I.

Definition of Terms

1. CANCER
-Altered cellular mechanism with progressive and uncontrolled multiplication
of cells with selective ability to invade metastasis and cause mechanical
effects of pressure, obstruction and interruption of blood supply.
2. NEOPLASM
-An abnormal mass of tissue, the growth of which exceeds and is
uncoordinated with that of the normal tissues. It persists in the same
excessive manner after cessation of the stimuli that evoked the change.
Benign and malignant forms are recognized.
3. HYPERPLASIA
-an increase in the number of cells of a body part that results from an
increased rate of cellular division. Types of hyperplasia include compensatory,
hormonal, and pathologic.
4. METAPLASIA
- The conversion of one type of adult tissue and/or cellsmost commonly
epitheliainto another; e.g., squamous metaplasia, in which non-keratinised
squamous epithelium replaces ciliated columnar cells in the bronchi of
smokers.
5. DYSPLASIA
-any abnormal development of tissues or organs. An alteration in cell growth
resulting in cells that differ in size, shape, and appearance, often as a result
of chronic irritation. Common sites for dysplasia are the respiratory tract in
smokers and the cervix.
6. ANAPLASIA
-a change in the structure and orientation of cells, characterized by a loss of
differentiation and reversion to a more primitive form. Anaplasia is
characteristic of malignancy.
7. ONCOGENE
-a potentially cancer-inducing gene. Under normal conditions such genes play
a role in the growth and proliferation of cells, but, when altered in some way
by a cancer-causing agent such as radiation, a carcinogenic chemical, or an
oncogenic virus, they may cause the cell to be transformed to a malignant
state.
8. CARCINOGENS
-Factors associated with cancer causation, e.g., radiation, chemicals, viruses
and physical agents.
9. PARANEOPLASTIC SYNDROME

-A paraneoplastic syndrome is a disease or symptom that is the consequence

of cancer in the body but is not due to the local presence of cancer cells.
These phenomena are mediated by humoral factors (by hormones or
cytokines) excreted by tumor cells or by an immune response against the
tumor.
10.CACHEXIA
-general ill health and malnutrition, marked by weakness and emaciation,
usually associated with severe disease, such as tuberculosis or cancer.
11.SUPERIOR VENA CAVA SYNDROME
-Superior vena cava syndrome (SVCS) is a group of symptoms caused by the
partial blockage or compression of the superior vena cava, the major vein
that carries blood from the head, neck, upper chest, and arms to the heart. In
most instances, SVCS is caused by cancer.
12.TELETHERAPY
-treatment in which the source of the therapeutic agent, e.g. radiation, is at a
distance from the body. Called also external beam radiotherapy.
13.BRACHYTHERAPY
-treatment with ionizing radiation whose source is applied to the surface of
the body or within the body a short distance from the area being treated.
14.CHEMOTHERAPY
-the use of antineoplastic agents with a primary action of interfering with the
supply and untilizatio building blocks of neucleic acids as well as interfering
with intact molecules of DNA and RNA both needed for cellular metabolism,
replication and growth. Problem is they lack specificity hence attacking even
normal cells.
15.DOSIMETER
-an instrument used to detect and measure accumulated radiation exposure.
It consists of a pencil-sized ionization chamber with a self-reading
electrometer.
16.EXTRAVASATION
-a discharge or escape, as of blood, from a vessel into the tissues
- the inadvertent administration of a vesicant into the tissues; the intensity of
the irritating action is so severe that plasma escapes from the extracellular
space and blisters are formed. Large extravasations of some medications
may lead to contractures, with the need for dbridement and grafting and in
severe cases amputation.
17.IMMUNOTHERAPY
-Immunotherapy is the "treatment of disease by inducing, enhancing, or
suppressing an immune response".

18.NADIR
-the lowest point, such as the blood count after it has been depressed by
chemotherapy.
19.CHRYPTORCHIDISM
-a developmental defect in which one or both testicles fail to descend into the
scrotum and are retained in the abdomen or inguinal canal.
20.METASTASIS
-an active process by which tumor cells move from the primary location of a
cancer by severing connections from the original cell group and establishing
remote colonies.
II.

PHASES/STAGES OF CELL CYCLE

Cell cycle narrates the life of cell itself. It encompasses the growth, replication and
division of eukaryotic cells. It is divided into four distinct stages namely Gap 1 phase
(G1), Synthesis phase (S), Gap 2 phase (G2) and Mitosis (M). Furthermore, the
fourth stage is subdivided into four phases Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and
Telophase.

Phases

of the Cell Cycle

The two main divisions of the cell cycle are interphase and mitosis.
Interphase
During this segment of the cell cycle, a cell doubles its cytoplasm and
synthesizesDNA . It is estimated that a dividing cell spends about 90-95 percent
of its time in this phase.

G1 phase: The period prior to the synthesis of DNA. In this phase, the cell
increases in mass and organelle number in preparation for cell division. Animal
cells in this phase are diploid, meaning that they have two sets of
chromosomes.

S phase: The period during which DNA is synthesized. In most cells, there
is a narrow window of time during which DNA is synthesized. The chromosome
content is doubled in this phase.

