Indian Foreign Policy

1
Indias Foreign Policy

India is the second
most populous
country and
the worlds
most-populous
democracy. It is one
of the fastest growing
economies in
the world.
It is no more a
regional power only,
but showing every
potential
of a global power.
India has a cherished history of collaboration with

several countries as the leader of the developing world.
India was one of the founding members of several
international organisations, most notably the United
Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Asian
Development Bank and the G-20 industrial nations. India
also played an important role in international
organisations like East Asia Summit, World Trade
Organisation, International Monetary Fund, G8 + 5, IBSA
Dialogue Forum and regional organisations which include
SAARC, BIMSTEC etc.
East Asia Summit

It is a forum held annually by leaders of the countries of East Asia.
The sixth East Asia Summit (EAS) was held in Bali, the Republic of
Indonesia in November 2011 and was Chaired by Indonesian
President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. United States and Russian
Federation were participated for the first time in EAS.
These are
contributing to its
Origin of Indian Foreign Policy
growing
Indian Foreign Policy had its roots in the thought

process of the leaders of our renaissance in the late 19th
century and of the national freedom movement during the
first four decades of the 20th century. By late 18th century
Indian leaders realised, in order to be placed in the comity
of nations India needs to redefine her geopolitical identity
and cultural individuality. Initially cross-cultural and cross
linguistic connections with colonial powers like the British,
the French, the Portuguese and to some extent Danish and
Dutch made the Indian elite aware of the world beyond its
traditional political and diplomatic relations, which was
limited to Turkey at one end and South East Asia at the
other hand.
influence in the
international affairs.
India and The World
Geopolitical Identity
Geopolitical identity of a country is shaped by geographical location of the country. The geographical
positioning influences power relationships in international politics. It is basically the study of
relationship among politics and geography, demography, economics especially with respect to the
foreign policy of a nation.
Raja Rammohan Roy was the earliest to impressively articulate the need for
India to be a part of the modern world. Raja Rammohan Roy, Dwijendranath and
Dwarkanath Tagore, the earlier leaders of the Brahmo Samaj Movement had
advocated Indias modernisation and establishing relations with other countries. This
was the first phase of Indias developing an international consciousness and acquiring
aspirations to become part of the modern world.
The second phase in the evolution of Indias international consciousness dates
back to the aftermath of Indian Mutiny of 1857. Several parts of India had become
familiar with Europeans and British particularly over a period of nearly one hundred
years by then. There was a fundamental change in the attitude of the British towards
their Indian subjects after 1857 Mutiny. Christian missionary activities backed by the
political authority of the colonial regimes in India and has accentuated an Indian
impulse to affirm its identity, its religio-cultural integrity. Two strands were developed
during the periodone was emulating the West and the other was critically
questioning the Western analysis and assessments regarding Indias history, its
intellectual heritage, its cultural and religious identity.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhya, Swami Vivekananda, Maharishi Dayanand
Saraswati, Maulana Altaf Hussain Hali and Justice Akbar Allahabadi had further
personified this strand. This was followed by the birth of Indian national Congress in
1885, which has shaped Indias attitude towards the rest of the world. In the post
World War I international conferences and deliberations India being allowed a role of
founding member of League of Nations have intensified Indias international
consciousness and initiated Indian experience in foreign relations. These
developments germinated ideas between the First and Second World Wars crystalised
into Indian Foreign Policy orientations.
World War I (28th July, 1914-11 November, 1918) It ended with the Treaty of Versailles, which
was signed on 28th June, 1919. It covered Europe, Africa, Middle East, the Pacific Islands, China and
off the coast of South and North America. It resulted in the victory of the Allied powers; end of the
German, Russian Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires; formation of new countries in Europe
and the Middle East; transfer of German Colonies and regions of the former Ottoman Empire;
establishment of the League of the Nations.
World War II (1st September, 1939-2nd September, 1945) It covered Europe, Pacific, South East
Asia, China, Middle East, Mediterian, Africa and briefly North America. The Allied powers emerged
victorious. United Nations Organisation was created. The United States of America and the Soviet
Union emerged as super powers ......... beginning of Cold War.
This embryonic and emerging Indian world view could be summed up as follow
1. India as most important constituent of the British Empire deserved dominion
status and a recognised identity in the British imperial system.
2. India was to evolve into a modern nation state with modern democratic
political institutions.
3. India expected to be treated as an equal by other dominions in the British

empire and by extension by other countries which had dealings with other
British dominions. This constituted the moderate initial framework of Indias
foreign policy till about 1920.
The period between 1920 and 1946 should be considered as the time when
fundamental terms of reference for independent Indias foreign policy were
formulated. Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhis influence was the predominant factor
in this process. While Gandhiji defined the framework for Indian foreign policy,
Nehru fashioned its orientations and details.
Dominion Status
Dominion refers to one of a group of autonomous polities that are nominally under British
Sovereignty, constituting the British Empire and British Commonwealth, beginning in the latter part
of the 19th century. Many of the former British colonies that were granted independence in the
decades of World War II were called dominions. Many of them like India came republic by ending
their status as dominions.
Phases of Indian Foreign Policy

Phase I : Nehruvian Phase (1947-1962)
The foreign policy of any country
from time immemorial appeared to
Highlights
have been affected by its geopolitical
nt Policy as integral
Adoption of Non-Alignme
importance. This was naturally no
icy
to Indian Foreign Pol
exception in case of India as well.
ia in October, 1962
Chinese aggression of Ind
Nehru had gave shape to Indias
foreign policy, which he believed was
firmly rooted in Indias civilisational tradition, freedom struggle and quest for peace
and development.
Nehrus Foreign Policy was based on two assumptions
1. Indias weakness in the immediate post independence years.
2. Indias potentiality of being a future power opted for the path of economic
development to enable India to assert her presence in the sphere of
international relations.
The quest for independence in foreign affairs and Nehrus rejection of
fundamentalism gave birth to the policy of non-alignment. The origin of this
quest for independent foreign policy can be traced from the resolutions of the
Indian National Congress which were drafted by Nehru. His use of words
enlightened self-interest reflects the paramount importance he attached to
Indias interests.
The post World War saw the collapse of imperialism and emergence of a large
number of independent countries from colonial rule. Simultaneously a number of
changes were taking place in the world, which were broadly of the following nature
Concentration of military and economic power in the hands of United States.
A United World Market emerged with Washington at its centre. Bretton
Woods and Dumburton Oakes gave birth to a new world economic system.
India and The World
Weakening of European military power.

