Wear 255 (2003) 13591368

Experimental analysis and optimisation of tool wear in

dry machining of aluminium alloys
M. Nouari , G. List, F. Girot, D. Coupard
Ecole Nationale Suprieure dArts et Mtiers, Centre dEnseignement et de Recherche de Bordeaux,
Laboratoire Matriaux Endommagement Fiabilit et Ingnierie des Procds, Esplanade des Arts et Mtiers, 33405 Talence Cedex, France

Abstract
In machining, coolants and lubricants improve machinability, increase productivity by reducing the tool wear and extend the tool life.
However, the use of cutting fluids in metal working operations may seriously degrade the quality of the environment. Consequently, many
governments recommend the manufacturers to reduce the volume and the toxicity of their cutting fluids. Up to now, dry machining has
remained a real challenge for the industrial world, particularly in aerospace engineering. The experimental approach taken in this study
resulted in the development of both optimised tool geometry and optimised cutting conditions for drilling aluminium alloys without the
need for lubrication. The experimental investigations were carried out with WCCo cemented carbide drills. The use of diamond as coating
material allowed to extend the tool life. The combination of the optimised tool geometry and the cutting conditions entails a high surface
quality, a good dimensional accuracy of the machined material and ensures a long lifetime to the drill. Besides, a numerical calculation with
Third Wave AdvantEdgeTM finite element software was used to predict the toolchip interface temperature, which is the major parameter
inducing tool wear in dry drilling.
2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Dry machining; Tool wear; Adhesion wear; Optimised drill geometry

1. Introduction
Machining aerospace aluminium alloys (series 20xx) with
conventional tools is not carried out without any difficulties. These materials tend to adhere to the tool surface and
burrs are formed inside the holes [14]. The tool damage is
mainly caused by the formation of an adhesion layer and a
built-up edge (BUE) entailing a reduction of the tool life.
Thus, cutting fluids have an important role in machining
process, because they contribute to [58]:

the reduction of friction in the toolworkpiece contact,

the removal of chips from the tool rake face,
the decrease in temperature in the contact zone,
and the limitation of the chemical species diffusion from
the tool towards the chip and vice versa.

However, using cutting fluids seriously degrades the environment quality and increases the cost of machining (lubrication represents 1620% of the product cost [9]). As a
result, dry machining has been widely studied in the last few
years. Dry machining and especially dry drilling represents
Corresponding author. Tel.: +33-5-56-84-54-48;
fax: +33-5-56-84-53-66.
E-mail address: nouari@lamef.bordeaux.ensam.fr (M. Nouari).

a real challenge for manufacturers, so many companies and

laboratories set up research programs in order to understand
the phenomena brought into play. The first results enable to
adapt machines and cutting tools to this new process. The
LAMEFIP laboratory of Bordeaux (France) launched a program aiming at the optimisation of dry drilling of aluminium
alloys.
To control dry drilling of aluminium alloys, it is necessary: (1) to limit the generation of heat that activates the
diffusion of chemical species between tool and chip, and (2)
to facilitate the removal of chips from the cutting area. The
generation of heat mainly depends on the tool geometry, the
cutting conditions and the toolchip friction. The last one
being dependent on the cutting conditions, the temperature
and the nature of the contact surfaces [10].
This study intends to prove that drilling without cutting fluid is feasible with an optimised shape of drill and
with optimised cutting conditions. Several experiments under various cutting conditions are conducted in Section 2. An
aluminium alloy material and different carbide drills (coated
and uncoated) were tested. Following a detailed statistical
analysis of the experimental results, a new drill geometry
was found. The tests carried out with this new geometry,
in Section 3, allow one to obtain the optimal cutting conditions for those with a low roughness (<1 m) and a good

0043-1648/03/$ see front matter 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0043-1648(03)00105-4

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M. Nouari et al. / Wear 255 (2003) 13591368

dimensional accuracy (tolerance < 30 m for 6 mm of diameter) were ensured. Tool wear is investigated in Section 4.
A relationship between toolchip interface temperature and
tool life is established. The influence of cutting conditions
on tool life and on temperature is analysed. When machining aluminium alloys materials, the use of diamond coating
is preferable to face dry drilling problems.

