
breakdown strength is 10^7 V/m
[20%]
Outline solution (2).

The parallel component of E and the normal component of dH/dt must be

zero adjacent to a perfect conductor. So the E field always meets a conductor
at right angles, and a changing H field always lies parallel to a conductor
surface adjacent to the surface. In a TE mode there is a longitudinal H field,
and in a TM mode there is a longitudinal E field. Here, longitudinal is taken to
mean in the direction of propagation along the axis of the waveguide. A
sketch of mode patterns is needed here, see the waveguide notes .

The relative dielectric constant is 6.5, so the wave velocity interior to the
guide is c/(sqrt(6.5) = 1.18E8 metres per second. The cutoff wavelength for
TE10 is twice the broad guide dimension, or 3.6 cm so the cutoff frequency
for the TE10 mode is 0.118/(0.036) GHz = 3.27 GHz. The cutoff wavelength
for the TE01 mode is twice the narrow guide dimension, so the cutoff
frequency works out to be 7.36GHz by a similar argument. The TE11 and
TM11 modes are degenerate and share a cutoff frequency of 8.05 GHz.
[30%]

Advantages of dielectric-loaded waveguide are; increased breakdown field

strength and power handling capacity, and reduced size for a given frequency
of use. Disadvantages include fabrication problems, dielectric loss leading to
attenuation, material dispersion as well as geometric dispersion, and possible
arcing at the wall-dielectric interfaces.
[20%]

Within the TE10-only propagation band, we assume the group velocity is

(1.18E8)/2 metres per second. The energy density per unit length of the
guide is of the order (epsilon0)(6.5)(E^2)A where A is the guide cross-section
in square metres, E is the maximum r.m.s. electric field strength in the wave,
and epsilon0 = 8.85E(-12) Farads/metre is the permittivity of free space. This
energy density is of the order of 0.4 Joules per metre length of guide, so the
maximum power flow is 0.4*(1.18E8)/2 = 24 Megawatts.
[20%]

Question 27.

a)
Define the term scattering matrix and give examples of the scattering matrix values (sparameters) for each of the following devices:a lambda/3 length of lossless coaxial cable
a perfect 3-port circulator
a perfect 4-port magic tee in waveguide.
[40%]
b)
At its terminals, a certain antenna has s11 = - j0.2. Using the SMITH chart, or otherwise,
determine the driving point impedance at the input to a 50 ohm feeder of length 21.67 lambda
which is connected to this antenna. Assume negligible loss in the feeder.
[40%]
c)
Explain the construction of a single short-circuit stub match to an antenna. Indicate how the
bandwidth of the stub match might be maximised.
[20%]

Outline solution (3).

An n-port microwave circuit has n input waves and n output waves. We relate
the incoming wave amplitudes ai to the outgoing wave amplitudes bi by the
matrix equation bi = sij aj where the sij are the (complex dimensionless)
scattering parameters, which can be assembled into a matrix called the
scattering matrix . In matrix notation we can write this relationship as B = SA.
o

For a lambda/3 transmission line we have s11=s22 = 0. It is a 2-port

network. The other s parameters are given by s12=s21 = exp{-j 2
pi/3}; they have unity magnitude and negative phase parts.

For a perfect 3-port circulator with the sequence 1->2->3->1.... we

have s11=s22=s33 = 0 and forward transmission s21=s32=s13 = 1
exp {j -theta} with theta some phase angle depending on the
construction. The other s parameters s12,s23, s31 are all zero as there
is no reverse propagation around the circulator.

For a perfect 4-port magic tee, the ports may be numbered (1 and 4)
straight through, 2 H-plane arm, and 3 E-plane arm. Then all the
scattering parameters have magnitude 1/sqrt(2), and the matrix may

be written as 1/sqrt(2) times { s11=s22=s33=s44=s14=s41=s23=s32

= 0, s21=s31=s13=s12 =s43=s34=1, s24=s42 = -1}

[40%]

The magnitude of s11 is 1/5 and the angle -90 degrees. The length of the line
is (round trip distance) 2*(-0.17)*360 degrees (we have subtracted 43 whole
wavelengths from the round trip phase shift) so the input reflection
coefficient gamma has magnitude 1/5 and phase angle (-90-122.4) degrees,
so Zin/Zo = [1 + gamma]/[1 - gamma] = 0.6967 + j 0.1556 so Zin = 34.8 +
j7.78 ohms.
[40%]