China was engaged in revolution and nation building.
In the unified world order Soviet Union could only marginally challenge
United States.
United Nations functioned as a mere America dominated agency rather than as
a world body.
Nuclear weapons came to occupy an important place.
Bretton Woods System The Bretton Woods Conference held in 1944, was the starting point of a
new order. The world economy was to be organised around three cornerstones : the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the International Trade Organisation (ITO) and the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) better known as World Bank. The system conceived of
during and established immediately after the World War II contained two elements (a) an
International Monetary Regime and (b) a Liberal International Trading Order.
Dumburton Oakes The Washington conversations on International Peace and Security
Organisation was an international conference at which the United Nations was formulated and
negotiated among international leaders. The conference was followed up by the Yalta Conference
during February, 1945.
These prompted USA to build barriers to spread the concept of Socialism and
determined to destroy Soviet Communism. The Indian foreign policy had to be
evolved and shaped within this international scenario. In that milieu Indian Prime
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru realised that joining either of the block would result in a
compromise of national interest and would amount to a contradiction of the values
that guided Indias struggle for freedom. As nationalism remained the essence of any
foreign policy, so he used foreign policy as a tool to subserve the cause of unification and
stability in the country.
India under Nehru preferred to build a stronger neighbourhood i.e., countries
bordering India by land and sea rather than concentrating on the developments in
Europe. India also reached out to the struggling countries in Africa and emerged as a
leading voice against racialism and colonialism. This paved the way to an increasingly
strong and influential Afro-Asian community. One thing that Nehru always
endeavoured to ensure was that international conflicts must not compromise Indian
Foreign Policy priorities. India therefore concentrated in consolidating its
independence.
Nehru believed that this was possible only through independence in
decision-making. The policy of non-alignment which India pursued was a reflection of
this independent decision-making. This phase was characterised by two struggles one
against colonialism and the other for world peace and stability.
During this phase, India entered into conflict with Pakistan over Indias
complaining to the Security Council against Pakistans aggression into Kashmir.
However, the biggest challenge India faced was from China.
Nehrus Policy on China

The then Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
expressed concern over Chinas assertiveness in Tibet, which he believed would pose
two dangers.
(a) Soviet Russia was likely to use the brittle situation in North Eastern India.
(b) Indian communists would have easier access to ideas, commands and
weapons from China and would constitute another threat.
Nehru wanted to postpone the conflict with China so, he pursued the path of
peace with China. He tried his level best to ensure that China was accepted into the
international community with honour and dignity. He calmed the spat on Tibet with
China and signed a treaty which came to be known for its five principles of peaceful
co-existence. However, every effort was undone by United States administrations
hostility and persistent efforts to frustrate Indo-Chinese relations. Meanwhile, the
border dispute took irreconcilable positions and China making an ideological issue of
the border dispute there was the rarest chance of peace. This led to the Chinese attack
on India on October, 1962. The Chinese policies were not successful and time proved
Nehrus assessment of China was realistic and rational. Peace with honour with China
was at the core of Nehrus policy which still remains the only valid policy.
Phase II : Indira Gandhian Phase (1966-1985)

Lal Bahadur Shastri succeeded
Highlights
Jawaharlal Nehru in 1965. Under
Shastris apparently mild charisma
Treaty with Soviet Union
country, Bangladesh
lay his great leadership qualities
Indias role in birth of a new
hran
which were markedly reflected in the
Nuclear explosions at Pok
first war between India and Pakistan
in 1965. India under Lal Bahadur
Shastri and Pakistan under Field Marshall Ayub Khan (President of Pakistan) signed
the Tashkent Agreement.
Tashkent Agreement
Tashkent Agreement of 10th January, 1966 was a peace agreement between India and Pakistan. In
September, 1965 before the two had engaged in the short-run Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. A meeting
was held in Tashkent in the Uzbek, USSR (now in Uzbekistan) beginning on 4th January, 1966 to try to
create a more permanent settlement, Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin mediated between Lal Bahadur
Shastri and Md Ayub Khan.
However, Shastris demise soon after the agreement gave independent India her
first woman Prime Minister in January, 1966. Mrs Gandhis innings in foreign
relations had began with a visit to Yugoslavia and the United Arab Republic (UAR), to
reaffirm Indias faith in non-alignment. The principle of non-alignment under her able
leadership was emphasised on the third Tripartite Conference in Delhi in October,
1966 and then in the Lusaka Summit in October, 1970. She did not even hesitate to
criticise US for its excesses in Vietnam even when India was dependent chiefly on US
for food supplies and Indian economy was shrinking due to drought and floods.
One of Indira Gandhis greatest
Green Revolution
efforts was to increase Indias self Green Revolution is a term applied to successful
sufficiency in foodgrains through the agricultural experiments in many Third World
Green Revolution. Through it she tried countries. In India, beside increasing economic
to reduce Indias dependence on output and transforming India in to an exporter of
imports and thus stabilise Indias food. This has earned the admiration for India in
the comity of nations, especially in the Third
economic condition.
The India-Pakistan War (1971), World. It was greatly contributed to make Indira
Gandhi and her party a political force in India.
gave birth to Bangladesh, the US under
Nixon-Kissinger team actively cooperated with the Government in Islamabad.
India and The World
China too was turning towards the US to end its isolation. China used USA
against India and USA was using China against Soviet Union. This consequently
paved the way for Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace Friendship and Cooperation on
August, 1971. The treaty also praised Indias policy of non-alignment. The treaty
brought in criticism that India was abandoning the path of non-alignment.
Indo-Soviet Treaty, 1971

Specified mutual strategic cooperation. The treaty was a significant deviation from Indias previous
position of Non-alignment in the Cold War and in the prelude to Bangladesh War. It was a key
development in a situation of increasing Sino-American ties and American pressures. The treaty was
later adopted to the Indo-Bangladesh Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in 1972. The Indo-Bangla
Treaty was also known as Indo-Mujib Treaty.
On 6th December, 1971 the World saw the birth of a new state Bangladesh and
restoration of power in Bangladesh by Sheikh Mujibur Rehman. In Pakistan Yahya
was forced to resign and Bhutto became the Prime Minister. A summit between Indira
Gandhi and Bhutto in Simla brought an accord signed on 1st July, 1972, known as the
Simla Agreement that stipulated that Kashmir issue should be resolved peacefully
through bilateral negotiations. At this time India-US relation were troubled by
Pakistan and by Indias nuclear explosion at Pokhran on 18th May, 1974. Indo-Pak
War left adverse effects on Indian economy and Indias foreign policy. Mrs Gandhis
suffered massive defeat in the General Elections that followed national emergency.
Simla Agreement
Simla Agreement signed during a Summit Conference between Pakistani President, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
and the Indian Leader Indira Gandhi held at Simla from 28th June to 2nd July, 1972. The broad
features of this pact included that the principle and purpose of the charter of the United Nations
would govern relations between the two countries. The accord converted the 1949, UN Cease-Fire
Line into the Line of Control (LoC) between Pakistan and India.
The Morarji Desai government brought no changes in the foreign policy. Desai
retained special relationship with the Soviet Union, but what was striking was the
change in the US attitude exemplified in Jimmy Carters visit to India. The Indian
foreign policy under Desai was shortlived with the return of Indira Gandhi as the
Prime Minister. Soon after returning to power she faced two problems.
One, was Saur revolution in Afghanistan led by communists, followed by
considerable turmoil in a land dominated by tribes, the Mullah and Qazi. Despite
various setbacks India continued to maintain contact with political elements in
Afghanistan that came handy subsequently.
Second, was the renewed closeness in US-Pakistan relations. Under Mrs Gandhi
India continued the efforts at approachment with the United States. She met US
President Ronald Reagan at Cancun in October, 1981 and succeeded in convincing
US that India was not a client follower of Moscow. She affirmed Indias neutral stand
towards the two superpowers. She also tried to mend relations with China to make her
neighbourhood stable and peaceful. It was Mrs Gandhi who initiated the so-called
Look East Policy which was later on carried on by subsequent Prime Ministers. She
emphasised on the development of economic relations with the ASEAN countries.
Indira Gandhis Policy on Nepal