2. Experimental approach
2.1. Experimental procedure
A series of tests were carried out on a rigid instrumented
drilling bench with a power of 14 kW and a maximum rotation of 42,000 rpm (Fig. 1). The parameters retained in the
experimental design are: the helix angle, the point angle,
the lip relief angle, the web thickness, and the lips number
and the margin width. In order to have a large range of geometrical parameters, different carbide drills were selected
(Table 1).
The workpiece is made of the aluminiumcopper alloy
AA2024 T351 with the chemical composition given in
Table 2. For each tool that was selected, 500 holes were
produced without using any lubricant; they had a depth of
25 mm and a diameter of 6 mm. The following parameters
were used to evaluate the holes quality: the surface roughness, the burr height, the maximum and minimum diameter
deviations. However, in literature other characteristics that
affect the hole quality can be taken into account [11].
2.2. Results and discussion
2.2.1. Influence of the geometrical parameters on the holes
quality
First of all, the purpose was to determine the influence of
the geometrical parameters on the quality of the holes that
were produced. The results which are given in this section
were obtained with cutting speeds ranging from 24 m/min to
164 m/min, and with a constant feed rate f = 0.04 mm/rev.
The curves in Fig. 2a-d shows the variation of the roughness
Ra , the burr height, the maximum and minimum diameter
deviations in terms of the cutting speed V. The experimen-

Fig. 1. Instrumented drilling bench.

Table 2
Chemical composition (wt.%) of AA2024 T351
Al
Cr
Cu
Fe
Mg
Mn
Si
Ti
Zn

93.5
Maximum
3.84.9
Maximum
1.21.8
0.30.9
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum

0.1
0.5

0.5
0.15
0.25

tal data used in this analysis are the average values that
were obtained for 500 holes. In the case of Fig. 2a and for
the drill E (Table 1), an optimal cutting velocity of Vopt =
65 m/min give rise to the best surface quality. At large cutting speeds (V > 65 m/min), the average roughness remains
constant for the drills AFG, and increases for the other
tools. According to the results of the statistical design, we
can say that the surface roughness is mainly controlled by
the point and helix angles. Then, increasing these two parameters can minimize roughness. An important reduction
of the burr height (Fig. 2b) is observed for the drill E (V =
165 m/min). Concerning the drills A, C and F the lowest
values of the burr height is observed for the optimal velocity Vopt defined above. It is important to note that the tool
E has the largest point angle (180 ), and this contributes to
minimize the burr height. This result is in a good agreement

Table 1
Drill types and principal characteristics
Name

Type

Manufacturer

Coating

Flute shape

Helix
angle ( )

Point
angle ( )

Lip relief
angle ( )

Web
thickness
(mm)

Margin
width
(mm)

Number
of lips

Drill
Drill
Drill
Drill
Drill
Drill
Drill

TF
TF
TF
TF (KCD)
Step drill
Super drill
MAE

Kennametal
Kennametal
Kennametal
Kennametal
Jabro tool
HAM France
MMC metal France

None
(Ti, Al)N
(Ti, Al)N + WC/C
Diamond
TiN + Ag
TiN
None

Helical
Helical
Helical
Helical
Helical
Helical
Four flutes

30
30
30
30
40
30
10

130
130
130
130
180
140
140

6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4
10.15
4.6
10.8

0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0
0
0.45

0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.21
0.6
0.65

3
3
3
3
2
2
2

A
B
C
D
E
F
G

M. Nouari et al. / Wear 255 (2003) 13591368

1361

Fig. 2. Variation of the average roughness, the burr height, the maximum and minimum diameter deviations with respect to the cutting speed V for
different kinds of tools. The workpiece is an aluminiumcopper alloy AA2024 T351 and the feed rate f = 0.04 mm.

with the experiments of Ko and Lee [3]. Fig. 2c and d show

the average of minimum and maximum diameter deviations.
After having drilled 500 holes, the analysis of the results
enabled to release the following tendencies:

tain an important reduction of the minimum deviation, and

consequently a good dimensional accuracy of the holes
can be obtained.