For this part, see the stub matching notes

[20%]

Question 28.

a)
Explain the term isotropic radiator. How do practical antennas differ from the isotropic ideal?
Define the terms directivity and gain of an antenna and give an expression for the efficiency of a
front feed Cassegrain reflector antenna.
[30%]
b)
A formula for the gain gi (dBi) of a reflector antenna having effective area Ae square metres is
gi = 10 log[10](4 pi Ae) - 20 log[10](lambda)

for radiation of wavelength lambda metres. Explain why the actual reflector physical area is
larger than Ae and estimate the actual area needed for gi = 48 dBi at 13 GHz. State any
assumptions.
[20%]
c)
If the radiated power is assumed to be distributed uniformly within a cone of semi-angle theta,
determine theta if gi = 48 dBi.
[20%]
d)
Explain why sidelobes can arise in practical dish antennas, and state how the sidelobes may be
reduced. Identify any compromises to the antenna performance involved in reducing sidelobes.
[30%]

Outline solution (4).

Definitions.
o

The term isotropic refers to a hypothetical antenna which radiates

uniformly in every direction in space. Since electromagnetic waves are
transverse, an isotropic antenna can only be approximated. Practical
antennas have at least two directions along which they cannot radiate;
these directions are along a weighted average direction of current flow
in the antenna source region.

Directivity: radiated power density in a certain direction at a certain

distance, divided by the radiated power density at the same distance,
from an isotropic source having the same total integrated radiated
power as the antenna in question.

Gain: the same as directivity but allowing for antenna loss in the near
field and the radiating structure. The isotropic source now has the
same total radiated power as that accepted by the antenna in question
from its feeder.

The efficiency of an antenna is the proportion of total accepted input

power that is ultimately radiated. Numerically, the efficiency = (the
gain) / (the directivity) and it doesn't matter which directions are taken
(providing they are the same) for establishing the gain and the
directivity.

Sources of loss in an antenna include absorbing objects in the near

field, resistive loss in the current-bearing structures, and spillover from
the feed to a reflector antenna.

[30%]

The (effective area)/(the actual area) = (the aperture efficiency) and the
aperture efficiency may be about 70-85% for a typical Cassegrain reflector
antenna. Assuming an aperture efficiency of 80%, and using the formula G =
(4 pi Ae)/(lambda^2) for the gain of the antenna in terms of the effective
area Ae, for this case we find G = 10^(48/10) = 63096, and the wavelength
at 13 GHz is 0.03/1.3 metres = 0.0231 metres so that Ae = 2.68 square
metres and the actual area is Ae/(0.8) = 3.35 square metres.
[20%]

The gain is approximately equal to the solid angle of the whole sphere (4 pi
steradians) divided by the solid angle of the cone of radiation (pi theta^2)
whence theta = 0.0080 radians = 0.456 degrees is the cone semi-angle.
[20%]

Sidelobes arise mathematically from the Fourier transform of a uniformly

illuminated aperture. They may be regarded as the rings of a diffraction

pattern formed by a uniformly illuminated aperture having the shape of the

reflector. They may be reduced by using aperture illumination taper, where
the fields are reduced at the edges of the reflector from their values at the
centre. For minimum sidelobes, the taper should approximate to a Gaussian.
The sidelobes are only reduced by the trade-off of a wider main beam, so the
antenna needs to be larger for a given beamwidth.
[30%]
Question 29

(a)
Define the terms "characteristic impedance", "wave velocity", "velocity factor", "dispersion",
"complex reflection coefficient".
[10%]
(b)
Give a formula that relates the velocity factor and characteristic impedance of a transmission line
to the inductance and capacitance of a 1 metre length of line.
[10%]
(c)
Calculate the inductance and capacitance of a 10 metre length of 300 ohm parallel wire ribbon
cable which has velocity factor 0.9
[20%]
(d)
A transmission line junction is formed from four microstrip lines, all having the same
characteristic impedance, and connected together in the form of a cross. Power is input to port 1
and ports 2,3 and 4 are all terminated in matched loads. Evaluate the size of the reflection
coefficient at port 1. Determine how many dB of signal loss occurs between the in-port and one
of the out-ports.
[40%]
(e)
Describe qualitatively, giving reasons, what happens to a rectangular pulse of current
propagating along a uniform but lossy dispersive microstrip transmission line.
[20%]
Outline solution (1).