When Indira Gandhi came to power, her smaller Himalayan neighbour Nepal
was playing the China Card against her. To deal with Nepal, Indira Gandhi continued
with the soft policy. She declared largest aid package for Nepal during her visit in
October, 1966. The joint statement issued at the end of her visit emphasised on the
traditional friendship, common ties of history, geography and culture their vital
interest in the territorial integrity, prosperity and well-being of each other and
reaffirmed their commitment to the principles of non-alignment and peaceful
co-existence. However, King Mahendra continued to play the China Card and
declared Nepal would remain neutral in any conflict between India and China.
Nevertheless India continued with a moderate policy and assisted Nepal in
developmental projects. King Mahendras death brought a relief to India and Mrs
Gandhis visit to Nepal in 1973 and was a right step to take India-Nepal relations
forward.
Indira Gandhis Policy on Sri Lanka

Indian foreign policy during Mrs Gandhis tenure was also affected by Tamil
Sinhalese problem in Sri Lanka. To this she pursued a policy which firstly tried to
preserve Sri Lankas unity and integrity and secondly desired to secure a life of dignity
for the Tamils in Sri Lanka. Kacchativu an islet in the sea between India and Sri Lanka
was a point of conflict between the two countries. It was of interest to the fishermen of
the two countries. To generate goodwill in her relations with the Island neighbour
Indira Gandhi ceded Kacchativu to Sri Lanka. On the whole Indian Foreign Policy
reflected flexibility with firmness, determination and resilence. It reflected true
independence.
Phase III : Rajiv Gandhian Phase (1985-1990)

Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime
Highlights
Minister
after
Indira
Gandhis
in Sri Lanka
assassination.
Though
he
was
Indian Peace Keeping Force
oviet relations
o-S
Ind
in
inexperienced he preferred to carry
Further improvement
hnology from US to
forward the traditions of his grandfather
Transfer of computer tec
and mother in consolidating the policy
India.
of non-alignment, but tried to give it a
contemporary dimension.
Despite initial disturbances Indo-US relations interchanged in almost every
fieldpolitical, economic, cultural and social. The economic ties remained
particularly strong. He prioritised Indias policy towards his neighbours particularly
Sri Lanka and Pakistan. Taking note of Pakistans growing nuclear capability Rajiv
Gandhi signed a significant agreement with Zia-ul-Haq as a confidence building
measure, by which the two countries agreed not to attack the nuclear installations of
each other. A spirit of optimism marked Indo-Pak relations during Rajiv
Gandhi-Benazir Bhutto era. However, in reality Benazir Bhutto was not free to take
decisions on her own because the army was Pakistans defacto ruler. Besides,
Pakistans growing nuclear capability continued as an irritant in India-Pakistan
relations.
India and The World
Rajiv Gandhis Policy on Sri Lanka

Turning to Sri Lanka, its deteriorating ethnic situation was accelerating passions
of Indian Tamils. Being pressurised by the spiralling passions in Tamil Nadu to help
Tamil brethen in distress in Sri Lanka, the Rajiv Gandhi government decided to
airlift supplies of essential commodities for the people in Jaffna. This was counted by
Sri Lanka as an encroachment of its sovereignty over its airspace. However, it induced
rethinking in Colombo and brought the India-Sri Lanka Accord in August, 1987.
Under the Accord Indian Peace
Keeping Force (IPKF) was sent to Sri
Force
Indian Peace Keeping
Lanka to supervise the cease fire, the
surrender of arms and the peace
Force was the Indian
Indian Peace Keeping
ming a peace keeping
arrangements in the Tamil areas in the
military contingent perfor
en 1987 and 1990. It
we
bet
North and the East was envisaged.
operation in Sri Lanka
ndate of the Indo-Sri
However, the Sinhalese nationalists
was formed under the ma
ed between India and
had no intention to abide by Accord
Lankan Accord and was sign
ed to end the Sri
aim
t
tha
because they could not accept the
Sri Lanka in 1987,
en militant Sri Lankan
Lankan Civil War betwe
presence of Indian troops on Sri
ers
as
h the Liberation of Tig
Lankan soil. Premdasas call for the Tamil nationalists suc
.
withdrawal of the Indian troops led to of Tamil Eelam
recapturing by the LTTE of the areas
restored by IPKF to Colombos rules.
The hallmark of Rajiv Gandhis foreign policy was improvement of Indo-Sino
relations. He equally concentrated on the two superpowers USA and Soviet Union.
India signed with United States an agreement in March, 1988, for the transfer of high
technology and subsequent acquisition of Super Computers. Both India and USA
chose to expand their relations through the expansion of exchanges and promotion of
trade. The United States though tried to extract most of the growing Indian market,
but at the same time preserved its strong military relations with Pakistan.
Rajiv Gandhi and Russia

During Rajiv Gandhis term Indo-Soviet friendship came to be embedded in
public consciousness. It helped India to ward off many hostile challengesfrom
China, from Pakistan, from the West in the form of support to Pakistan. It was
beneficial for Soviet Union as well as it enabled it to contend with the isolation, which
the West tried to impose on it. Rajiv Gandhis first visit abroad as Prime Minister was
to Moscow from 21st-26th May, 1985, which symbolise healthy Indo-Soviet relations.
The Delhi Declaration the joint-statement by Gorbachev and Rajiv Gandhi,
which came during Gorbachevs India visit in November, 1986, endorsed Gandhian
philosophy of non-violence as the guiding principle in international relations. New
agreements were signed between India and the USSR on economic and technical
cooperation. These cooperation centred around technologies of nuclear power, space
technologies and high temperature physics.
Delhi Declaration
Delhi Declaration was signed in November, 1986 by Indian Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi and by the
Soviet Leader Mr Mikhail Gorbachev is one of the most sacred documents for a nuclear free, peaceful
and non-violent world. The declaration is based on the historical vision of Jawaharlal Nehru.
Afghanistans geopolitical importance made India set-up support for

Dr Najibullah who overcame the saur revolution and came at the helm. India even
urged Soviet Union to continue tangible support to Najib and his party.
Rajiv Gandhi expressed solidarity with Africa in Indias full diplomatic
recognition of South-West African Peoples Organisation and his fight against
racialism. He also expressed solidarity with the struggle of the Palestinian people for a
homeland. Indian foreign policy under Rajiv Gandhi not only affirmed Indias
tradition, but also reoriented foreign policy in the spirit of enlightened self interest to
meet the changing needs of time.
Phase IV : Narasimha Rao to

Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1992-2004)
In the beginning of 1990 VP Singh
succeeded Rajiv Gandhi, but his period was
too short to make any impact. It was a phase
when the world witnessed a series of events
which left indelible impact on international
relations.
Highlights
Gulf War
h Pakistan
Toughening of relations wit
Global War
Terrorist strikes on USA

ism
Against Terror
India and Iraq Relations

In the August of 1990 Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait and was defeated and
suffered huge losses. Such losses of Iraq also affected Indias economy. This was
because large number of Indian firms operated there and large number of Indians
worked there. Besides, Iraq one of the secular States in the Gulf region took the most
understanding attitude towards the Indian position in Kashmir and was vital source of
oil imports. These delayed Indias response to the first Gulf War however it supported
the UN resolution for the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Kuwait and abided by the
sanctions imposed by the UN India had to arrange for a well organised evacuation of
Indians from the region.
The first Gulf War altered the balance of power in the world. The first Gulf War
ended with the break up of the Soviet Union and emergence of United States of
America as the sole super power. It marked the end of the post World War II political
order.
Narasimha Rao became the Prime Minister after the General elections of 1992
and had to grapple with a new international order and domestic economic crisis. To
tide over the crisis Manmohan Singh, the then Finance Minister unleashed a wave of
economic reforms to halt the economic crisis and boost production.
Gulf War
Gulf War was a conflict between Iraq and a coalition force of approximately 30 nations led by the
United States and mandated by the United Nations in order to liberate Kuwait. The War began with
the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2nd August, 1990, following Iraqi contentions that Kuwait was illegally
slant-drilling petroleum across Iraqs border. The invasion was met with immediate economic
sanctions by UN against Iraq.
The economy slowly limped back to the growth track however the flux in the
international situation compelled the Indian Prime Minister to bow. He had to
undertake a process of adjustment primarily with the United States and China.
10
India and The World
However, there was not much smoothening of relations with USA. The US
administration continued to pressurise on human rights situation in Kashmir and
nuclear and missile programme a slight tilt towards Pakistan could also be noticed as
the Clinton administration lobbied with the Congress to abolish the Pressler
Amendment that stood in the way of providing military materials to Pakistan. On the
other hand, the US was pressurising India on nuclear non-proliferation issues. At the
same time US recognised the role of Pakistan, is to play to meet its strategically
important requirements in South-West and Central Asia.
India and Russia Relations

On the other hand, India had to rebuild and reorder its relations with Russia, the
chief successor state after the dissolution of Soviet Union into 13th States. However,
Russia was no longer a centralised state as Moscow was controlling all political and
economic activities. India therefore had to negotiate new contacts and contracts at the
ground level. Trade and economic relations were hit the hardest. The problem in the
supply of spare parts needed by military handicapped the defence of the country. The
exchange rate between the rupee and the rouble had to be renegotiated.
Indias reliance on Moscow for meeting its energy needs with 25% of its oil
imports supplied by the Soviet Union was also significant. The new
establishment was divided on the approach to be adopted towards the
subcontinent.
The West was also working to end Moscows tilt towards India. This was
evident on the issue of the supply of cryogenic engines for Indias space
programme for peaceful explorations, which Moscow was to supply, but
backed under intense US pressure on the plea that these engines could be used
in military related fields. Nevertheless India-Russia relations were forcefully
renewed by the then President Boris Yeltsin during his India visit. President
Yeltsin confirmed Russian support to Indias position on Kashmir and
underlined the value of India-Russia ties in the new international relations.
The Indo-Russian Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation was
substituted by a new 14-clause Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, valid for
20 years. According to the Treaty the two countries would refrain from taking
any action that might affect security interests of the other. Gradually, close
relations were rebuild under Vladimir Putin.
India had historic contacts with Central Asia particularly through the Silk
route. The two visits of Narasimha Rao during his five years term clearly
reflected the importance of India gave to the region. Trade between India and
other countries of Central Asia was on the rise, but was not to the extent desired
because of the absence of direct trade route. Relations between India and
Central Asia remained very cordial and non-conflictual.
India-Pakistan relations were not calm because of laters involvement in
Kashmir insurgency and the race for the possession of nuclear weapons. It was
further disturbed by the senseless destruction of the Babri Masjid on
7th December, 1992. To this deteriorating relations was added the scar of the
Bombay blasts of March, 1993. The relations were worsened that made
Pakistan to warn India about the danger of a fourth war in South Asia that
would possibly become a nuclear war.
11
IK Gujrals Foreign Policy
Next came IK Gujral in March, 1997. Though he was a supporter of the

Nehruvian vision he carved out a foreign policy of his own in accordance with
the changed circumstances. India under Gujral preferred sober and
constructive responses to have a beneficial impact on bilateral relations with
neighbours. India tried to smoothen Indo-Bangla ties which were deteriorated
by the 1992 demolition of the Babri Masjid. On Gujrals insistence the Chief
Minister of West Bengal Jyoti Basu finalised a thirty years treaty on the sharing
of the Ganga waters. The treaty reduced tensions in the troubled relations and
was celebrated in Bangladesh.
Begum Khaleeda Zias return to power as the Prime Minister partially undone
Gujrals efforts. He took major initiatives to easen lingering tensions with Sri
Lanka. He intended to carry forward the India-Pakistan dialogue, but for
Pakistan there was only one-point agenda, Kashmir.
The most striking development came in the relations between India-China.
During Chinese President and General Secretary of the Communist Party Jiang
Zewins visit to India in November, 1996, an agreement was signed between
India and China to maintain peace and tranquilty at the border and provided a
mechanism for maintaining it.
The Indian administration was pressurised by the US administration for signing
the CTBT. Gujral and his Finance Minister P Chidambaram explained Indias
security concerns and economic perspectives and Indias requirements to the
American leadership and succeeded in establishing cordial relations between
India and USA.
Treaty for Sharing Ganga Water

Treaty for Sharing Ganga Waters signed in 1996. The treaty pertains to sharing Ganga water from
Farakka Barrange for the 150 day dry season beginning from 1st January. The average of actual flows
from 1949 or 1988, was taken as the basis for working out the sharing formula.
Atal Bihari Vajpayees Foreign Policy

Atal Bihari Vajpayees tenure began with India conducting three successive
underground tests at Pokhran, which made clear that India had become a nuclear
weapons state with a capability to miniaturise nuclear weapons. Subsequently, the
Indian Prime Minister declared that India had no need for more tests and undertook a
voluntary moratorium on further testing.
The promise came handy in
Moratorium
future negotiations with the
ivity or an authorised
West. On behalf of the nation,
It is a suspension of act
g. A moratorium is
itin
wa
or
Prime
Minister
Vajpayee
period of delay
n by the interested parties
declared that India would not be sometimes agreed upo imposed by operation of
horised or
the first to use the atomic or it may be aut
.
law
weapons the recourse to them
would only be in the selfdefence.
Indias diplomatic attempts at nuclear disarmament brought India under
international sanctions.
12
India and The World