The maximum diameter deviation (Fig. 2c) depends on

the lip relief angle, the lips number and the web thickness. Decreasing the lip relief angle and increasing the
other parameters allow to minimize the maximum diameter deviation.
The minimum diameter deviation (Fig. 2d) compared to
the theoretical diameter depends on the helix angle, the
lips number and the web thickness. Decreasing the web
thickness and increasing the other parameters allow to ob-

2.2.2. Influence of the drill material coating on holes

quality
The kind of coating material is an important parameter to
be considered to optimise the tool performance. The coatings
are mainly used to increase the tool life but may influence
the holes quality. In our experiments, the following coating
materials were tested:
(Ti, Al)N: It is deposited on the tool surface by the PVD
process, and acts as a thermal barrier between the tool

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M. Nouari et al. / Wear 255 (2003) 13591368

and the chip (thermal conductivity is about 0.05 kW/m K).

Advanced wear resistance with increased oxidation resistance of this coating offer an advantage for dry machining
of cast iron, alloyed steel and aluminium with 10% of Si;
because of its low thermal conductivity, most of the heat
is evacuated by the chips.
Hardlube ((Ti, Al)N + WC/C): It is a multi-layer coating. The combination of hard/soft coating layers improves
the chip flow by reducing the friction coefficient and the
cutting forces ((Ti, Al)N: hard layer (3300 HV), WC/C:
lubricant layer of medium micro-hardness and low friction coefficient (1000 HV)) [5]. This coating is used when
to machine soft steels and aluminium alloys.
Diamond: When machining aluminium alloys without any
coolant, we need high wear-resistant cutting tools because
the intermetallic particles inside the aluminium matrix
quickly wear the tools; diamond coating is one of the solutions to these problems. Recently, chemical vapour deposition (CVD) diamond coatings have been used for cutting
tools in various cutting conditions [8]. Diamond is very
hard (10,000 HV) and presents a high wear resistance.
In order to evaluate the influence of the drill material
coating on the holes quality, several tests were carried out
in this work with the tool geometries presented in Table 1
(see TF-type tools). In the current analysis, the hole quality produced by the uncoated drill A is compared to the
one obtained with the coated tools B ((Ti, Al)N coating),
C (Hardlube coating) and D (diamond coating). The uncoated drill A offers a better roughness compared to drills
BD (Fig. 2a). This performance may be due to the small
value of the feed rate (f = 0.04 rev/min). Indeed, with low
feed rate values, the cutting forces and the toolchip interface temperature are not very high. Therefore, the hole quality is not much affected when machining with the uncoated
drill A. For the diamond coated drill (tool D), the results are
better when the minimum diameter deviation is considered
as a quality criteria for cutting velocity V = 165 m/min, see
Fig. 2d (only one cutting velocity is used for this coating).
It is interesting to note that the (Ti, Al)N coated drill offers
a very poor tolerance except for the maximum diameter deviation (Fig. 2c). To conclude, we can say that coatings do
not really improve the machining quality but the diamond
and (Ti, Al)N + WC/C coated tools produce a quality which
is very close to that of the uncoated tools.

3. Optimisation of dry drilling

3.1. Optimisation procedure
A detailed statistical analysis (analysis of variance) established from the experimental results was used to optimise
the value of the parameters affecting the hole quality (helix
angle, point angle, lip relief angle, web thickness, lips number, margin width). It allowed to study the contribution of