Definitions.

Characteristic impedance: equal to sqrt(L/C) for waves on a lossless

transmission line having distributed inductance L Henries/metre and
distributed capacitance C Farads/metre. It is the ratio of voltage to current in

a forward travelling wave on the line; it is equal to the input impedance of a

very long length of line for times shorter than the time it takes the reflections
to return from the far end. It is that impedance which, when used as a load,
gives rise to no reflected wave, or a perfect match.

Wave velocity. On a coaxial transmission line the waves propagate as TEM

modes. The wave velocity is therefore either the phase velocity or the group
velocity; it is the speed (and direction) with which the wave crests travel
along the coaxial cable, and it is also the speed with which the energy and
the modulations travel.

Velocity factor: This is a dimensionless number, less than unity, which is the
ratio of the speed of waves on the coaxial line to the speed of light in
vacuum, 3E8 metres per second. Typically the velocity factor for coax lies
between 0.55 and 0.8; it is closely given by 1/sqrt(epsilon) where epsilon is
the "effective relative dielectric constant" of the insulator forming the line
spacer.

Dispersion: this is a technical term for the case where the phase velocity of
waves depends on frequency or wavelength, and a superposition (Fourier) of
waves "disperses" in distance as it travels along the line.

Complex reflection coefficient: A complex dimensionless number which

describes, at a given point along the transmission line called the "reference
plane", the ratio of return wave complex-amplitude to forward wave complexamplitude. The phase of the reflection coefficient changes as the reference
plane is moved along the transmission line. On a lossless line, the magnitude
of the reflection coefficient is the same everywhere along the line. There are
important special cases of the reflection coefficient when the reference plane
coincides with the terminals of the load impedance, or the generator
terminals.
[10%]

Calling the velocity factor eta and the velocity of light c ; with the
capacitance of the cable C Farads per metre and the inductance of the cable
L Henries per metre we have

Zo = characteristic impedance = sqrt (L/C)

velocity of waves on the line = (eta c) = 1/sqrt(LC)
so L = Zo/(eta c) and C = 1/(Zo eta c) by simple algebra.
[10%]

If Zo = 300 ohms, eta = 0.9 and c = 3E8 then for 10 metres of cable the
inductance L is 11.1 micro-Henries and the capacitance C is 123 pF.
[20%]

At the microstrip junction, the three outgoing terminated transmission lines

each present a shunt impedance Zo. There are thus three Zo impedances in

parallel at the end of the input line, and they form a load impedance ZL =
(1/3)Zo. The reflection coefficient at the junction is therefore [1/3 - 1]/[1/3 +
1] or -1/2. The amount of power reflected is therefore [-1/2][-1/2] or 1/4, and
so 3/4 of the incident power is transmitted. By symmetry, it has to divide
equally between the three outgoing transmission lines and so the transmitted
power into each load is 1/4 of the incident power, and the loss is 6dB.
[40%]

Wave shape on lossy dispersive microstrip. The rectangular pulse will spread
out and diminish with distance away from the generator. The wave shape
may become oscillatory for sufficiently large distances and strong dispersion.
The integrated energy in the wave will become less as the wave propagates.
[20%]

Question 30

(a)
Give a description of the formalism of a scattering matrix representation of a two-port
microwave circuit, stating clearly what each of the scattering parameters represents physically.
[30%]
(b)
A certain microwave component has the following s-parameters
s11
s22
s21
s12

=
=
=
=

0.1 angle -30 degrees

0.3 angle -60 degrees
8.4 angle -120 degrees
0.05 angle -90 degrees

State what kind of component is represented by these s-parameters.

[10%]

(c)
The component is supplied on port 1 with 10mW power level while port 2 is connected to a
matched load. Determine the power output on port 2.
[10%]
(d)
This component is embedded in a 50 ohm transmission system. Determine the input impedance
at port 1 if port 2 is

(i) terminated by an impedance of 50 ohms

(ii) short circuited

[30%]

(e)
Write down the s-matrix of a perfect microwave 3-port circulator 1>2>3>1 with 120 degrees
phase delay between successive ports.
[20%]
Outline solution (2).