The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund under US pressure
withheld new assistance and the ban was extended to a number of other
financial institutions.
Indias scientific community withstood international pressures however the
cost could not be discounted. Russia and France were of some help with their
obvious constraints.
The Kargil Conflict was not only significant for India-Pakistan relations, but
also strained Indias relations with the USA. It was followed by the inauguration
of bus service between Delhi and Lahore in February, 1999. The bus service
preceeded a MoU reaffirming their Unilateral moratorium on further nuclear
testing and a hosts of Confidence Building Measures (CBMs).
Meanwhile in Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif the elected Prime Minister was deposed
and General Musharraf took over as the Chief Executive on 13th December,
1999 and subsequently became the President.
Musharraf consolidated his control and gave indications of his desire to revive
talks with India and simultaneous initiative on Indias part led to Agra Summit
in July, 2001. However, the talks fell to make any breakthrough.
The 1999 hijacking of an Indian Airlines to Kandahar in Afghanistan jolted
India-Pakistan relations. The 9/11 attack on the United States and the
13th December attack on the Indian Parliament deteriorated India-Pakistan
relations further.
Bus Diplomacy The bus journey by Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee to Pakistan
intended to intensify their efforts for the settlement of all outstanding areas. The first by an
Indian Prime Minister to South Asian neighbour in a decade. The countries had signed Lahore
Declaration, MoU Joint Statement.
Confidence Building Measures They are actions taken to reduce fear of attack by both (or
more) parties in a situation of tension with or without physical conflict. These aim to generate an
element of trust between the parties.
Improvement of Indo-US Relations

However, these course of events initiated an improvement in Indo-US relations
during the last years of the Clinton Presidency. The Clinton administration began to
adopt a tougher stance towards Pakistan based terrorism against India. The changing
perception was also evident from Clintons visit to India in March, 2000.
Apart from the growing political support with the US elite, two additional factors
were no less significant. One was the increasing realisation that India was an emerging
market and an emerging power.
The second additional factor was the role of the Indian communication in the
United States. Smaller in numbers, but rapidly growing, many of them well educated
and professionally influential, they were getting better organised and more vocal in
US politics.
The Clinton administration was followed by the Bush administration with a
wholly new set of ruling elite, but it too intensified the effort of improving
relations with India.
13
India was shocked by the 9/11 attack on United States and used it as an
opportunity to highlight the Pakistan-Afghanistan based menace of terrorism
against, which India was struggling for years.
Even before US had decided on military operations against the Taliban, India
promised to extend help US in staging military operations in Afghanistan.
USA, no doubt appreciated Indias offer, but for its operations it needed
Pakistan and not India. Indo-US relations became the subcontext of the
US-Pakistan alliance.
Washington had to display considerable nimble footedness in managing
relations with both India and Pakistan. The Afghan War was started in
October, 2001 and ended with the collapse of the Taliban which was great blow
to Pakistan. Both Osamas Al Qaeda and Omars Taliban infact were creations
of USA and Pakistan. The statement existed in India-Pakistan relations
following the 13th December, 2001, attack on Indian Parliament. The US
carefully refrained from taking sides because both the countries were equally
important for its designs in South Asia.
India and Iraq Relations

The Iraq War fractured the international coalition against terrorism. A large
majority of countries in the world were unconvinced of the US justification for war
and worried about its consequences. India though whole heartedly supported the war
against the Taliban and Al Qaeda, but Indian public opinion went against the
American War in Iraq.
It also created hurdles in the way of the Vajpayee governments decision to
send troops to Iraq to help US buckled under strong Indian Public Opinion.
This made US take up determined efforts to take India-US relations on a higher
level.
The Bush Administration began a sustained dialogue with India on what was
called a trinity of issues : civilian nuclear technology, space shield and
facilitation of dual use high tech trade. Bush lifted the post Pokhran Sanctions
against India in October, 2001 in the wake of the 9/11 attack, but trade in high
technology was still restricted. This led to India-US signing a framework
agreement in Washington on 6th February, 2003 to boost high technology
trade between two countries. The dialogue was explained to include nuclear
safety issues. However, it hit hard against the US Congress Laws and the
restrictions imposed by the nuclear suppliers group. George Bushs re-election
as the US President was welcomed in India.
Nuclear Suppliers Group

It consists of 46 nuclear suppliers and seeks to control exports of nuclear materials, equipment and
technology, both dual use and specially designed and prepared. It basically aims at nuclear
non-proliferation. It is popularly referred to as the London Club.
14
India and The World
Phase V : Manmohan Singhs Phase (2004- Till Present)

Indian Foreign Policy showed marked
continuity under Manmohan Singh in its
relations with important neighbours like
China, Pakistan and big powers like USA.
Manmohan Singh government made efforts to
intensify peace process.
Highlights
with China.
Improvement of relations
peration.
Indo-US Civil Nuclear Coo
with Russia.
New phase of Cooperation
India-Pakistan Relations
Manmohan-Musharraf of meeting on the sidelines of the UN General

Assembly on 24th September, 2004, peaceful solutions to all the problems
including Kashmir was emphasised. Repeatedly Manmohan Singh in
subsequent speeches and statements emphasised the need to work towards a
situation in which borders would become irrelevant.
Many CBMs were undertaken to normalise tensed borders. He started with
troop reduction in Kashmir on 12th November, 2004. On his first visit to
Kashmir, Manmohan Singh announced a ` 24000 crore aid package.
Besides Kashmir, the two sides continued to discuss nuclear CBMs differences
over the boundary in Sir Creek areathe only maritime dispute between the
two countries, the Wullar Barrage and the Tulbul navigation project, the
demilitarisation of Siachen and the Baglihar dam issue.
Manmohan Singh was infact addressing the problem at two levels. He was
engaging Pakistan for the resolution of Kashmir issue and was also trying to
address the internal problems in Kashmir. The government tried to address the
internal problems in Kashmir. The government tried to make Hurriyat a part of
the eventual solution, but their own stand point remained ambiguous and
subject to changing equations within the Hurriyat and within the state the bus
service was enthusiastically welcomed from both sides of the border.
In addition there was the Samjhauta Express from Wagah to Attari and much
later Thar Express between Rajasthan and Sind.
The most remarkable change was the shift in public opinion on both sides of the
divide.
However, the trust deficit between India and Pakistan was not bridged. But the
change was evident that by and large opinion was growing against War in both
countries.
The summit diplomacy was taken recourse in 2005 to revitalise India-Pakistan
relations. In the 60th UN General Assembly in September, 2005 Manmohan
Singh and Musharraf made efforts to carry forward the India-Pakistan peace
process, which was struck in a phase of statement. The peace dialogue was
seriously disrupted by a series of terrorist acts.
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh flagged off a landmark bus service from
Amritsar to Nankana Sahib in Pakistan on 24th, March enabling Sikhs to regain
access to their holy shrines in Pakistan. He suggested that both sides in Kashmir
could work out cooperative, consultative mechanism for mutual benefit with
the active encouragement of the governments of India and Pakistan. The
non-aligned summit in Havana offered another opportunity to refresh the
peace process between India and Pakistan.
15
Summit Diplomacy
It is taken recourse to revitalise bilateral relations. India-Pakistan have attempt to revive friendly
relations through summits and meetings on the sidelines of the summit. Agra Summit is one such
summit though it was not successful in achieving its objectives.
India and China Relations