each parameter, and to find a compromise between the different criteria (roughness, maximum and minimum diameter deviation, burr height). An optimised drill was made in
order to have a high surface quality while preserving an average height of the burr lower than 20 m, an average minimum diameter deviation ranging from 0 m to 10 m and an
average maximum diameter deviation between 15 m and
25 m. These criteria are those usually found in aerospace
industry. The shape of the optimised drill and the geometrical parameters cannot be revealed in this paper because of
the confidentiality. However, the general tendencies for the
most significant parameters are as follows: it is preferable
to have a high helix angle, a sufficiently large point angle, a
low margin width, a lip relief angle between 6 and 8 , and
a rather low web thickness.
3.2. Tests with optimised drills
According to the previous conclusions, we carried out
prototype carbide drills with 6 mm of diameter without any
coating. The optimised drills were tested in a large range
of cutting conditions; cutting speeds between 19 m/min
and 283 m/min and feed rate between 0.04 mm/rev and
0.4 mm/rev were considered. The results that were obtained after 500 holes, are illustrated in Fig. 3. The holes
quality is evaluated in terms of the average roughness Ra ,
the maximum dmax and the minimum dmin diameter deviations. For a fixed feed rate value, we observe (Fig. 3a)
the existence of an optimal velocity (Vopt = 170 m/min
for f = 0.16 mm/rev), for which the average roughness,
the maximum and minimum diameter deviations produce
a high holes surface quality (Ra < 1 m, dmax < 15 and
dmin < 5 m). Beyond Vopt , it appears that Ra , dmax and
dmin increase with the cutting speed V. In other words, the
combination of large cutting speed and slightly weak feed
rate gives a bad surface quality of the produced holes. It
can also be noticed that the roughness increases according
to the feed rate. The results emphasize the existence of a
compromise between the parameters that have an important
influence on the holes quality. In Section 2.2.1, the optimal
speed of the non-optimised drills (producing holes with a
feed rate of 0.04 mm, see Fig. 2) is about 65 m/min. With
the optimised tool, this velocity was increased (Vopt =
170 m/min). In the case of dry machining, the toolchip
temperature plays a major role in determining the hole quality. However, the larger is the cutting velocity the shorter is
the contact time between the tool and the hole surface. So,
the heat that was produced in the toolchip contact does
not have enough time to affect the surface quality and the
dimensional accuracy of the holes.

4. Tool wear
The heat produced during the dry machining process is
critical in terms of tool life and workpiece surface quality.

M. Nouari et al. / Wear 255 (2003) 13591368

1363

Fig. 3. Influence of cutting conditions for the optimised drill for 500 holes.

Inspite of the large amount of data and knowledge which

has been accumulated, tool wear is still not fully understood.
Several basic causes of tool wear have been investigated; the
most important are: abrasion, adhesion and diffusion [12,13].
The magnitude of the toolchip interface temperature causes
shift from abrasion to adhesion, or from adhesion to the
diffusion wear process.
4.1. Toolchip interface temperature
Significant temperatures can be obtained in dry machining of aeronautic materials [14]. For these high temperatures, wear is an important limitation of the tool life. Several
works have shown that the toolchip temperature depends
on several parameters such as cutting conditions (cutting
speed, feed, etc.) and tool geometrical parameters. Temper-

ature can be measured; nevertheless, it is also important to

determine temperature distribution by numerical means, so
as to be able to develop predictive models. The finite element analysis code Third Wave AdvantEdgeTM is used in
the present paper. This Lagrangian code employs dynamic
effect and coupled transient heat transfer analysis. The friction law is based on a Coulomb law [15]; the FEM code uses
a power strain-hardening law including the strain rate effect:


 

p
m1
p
1+ p =
(1a)
, if p t
gp
0


1+

p
p



t
1+ p
0

m2 /m1


=

gp

m2

if p t

(1b)

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M. Nouari et al. / Wear 255 (2003) 13591368

g = 0 (T, T0 , ) 1 +

p
p

1/n
(2)

where is the effective Mises stress, g the flow stress, p

p
the accumulated plastic strain, 0 a reference plastic strain
rate, m1 and m2 are low and high strain rate sensivity exponents, 0 the yield stress at a reference temperature T0 ,
n the hardening exponent, is the function of a softening
coefficient and the current temperature T.
The drill geometry makes the modelling difficult, indeed
the basic principle of drilling shows that the cutting by the
lips is similar to an oblique cutting process [16]. Moreover,
the rake angle, the inclination angle and the cutting velocity
vary along the drill radius. To simplify the modelling, we
simulated the cutting only on drill corner level, which on
a small length can be considered as an orthogonal cutting.
The high temperatures are due to the important deformation
work associated with large shear strains in the primary shear
zone, and with the friction effects along the contact surface,
see Fig. 4a and b. This will facilitate diffusion of the tool
constituents towards the chip and vice versa [1720]. The
material transfer leads eventually to the formation of a sticking layer and affects the geometry of the tool. This may have
serious consequences on the holes that were produced.
4.2. Adhesion mechanism
When machining aluminium with a WCCo tool, and under the combined action of the temperature and the pressure
along the rake face, the aluminium diffusion from the chip
towards the tool takes place. Diffusion related effects can
be observed through an analysis of the AlCo equilibrium
phase diagram (Fig. 5). Concerning the cobalt diffusion inside the aluminium chip, the formation of an aluminium
solid solution is impossible because of the extremely low
limit solubility of cobalt in aluminium. Concerning the aluminium diffusion inside the cobalt binder, three different
configurations can be observed depending on the toolchip
contact temperature. Below 300 C, cobalt crystallises in the
-structure with a rather poor aluminium solid solubility,
so there is no possibility for the formation of cobalt solid
solution. Above 427 C, the -structure is changed to the
-structure in which aluminium is able to dissolve until a
few percent. Between 300 C and 427 C, cobalt can crystallise in both structures but the maximum aluminium solid
solubility in -Co is low comparing to the previous configuration. The intermetallic compounds which may be formed
are the phases (Al14 Co3 ), (Al3 Co), (Al5 Co2 )
and (AlCo).
In order to study the aluminium diffusion during machining, a cylindrical bar of 2024 T351 was machined during
20 min with a H13A (K20) cemented carbide tool insert. The
turning test was made with a cutting speed of 100 m/min, a
feed rate of 0.4 mm/rev and a cutting depth of 3 mm. After
machining, the tool was cut in three sections (Fig. 6a). The
diffusion of chemical elements (Al, Ti, Co, W) was studied