The S-matrix links incoming complex wave amplitudes a to outgoing complex

wave amplitudes b . The incoming power on port i is (ai)(ai)* = the squared
modulus of ai, and similarly for the b amplitudes. In matrix notation

b1

or

b2

| s11
= |
| s21

s12 |
|
s22 |

a1

a2

or fully
b1 = s11 a1 + s12 a2
b2 = s21 a1 + s22 a2

Now, if port 1 is driven and port 2 is terminated then a2 = 0 and b1 = s11 a1,
and b2 = s21 a1.

so |s11|^2 is the proportion of input power reflected, and |s21|^2 is the proportion of input
power transmitted. The phase angles of s11 and s21 represent the phase shifts on
reflection and transmission, respectively.
Similarly for port 1 terminated and port 2 driven.
[30%]

The component is an amplifier as the magnitude of s21 is larger than unity

and the reverse transmission s12 is small.
[10%]

For 1 milliwatt of input power, the output power delivered to the matched
load on port 2 is 8.4*8.4 milliwatts, from the property above. This is 70.56
milliwatts. Thus for 10mW of input power, the power delivered to the load will

be 0.7 watts approximately.

[10%]

Now Zo is 50 ohms. If port 2 is terminated then b1 = s11 a1 and the

reflection coefficient at port 1 is s11. Therefore Zin/Zo = (1+s11)/(1-s11) so
Zin = 59.7 - j 6.0 ohms.
[15%]

If there is a short circuit on port 2, the reflection coefficient from the short is
-1 and so a2 = - b2 is the wave amplitude returned to port 2 from the
reflection at the short.

Thus b1 = s11 a1 - s12 b2

and b2 = s21 a1 - s22 b2
where we have substituted (-b2) for a2 in the equations listed in the first part of the
answer.
Solving these equations we obtain b1 in terms of a1 to get the reflection coefficient
gamma at the input port, which is given by
gamma = [s11 - (s12 s21)/{1+s22}]
and so, as before,
Zin = Zo[1+gamma]/[1-gamma] = 113 - j46 ohms on putting in the numbers.
[15%]

For the three port circulator we have s11 = s22 = s33 = 0 as it it intrinsically
matched on each port, and we also have s12 = s23 = s31 = 0 as there is no
reverse cyclic transmission, and we are left with s21 = s32 = s13 =
magnitude 1 angle -120 degrees.
[20%]

Question 31.

(a)
State the boundary conditions for electromagnetic fields at the interface between air and a perfect
conductor.
[10%]
(b)
A rectangular waveguide has cross section 4.8 cm (wide face) by 2.4 cm (narrow face).
Determine the cutoff frequencies for each of the following modes: TE10 TE01 TE20 TM11
[20%]

(c)
Which two of the modes above are degenerate? Give reasons.
[10%]
(d)
Determine the attenuation coefficient in dB/metre for the TM11 mode, at a frequency 100 MHz
below its cutoff.
[30%]
(e)
Explain, giving reasons, why waveguide is usually used at frequencies well away from mode
cutoffs.
[15%]
(f) For the waveguide described above, state the range of frequencies over which it might best be
used.
[15%]
Outline solution 3

The parallel component of E, and the normal component of dH/dt must be

zero adjacent to a perfect conductor. So the E field always meets a conductor
at right angles, and a changing H field always lies parallel to a conductor
surface adjacent to the surface.
[10%]

For the "m,n" mode (whether TE or TM) we recall the waveguide formula

(1/lambdacutoff)^2 = (m/2a)^2 + (n/2b)^2

and we have frequency(cutoff) times lambdacutoff = 3E8 metres/sec
So we obtain
cutoff frequencies TE10 = 3.125GHz, TE01=TE20 = 6.25GHz, TM11 = 6.988GHz.
[20%]

The TE01 and TE20 modes are degenerate; they have the same cutoff
frequencies and the guide wavelengths for each mode will be the same at
any given frequency.
[10%]