Under Manmohan Singh India-China relations continued their journey towards a
new and more amiable relationship. Both countries were contributing to the rapid
improvement of ties in various spheres. They kept intact the practice that had been set
by high level visits to each others country. They tried to give new momentum to
finding a solution to a central problem.
Chinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabaos on April, 2005, visit and President Hu
Jintaos visit were the highlights of the phase of renewed Indo-Sino
relationship. The joint statement signed during Wen Jiabaos visit stressed on
the extension of economic relations, trade, services, investments and other
areas, decided to further promote cooperation in the military field as well as
intensify their cooperation in various other fields like education, science,
technology, health care and tourism.
In these, another notable visit was that by the then Defence Minister Pranab
Mukherjee in May, 2006 when an agreement was inked to improve
Sino-Indian military cooperation as a major CBM.
Another notable was the summit meeting between the leaders of China, Russia
and India at St Petersburg on the sidelines of meeting with G-8 members.
A useful step to boost trade was taken when the two countries, had decided to
reopen trade links at Nathu La pass in Sikkim on 6th July, 2006 after a freeze of
some 44 years.
Reopening the trade route was a
Nathu La Pass
helpful move to expand
hu La trade route on 6th
economic ties between the two
The reopening of the Nat
arkable chapter in the
countries. The trade benefits
July is undoubtedly a rem
de and commerce. It
tra
al
would be gradually realised by history of internation ic value as it will be a
at symbol
both countries. India had to will be of gre one of the silk routes. It is a step
of
ion
ect
urr
ensure against cheap Chinese res
hina relations.
towards enhancing India-C
goods, often heavily subsidised
and of unequal quality, flooding
the Indian market. Energy security appeared another significant area of
cooperation between the two countries. However unresolved border issue
continue to exist as an irritant in India-China relations.
A new phase of India-Russia relations began under Putins era. India-Russia
strategic partnership was beneficial to both countries in meeting the challenges of
economic development, terrorism, emerging energy crisis, nuclear challenges and the
unilaterism involved in the current structure of world politics. Despite their different
political and economic structures India and Russia made efforts to keep intact their
very close and friendly relationships.
16
India and The World
Next Step in Strategic Partnership (NSSP)

Implementation of the NSSP will lead to significant economic benefits for both countries and improve
regional and global security. In January, 2004, the United States and India agreed to expand
cooperation in three specific areas : civilian nuclear activities, civilian space programmes and high
technology trade. In addition, the two countries agreed to expand our dialogue on missile defence.
India-USA Relations
Bushs re-election was followed by coming to power of the reelected government
in India. India and US continued and expanded their cooperative activities between
the militaries of the two countries. They kept the negotiations ongoing during the
second phase of the Next Step in Strategic Partnership (NSSP).
The groundwork for a new
phase in Indo-US relations was
Indo-US Civil
prepared by Secretary of State
Nuclear Cooperation
Condoleeza Rices visit to India
peration is also known
Indo-US Civil Nuclear Coo
framework for this
The
in mid March, 2005. The New
as the 123 Agreement.
5 joint statement
200
,
July
h
18t
Framework for the US-India
agreement was a
r Manmohan Singh and
Defence Relationship was
by Indian Prime Ministe
W Bush, under which
rge
signed during the Defence then US President Geo te its civil and military
to separa
Minister Pranab Mukherjees India agreed
l nuclear
es and to place all its civi
iliti
fac
r
visit to Washington, which nuclea under International Atomic Energy
facilities
envisioned
a
10
year
in exchange the United
Agency Safeguards and
ard full civil nuclear
tow
programme of accelerating
States agreed to work
cooperation in the defence field
cooperation with India.
including the sale of F16 and F18
fighter aircrafts, if India so
desired.
The agreement was broad in its scope even including collaboration in
multinational operations when it is in their common interests. This became the
most controversial clause in the agreement.
The real factor behind Washingtons decision to vastly upgrade its relations
with India was that India was seen all over the world as a rising power
particularly in economic terms. The other being the rise of India as a political
and military power that could contribute to a better balance in Asia.
The foreign policy of a country
evolves out of the efforts to cope with
Globalisation
complex demands of time. It is an
reasing interdependence
It is a process by which inc
ongoing process where various factors
ying
n between states and var
interact in different ways in different and communicatio lead to shared experiences and
world
situations
like the advent
of parts of the ication of global issues.
mon identif
com
globalisation have increased the
security concern of India. The concern
is evident in Indias relations with the
countries of the world.
17
Factors that Affect Indias Foreign Policy

Foreign policy of a country generally means its relations with other countries
regarding all issues of international relevance like peace, disarmament, climate
change, development, justice, decolonisation etc. It is the outline of a countrys policy
in pursuing its national interest in global affairs. A state tries to control the behaviour
of other states through its foreign policy.
Foreign Policy The system of activities evolved by communities for changing the behaviour of
other states and for adjusting their own activities to the international environmen George
Modelski.
National Interest It refers to interests specific to a nation state, including especially survival and
maintenance of power.
However, globalisation has made it extremely difficult for countries to isolate