G2 phase: The period after DNA synthesis has occurred but prior to the
start of mitosis. The cell synthesizes additional proteins and continues to
increase in size.
Stages of Mitosis

In mitosis and cytokinesis , the contents of the dividing cell are equally
distributed between two daughter cells. Mitosis has four phases: Prophase,
Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.

Prophase: In this stage, changes occur in both the cytoplasm and nucleus
of the dividing cell. The chromatin condenses into discrete chromosomes. The
chromosomes begin to migrate toward the cell center. The nuclear envelope
breaks down and spindle fibers form at opposite poles of the cell.

Metaphase: In this stage, the nuclear membrane disappears completely.

The spindle fully develops and the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate
(a plane that is equally distant from the two poles).

Anaphase: In this stage, paired chromosomes (sister chromatids) separate

and begin moving to opposite ends (poles) of the cell. Spindle fibers not
connected to chromatids lengthen and elongate the cell.

Telophase: In this stage, the chromosomes are cordoned off into distinct
new nuclei and the genetic content of the cell is divided equally into two parts.
Cytokinesis begins prior to the end of mitosis and completes shortly after
telophase.
Once a cell has completed the cell cycle, it goes back into the G 1 phase and
repeats the cycle again. Cells in the body can also be placed in a non-dividing
state called the Gap 0 phase (G 0) at any point in their life. Cells may remain in
this stage for very long periods of time until they are signaled to progress through
the cell cycle as initiated by the presence of certain growth factors or other
signals. Cells that contain genetic mutations are permanently placed in the
G 0 phase to ensure that they are not replicated. When the cell cycle goes wrong,
normal cell growth is lost. Cancer cells may develop, which gain control of their
own growth signals and continue to multiply unchecked.
III.

DIFFERENCES OF BENIGN AND MALIGNANT TUMOR

Characterstics of
cells and tissues

BENIGN TUMOR
Are microscopically welldifferentiated with a low
mitotic index

MALIGNANT TUMOR
Are anaplastic and have
high mitotic index

Are well-differentiated;
looks like the tissue from
which it arose

Are poorly differentiated;

doesnt look like the tissue
from which it arose
Are not encapsulated

Rate of Growth

Have well-defined capsules

Grows slowly

Grows rapidly

Local invasion

Are not invasive

Invade local structures and

tissues

Metastasis

Do not metastasize

Spread distantly through

bloodstreams and
lymphatics

IV.

Name some tumor markers and site some cancer associated to them

Tumor markers are substances that are produced by cancer or by other cells of the body in response
to cancer or certain benign (noncancerous) conditions. Most tumor markers are made by normal
cells as well as by cancer cells; however, they are produced at much higher levels in cancerous
conditions. These substances can be found in the blood, urine, stool, tumor tissue, or other tissues
or bodily fluids of some patients with cancer. Most tumor markers are proteins. However, more
recently, patterns of gene expression and changes to DNA have also begun to be used as tumor
markers. Markers of the latter type are assessed in tumor tissue specifically.

Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)

Cancer types: Liver cancer and germ cell tumors

Tissue analyzed: Blood

How used: To help diagnose liver cancer and follow response to treatment; to assess stage,
prognosis, and response to treatment of germ cell tumors

Beta-2-microglobulin (B2M)

Cancer types: Multiple myeloma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and some lymphomas

Tissue analyzed: Blood, urine, or cerebrospinal fluid

How used: To determine prognosis and follow response to treatment

Beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (Beta-hCG)

Cancer types: Choriocarcinoma and testicular cancer

Tissue analyzed: Urine or blood

How used: To assess stage, prognosis, and response to treatment

CA19-9

Cancer types: Pancreatic cancer, gallbladder cancer, bile duct cancer, and gastric cancer

Tissue analyzed: Blood

How used: To assess whether treatment is working

CA-125

Cancer type: Ovarian cancer

Tissue analyzed: Blood

How used: To help in diagnosis, assessment of response to treatment, and evaluation

ofrecurrence

http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/tumor-markers

V.

WARNING SIGNS OF CANCER (C.A.U.T.I.O.N U.S)

C change in bowel or bladder habits

Alternating constipation and diarrhea in COLON CANCER

A a sore that does not heal

It is due to tumor that causes impaired circulation and oxygenation in

the area leading to tissue necrosis, ulceration, bleeding and infection

U unusual bleeding or discharges

Also caused by impaired circulation and oxygenation in the affected

area resulting to necrosis, bleeding and infection. Infection causes
unusual discharge.

T thickening or lump in the breast or elsewhere

Signifies abnormal cellular growth

I indigestion or difficulty in swallowing

Initial manifestation of gastric cancer

O Obvious change in wart or mole

Like sudden growth in size of wart or mole, uneven coloring, change in

the texture may signify transformation into cancerous lesion

N Nagging cough or hoarseness of voice

Signifies cancer of larynx or cancer of the lungs

U Unexplained anemia

Because cancer cells take up iron faster than normal cells, bleeding
contributes to anemia, and cancer cells tend to destroy normal red
blood cells

S Sudden loss of weight

Due to excessive rapid metabolism caused by cancer cells. Rapid

metabolism is caused by rapid multiplication of cancer cells and the
normal cells are deprived of nutrients by the cancer cells.