Fig. 4. FEM simulation. (a) Distribution of temperature on the tool face.

(b) Distribution of plastic strain on the tool face. The cutting speed V is
170 m/min, the feed rate f is 0.4 mm/rev.

Fig. 5. AlCo phase diagram.

M. Nouari et al. / Wear 255 (2003) 13591368

1365

Fig. 6. Section of the carbide tool insert analysed.

Fig. 7. PIXE profile of W and Al along the y-direction.

over the cross-section of piece no. 2 using the particle induced X-rays emission (PIXE) technique. As shown in the
Fig. 6b, the analysis was done in the y-direction at a distance
x from the cutting edge. The PIXE profile of both tungsten
and aluminium elements is illustrated in Fig. 7. The amount
of aluminium is important at the beginning of the profile
while that of W is close to 0. This can be attributed to the
presence of an adherent aluminium layer around a depth of
30 m. The concentrations of Al, W, Ti, and Co were measured in three different areas inside the tool (y = 60, 90
and 110 m). The results are shown in Table 3. ConsiderTable 3
Concentration of Al, W and Co inside the tool
Y (m)

W (wt.%)

Co (wt.%)

Al (wt.%)

60
90
110

89.4
89.7
89.3

4.6
4.36
4.87

0.15
0.056
0.026

ing the WC/Al interface at approximately 30 m from the

free surface (see Fig. 7), Table 3 shows that diffusion of aluminium is effective until 80 m from the interface. At the
same time, there is no evidence of any diffusion of cobalt
inside the aluminium layer as previously assumed from the
equilibrium diagram.
The observation of SEM images shows that for the drilling
of the aluminium alloy AA2024, there is no evidence of
crater-wear. The deterioration of the tool mainly results in a
material transfer from the workpiece to the tool surface. This
adhesion phenomenon evolves during drilling and seems to
be of a different nature at the each stage. According to tests
carried out in turning of the AA2024 alloy, some authors
concluded that the workpiece material adheres in two different forms. They made the distinction between the phenomenon of built-up edge, and the phenomenon of built-up
layer (BUL) [1]. Fig. 8 illustrates the successive stages of the
evolution of adhesion in an area corresponding to the drill
rake face. At the first hole, the chip tends already to stick on

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M. Nouari et al. / Wear 255 (2003) 13591368

Fig. 8. SEM observations of the aluminium adhesion on the surface of the optimised carbide drill. The cutting conditions are: V = 60 m/min;
f = 0.16 m/min; (a) new drill, (b) after 1 hole, (c) after 10 holes, (d) after 48 holes, (e) after 96 holes, (f) after 200 holes.