ones national interest from its geo-political location and international environment.
Therefore, Indian Foreign Policy is not only determined by domestic factors, but also
by international factors. Nevertheless there continues certain basic factors that make a
more longterm impact on foreign policy.
The basic factors which form Indias foreign policy may be identified as
(a) Geography India is situated at the centre of the Great Asian Arc stretching
from Aden to Tokyo and at the head of the Indian Ocean. Indias central and
dominant location in the Indian Ocean helps it to play a role of global
importance. India is a sub continent where the Peninsula is separated from
mainland Asia by the Himalayas in the North, Bay of Bengal in the East, the
Arabian Sea in the West and the Indian Ocean in the South. Her location
influences global powers to programme India into their respective global
strategies.
(b) Military Strength The military strength of a country enables it to
successfully negogiate with enemies. India has the fourth largest military
establishment in the world. Indias nuclear military strength acts as a
deterrent against external threats. The role of military strength is to serve the
rational political goals like defence of the state, its sovereignty and territorial
integrity at one level and to support the countrys foreign policy and to
safeguard and sustain national interests through international relations at
another.
(c) Indian Diaspora Countries with large overseas communities are engaging
in developing policy frameworks and mechanisms to leverage this important
resource in pursuit of their national interests, the phenomenon have been
brought into prominence by the end of the Cold War, the processes of
globalisation and economic liberalisation.
Cold War It is the period in world affairs from 1947-1990, which was marked by ideological,
economic and political hostility and competition between the US and the former Soviet Union,
with most of the countries of the world rallying behind either of the these two power blocs at
various levels of involvement.
Economic Liberalisation It means deregulation, privatisation and liberalisation i.e., a contraction
of the states role in an increasingly integrated global economic system. It is concerned with the
pursuit of unregulated markets almost every for almost everything.
18
India and The World
The Indian Diaspora is a generic term to describe those, who migrated from
India and their descendents. The Diaspora is composed of Non - Resident
Indians (NRIs), Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs), who have acquired the
citizenship of some other country and Stateless Persons of Indian Origin
(SPIOs). Presently, the Indian Diaspora spans the globe and stretches across
all the oceans and continents. It is estimated to be about 20 million people if
Indian origin, who live and work in foreign countries and constitute an
important link with the motherland. Indian Diasporas contribution reaches
India in the form of annual remittances, NRI deposits and NRI equity
investments. Therefore, Indian Diaspora emerges as an important
determinant of Indian foreign policy.
(d) National Philosophy Indias commitment to world peace, anti-colonialism
opposition to racism, commitment to democracy, secularism and peaceful
co-existence etc are certain philosophical values that emerged during the
freedom movement. During the British rule India considerably developed
relations with other countries to improve world peace and freedom and
condemned colonialism and racial discrimination.
(e) Political Organisation India is a democratic country and established
institutions of democratic political structure such as an elected Parliament,
political parties and a free press make their due impact on foreign policy.
Negotiated treaties and international agreements become legally binding on
the state, but are not part of the domestic law unless passed by an Act of
Parliament. Interest groups concerned with foreign relations exist inside and
outside of Parliament.
Diaspora It is used as an indicative term for all kinds of minorities, who can trace their country or
region then one in which they reside. During colonial periods Indians have emigrated to British French
and Dutch colonies as indentured and labour. In post-independence period Indians have migrated as
labour to Gulf countries and as professionals to US and UK.
Stateless Persons of Indian Origin (SPIOs) These remains mostly in Sri Lanka and Myanmar and
have no document to substantiate their status of Indian origin.
Economic Development It refers to the process of raising the level of prosperity and material
living in a society through increasing the productivity and efficiency of its economy.
(f) Economic Development In todays globalised world economic

development oriented foreign policy is a common phenomenon because
many states look for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and the expansion and
diversification of foreign trade. Globalisation is viewed as an opportunity to
extend their reach and dominance. Thus, economic development and trade
become a focal point in foreign policy in the globalised era.
19
Features of Indian Foreign Policy

1. Non-Alignment It is an
Human Rights It
independent foreign policy
Universal Declaration of r its preamble. Its
fou
rt
tool to actively engage in
contains 30 Articles apa
recognition of the
international politics. Nehru
preamble states that the
ality of all human beings
himself coined the term
inherent dignity and equ
ts is the foundation of
Non-Alignment in 1954. He and their inalienable righ
in the world.
freedom, justice and peace
defined it as non-alignment
Brazil, Germany and
means not tying yourself with
G 4 In early 2005, India, group. These four
l
rma
info
military blocs of nations ... but
Japan formed this
ts for permanent
iran
asp
are
and
independently... trying to
re
countries we
Nations Security
ited
maintain friendly relations
membership in the Un
with all countries. The origin of
Council (UNSC).
Non-Alignment
Movement
(NAM), could be traced to a
conference hosted in Bandung, Indonesia in 1955.
2. Anti-Colonialism and Anti-Imperialism India achieved independence in
1947 and extended its helping hand to liberate other colonies from the
shackles of the imperialist powers.
3. Opposition to Racial Discrimination India condemned racial
discrimination in any form. Mahatma Gandhi raised his voice against racial
discrimination in South Africa. India was the first country to raise this issue at
the UN and argued that this was against the principles of the UN Charter and
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948.
4. Faith in Peaceful Co-existence and Cooperation For centuries, India has
subscribed to the policy of sarva-dharma-sambhava ( goodwill and tolerance
towards all religions), which is a Vedantic concept. India adopted this policy
at the foreign policy level as peaceful co-existence and cooperation.
Panchsheel The concept was developed by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and is, based on the principles of
(a) Mutual respect for each others territorial integrity
(b) Non-aggression
(c) Non-interference in internal matters
(d) Equality and mutual benefit
(e) Peaceful co-existence
United Nations Organisation (UNO) It officially came into existence on 24th October, 1945. It
succeeded the League of Nations formed during World War I in 1991. The name United Nations
coined by US President Franklin D Roosevelt, first used in the declaration by United Nations
on 1st January, 1942. The United Nations has six main organs General Assembly, Security Council,
Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, Secretariat and International Court of Justice.
5. Faith in the United Nations India being a founder member of the UN has
always remained committed to the purposes and principles of the UN and
has been significant contributions to its peace-keeping operations. India is a
member of G 4 and is also an aspirant for permanent membership in the
United Nations Security Council.
6. Peaceful use of Nuclear Energy In 1965, alongwith a small group of
non-aligned countries, India had put forward the idea of an international
non-proliferation agreement under which the nuclear weapons states would
agree to give up their arsenals provided other countries refrained from
20
India and The World
developing or acquiring such weapons. Indias decision not to sign the

Non-Proliferation Treaty was in keeping with the basic objective of maintaining
freedom of thought and action. Now, though India is a nuclear weapon state
but remains committed to the basic tenet of foreign policya conviction that
global elimination of nuclear weapon will enhance its security as well as that
of the rest of the world.
7. Intimate Relations with Commonwealth Jawaharlal Nehru chose to join
commonwealth to buy security for India without entangling alliances. Today
India uses this platform to air her views on international issues and exert
influence in world affairs.
The Commonwealth
The commonwealth is a voluntary association of independent states united by common purposes and
functions with a common language English. There are six monarchies in the commonwealth (Britain,
Brunei, Lesotho, Malaysia, Swaziland and Tonga) and the British monarch is by common consent the
symbol of the community, though the number of republics is almost double than those of which the
queen is still the Head of State. The Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) is a
biennial summit meeting of the heads of government from all commonwealth nations.
Diplomacy in Indian Foreign Policy

Diplomacy is one of the means of
execution of foreign policy goals. It
Diplomacy
also denotes the processes and
ement of international
machinery by which negotiations are
Diplomacy is the manag
otiation; the method by
carried on. Diplomacy operates in an
relations by means of neg
adjusted and managed
area where possibilities of coercion which these relations are ; the business or art of
oys
env
exist and it is the function of diplomacy by ambassadors and
the diplomat.
to avert those possibilities. The purpose
of diplomacy is to reach agreement.
Diplomacy has relevance only when disagreement exists. Persuasion is the major
method used in international diplomacy and it is the art of persuasion which
diplomats are expected to possess in order to be successful. Success in diplomacy
means victory in winning other nations over to ones own point of view. The success of
diplomacy depends to a large extent on how serious or non-serious the disagreement
is. When a nation feels that its vital interests are affected, it may refuse to have any
compromise at all and thus diplomacy will not be able to resolve the differences.
Evolution of Indias Economic Diplomacy

Indias foreign relations beyond its neighbourhood is determined by economic
considerations. Globalisation and accordingly Indias changing developmental needs
have shaped Indias economic diplomacy.
Pre 1991 Phase