We now use the (remembered) formula

(1/lambdaguide)^2 = (1/lambda)^2 - (1/lambdacutoff)^2

and lambda * frequency = 3E8 metres per second
to find (1/lambdaguide)^2 = (f^2 - fc^2)/(3E8)^2.
as fc is greater than f, lambdaguide is imaginary and the attenuation coefficient alpha is
given by
alpha = (2 pi)/(modulus of lambdaguide)
Again, putting in the numbers we find the attenuation alpha = 24.8 Nepers per metre =
215 dB/metre.
[30%]

Close to cutoff, the group velocity of the propagating mode becomes very low
and the waveguide mode becomes highly dispersive. The evanescent (nonpropagating but attenuating) modes extend further physically from
imperfections in the guide walls, or scattering objects, and therefore can
couple unwanted energy and signal along the guide. For this guide, we might
suggest 4 to 6 GHz as a sensible single-mode (TE10) range.
[30%]

Question 32.

(a)
Distinguish between the terms gain and directivity of an antenna.
[10%]
(b)
Explain why a dipole antenna necessarily has a maximum directivity which is greater than unity.
[10%]
(c)
An array antenna consists of two vertically orientated half-wave dipoles placed with feeds a
distance one wavelength apart and orientated along the line joining their feed points. In both
azimuth and elevation planes, sketch radiation patterns of (i) the dipoles considered as isolated
elements, (ii) the array pattern of two isotropes placed on the dipole centres, and (iii) the total
radiation pattern of the antenna.
[50%]

(d)
Explain what is meant by the term "pattern multiplication".
[10%]
(e)
Determine the boresight directivity (in dBd) of the array antenna shown above, and determine
the directions of nulls in the radiation pattern.
[20%]
Outline solution (4).

The gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the power radiated per unit
solid angle (in a certain direction, possibly along boresight if no direction is
specified) to that power which would be radiated by an isotropic antenna,
having the same total accepted input power. The directivity on the other
hand refers the ratio of the power radiated per unit solid angle to the
integrated power radiated over all directions (but in the far field; that is, at
long distances from the antenna structure) by the antenna. It is a measure of
the intrinsic "concentration of energy" properties of the antenna, and does
not take account of loss due to absorption in the near field, spillage,
blockage, or due to resistive ohmic dissipation in the antenna structure.
[10%]

A dipole antenna has nulls along the rod axes, and so to compensate must have directivity
greater than one in some other directions.
[10%]

The dipole axes are vertical, and the azimuth plane is in the horizontal
directions. Since the dipole has rotational symmetry in the horizontal plane,
there can be no preferred direction to the radiation, and so the azimuth plots
of both the element and the array patterns are omnidirectional (that is,
circles). In the elevation plane a single dipole has nulls along the rod axes,
and a maximum at right angles to the rod axes. The pattern looks like a
"figure of eight" on its side (rotated through 90 degrees from normal) and
when combined with the azimuth pattern, the total 3-d pattern resembles a
toroid (doughnut with hole).

For the two isotropes spaced lambda apart, the path difference is lambda/2 for a direction
at 30 degrees to the azimuth plane. (arcsine 30 = 1/2). So the nulls in the elevation pattern
are at 60 degrees to the axis along which the isotropes are spaced. There are lobe maxima
at zero degrees, 90, 180 and 270 degrees.
When we combine the azimuth patterns by pattern multiplication, the total radiation
pattern in the azimuth plane remains circular (omnidirectional). However, the elevation

pattern multiplication puts an additional null along the rod axes into the array pattern, so
there are now a total of 6 lobes and 6 nulls as we rotate around in elevation.
Sketches would help and get marks here.
[50%]

Pattern multiplication may be summarised algorithmically as

o

choose a direction (azimuth, elevation)

determine element directivity in this direction

determine array factor directivity in this direction

plot the product of these directivities (in this direction) on a 3d plot

repeat for all (azimuth elevation) angles at reasonable intervals to

derive the total antenna radiation pattern.

[10%]

The array factor gain is 2 (there are two elements) and the element factor
gain is just that of a single dipole. Therefore the total antenna gain is 3dBd
with respect to a dipole, or 5.2 dBi with respect to an isotropic source.

As derived above, the null directions are at 0 degrees 60 degrees 120 degrees 180 degrees
240 degrees 300 degrees with respect to the rod axes, in the elevation plane.
[20%]