the tool face, but it is not a strong adhesion, see Fig. 8b. The
possible macroscopic fragments sticking on the tool may
eventually be removed from the surface and this action is
emphasized by the fact that drilling is a non-continuous process. After some drilled holes, the aluminium deposit starts
taking place on the tool face, mainly in the defects caused
by the grinding of the tool. The pressure and the temperature in the contact zone are favourable to the diffusion of
the aluminium towards the tool, and micro-weldings can be
formed on the tool surface. Gradually, a strongly incrusted
aluminium layer is formed on the rake face and it extends
in the flute area, see Fig. 8d. At this stage, we can still name
this layer the built-up layer. It is interesting to note that the
material workpiece adhesion is less significant on the level

of the lip. This seems to confirm the role of pressure on

the adhesion mechanism. Indeed, on the tip tool pressure is
much more significant than anywhere on the contact zone,
and it is well known that the diffusive phenomena are not
much activated when high pressures are applied. Under the
large values of pressure, the atoms are over compressed and
consequently their displacement becomes very difficult in
the material. In Fig. 8e and f, it can be noted that after a
significant number of holes, the accumulation of aluminium
continues and clearly reaches the drill lip. This additional
layer seems more similar to a BUE. The geometry of the
tool is then modified and aluminium can accumulate on the
drill corner which is directly in contact with the generated
surface, see Fig. 8f. Moreover, when the BUE develops and

M. Nouari et al. / Wear 255 (2003) 13591368

1367

Fig. 9. Analysis of the temperature effect on the tool life for the uncoated optimised drill.

breaks in a periodic way, significant irregularities appear on

the finished profile.
4.3. Tool life
As said before, the tool life is mainly controlled by the
cutting temperature. In this section, the maximum temperature is calculated by FEM method under the conditions used
for the optimised drill tests (Section 3.2). The predicted temperatures at the toolchip interface are shown in Fig. 9a in
terms of cutting speed and feed rate. The uncoated tool is
still considered here. It is observed that the maximum temperature on the tool rake face is an increasing function of
cutting speed and feed rate. These trends are in good agreement with the works of Moufki et al. [10], Trent and Wright
[12] and Oxley [21]. The dependence of temperature upon
feed rate cannot be explained in a simple way. Indeed, an
increase in f induces a growth of the contact length between
tool and chip, and consequently raises the interface temperature. In terms of cutting speed, a large increase in temperature can be observed for velocities superior to 170 m/min.
At low cutting speeds, we have a large decay of the shear
strain in the machined material. Then, the work of plastic
deformations and the heat produced by dissipation are reduced, and so is the temperature in this range of cutting
velocities. Thus, to optimise the cutting process, all parameters that have effects on temperature (cutting speed, feed
rate, contact length between tool and chip, friction coefficient, etc.) must be taken into account. In this paper, the
tool life is evaluated with respect to the holes number and
to their high quality (Ra < 1, dmax < 15 and dmin < 5 m).
Fig. 9b presents the variation of tool life with respect to
the cutting speed for different feed rate values (0.04, 0.16,
0.28 and 0.4 mm/rev). The important reduction in tool life
is solely due to the increase in temperature, see Fig. 8a. To

Fig. 10. Comparison of cutting performance for the optimised diamond

coated and uncoated drill.

increase the tool life, the optimised drill was coated with a
diamond film and tested under the following cutting conditions: V = 62 m/min, f = 0.16 mm/rev, see Fig. 10. This
cutting test showed that about 2000 holes with an aeronautic
quality could be produced.

5. Conclusion
The drilling experiments were conducted using different
tool geometries and varying cutting conditions. The analysis of the results provided the necessary information about
the main factors influencing the hole quality (cutting speed,
temperature, feed rate, geometrical parameters, etc.) in the
case of aluminium alloy AA2024. Also, the experimental

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M. Nouari et al. / Wear 255 (2003) 13591368

trends were necessary to define an optimal geometry of the

drill. The last one was tested under various cutting conditions and its working life was evaluated in terms of the number of holes and their surface quality. The influence of the
cutting conditions and the temperature on the tool life which
was shown by several models (Merchant, Oxley, Molinari,
etc.) is reproduced by the present analysis. For industrial
needs, it is essential to determine the optimal cutting conditions for a given toolworkpiece couple. This paper, brings
to light that raising helix angle, having a quite large point
angle, decreasing both the land width and the web thickness, and fixing a clearance angle between 6 and 8 give
an optimal drill geometry. It can also be concluded that with
quite large cutting speed values and a weak feed rate, we
obtain a good surface quality and a dimensional accuracy of
the holes. Concerning tool life, it can be improved by using
diamond as coating material.

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