Indias domestic economic policies that restricted imports and foreign
investments caused a defensive and protectionist mind set of India in its interaction
with the outside world.
21
The Indian economic diplomacy was marked by

Export promotion
Import of critical commodities and products through Public Sector Organisations.
Bilateral and multilateral development assistance. However being within the
framework of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) had very
marginal role in multilateral development assistance and trade negotiations.
GATT
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was drawn up in 1947 to codify the rules of conduct in
trade for its members. In GATT, States agreed to negotiate reciprocal and mutually advantageous
arrangements directed to the substantial reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade and to
increase free and fair trade.
Post 1990, Years

Economic reforms of 1991, posed a challenge for India, to convince other
countries for its changing economic policies.
During these years Indias economic diplomacy aimed at
Attracting Foreign Direct Investment.
A period of transitionIndia had to adjust to the changed situations of
post-soviet world.
India became a Dialogue Partner of ASEAN and a member of organisations
like the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC)
and Bangladesh-India-Myanmar-Sri Lanka-Thailand Economic Cooperation
(BIMSTEC). It was renamed as the Bay of Bengal initiative for Multi-Sectoral
Technical and Economic Cooperation.
On the whole India remained defensive in its economic approach. Only in the
21st century Indian economy began to mature as its business community gained
self-confidence and as India began to integrate with the global economy. Within
India, the dismantling of the Licence raj and the process of economic reforms
gathered momentum resulting in fundamental and irreversible changes in the
economy, government policies as well as in the outlook of business and industry.
Gradually increase in FDI flows and foreign institutional investment boosted Indian
economy.
Its revolution in India opened new opportunities in Indias exports of services
enabling India to evolve into a service-oriented economic from an agro-based
economy. Indias new economic diplomacy priorities diversified.
In this phase, Indias economic diplomatic efforts were characterised by
1. Attracting FDI in green field infrastructure project.
2. Foreign Institutional Investment in Indias stock markets.
3. Facilitate Indian investment and joint ventures abroad for profit as well as
gain access to resources.
4. Protect and promote Indias economy and commercial interests in
multilateral and regional trading arrangements.
5. To create a more favourable environment for Indian business by influencing
other countries economy and commercial polies.
22
India and The World
6. Energy security, intellectual property rights, environment issues and climate

change became important new areas of economic diplomacy.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

It refers to financial transfers by a multinational corporation from the country of the parent firm to
the country of the host firm to finance a portion of its overseas operations. occurs when a corporation
headquartered in one nation invests in a corporation located in another nation, either by purchasing
an existing enterprise or by providing capital to start a new one. India has been ranked as second
place in global foreign direct investments in 2010 and will continue to remain among the top five
attractive destinations for international investors during 2010-12, period, according to United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
Indias immediate and strategic neighbourhood of South Asia where most

countries are poorer than India obviously becomes a priority region for Indias
development assistance programme, including concessional lines of credit as well as
technical and economic assistance. A major portion of Indias assistance is made for
infrastructural and other projects of economic development in Bhutan, Afghanistan
and Nepal.
Outside
Indias
immediate
tries
neighbourhood Africa is the largest
Least Developed Coun
beneficiary of Indias technical and
are a group of
st Developed Countries
economic cooperation programme. Lea ies that have been identified by the UN as
countr
of their low Gross
Recently, India decided to give phased
least developed in terms
ir weak human assets
duty of free market access to fifty Least
National Income (GNI), the
nomic vulnerability.
eco
of
Developed Countries (LDCs) from
and their high degree
Africa and Asia. India remains
generous in giving assistance to
prejudice its own case for concessional funding from multilateral bodies and bilateral
donors.
Indias foreign assistance programme is a strategic tool to showcase Indias
technical strengths and achievements and to harness them to promote Indias political
and economic interests in the world. It has generated goodwill, brought economic
dividends for India and built Indian brand equity. However, it has not been fully
successful in living up to its potential. It is for sure if fully developed will facilitate
achievement of Indias foreign policy objectives.
The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), being central to economic diplomacy
plays an important coordinating role with all other concerned organisations and
interest groups. Besides the MEA, other ministries and departments in the
Government of India, state governments and most importantly private trade and
industry have vital roles to play.
Abroad Indian missions and posts, both bilateral and multilateral; Indias
representatives to the WTO, World Bank, IMF and ADB and overseas offices of
Indian banks, public sector units and bodies to promote exports and attract
investments.
23
World Trade Organisation (WTO) It is the legal successor of the General Agreement on Trade and
Tariff (GATT), which came into effect from 1st January, 1995. Its basic aim is to liberalise world trade
by means of multilateral trade reforms to push for open and free trade regime. It the only global
international organisation dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO
agreements; negotiated and signed by the bulk of the worlds trading nations and ratified in their
parliaments.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) It promotes international monetary cooperation and
exchange rate stability, facilitates the balanced growth of international trade, assist poverty
reduction etc.
Asian Development Bank (ADB) It is an international development finance institution whose
mission is to help its developing member countries to reduce poverty. Headquartered in Manila and
established in 1966. Haruhiko Kuroda is the President of Asian Development Bank.
In a globalised world economic issues have become vital determinant in bilateral

and multilateral relations with countries, organisations and groupings. Therefore,
India in order to make its economic diplomacy successful need to focus on public
private partnership and an around coordinated national effort that involves close and
purposeful cooperation with all stakeholders.
India as an Emerging Economic Power
As part of the India Development Initiative India has stopped the practice of receiving aid from
other countries except from a select few. India has written off the debts of some poor countries
and has decided to increase its aid to other developing countries. The new paradigm shift and
economic strength needs to be translated into strategic global influence. This has become part of
Indias economic diplomacy. The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) is projecting India as an
Emerging Economic Power through media, foreign investors, businessmen, think tanks and foreign
governments through regular publicity and through speeches and interactions.
India is attempting to boost its economy through multilateral trade and economic negotiations and
regional and bilateral trade agreements. India like other countries of the world is signing Free Trade
Agreements and Preferential Trade Agreements with other countries and trade groups for market
access and greater economic clout. Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreements are a step
further. India has been providing technical assistance and aid to developing countries. India is also
engaged in giving food aid to countries in need. These have helped in building partnerships and
opening markets for India products and projects. One of the initiatives is the line of Credit of US $
200 million to Africa under NEPAD (New Partnership for Africas Development).
As part of Indias economic diplomacy India is engaging its Diaspora. The Ministry of External
Affairs and the Indian Missions are working with the Commerce ministry and export bodies in the
FOCUS-Latin America, FOCUS-Africa and FOCUS-CIS programmes for export promotion.
The objectives of the new Economic Diplomacy call for a change in the mindset of our diplomats,
who were trained in the traditional diplomacy. Efforts need to achieve economic integration of
region to take advantage of the comparative economic strength of each country and then fact the
rest of the world as a united block.
Indias Trade Agreements

The Regional Trading Arrangements (RTAs) are considered by India as building
blocks towards the overall objective of trade liberalisation. So, India is participating in
a number of RTAs which include FTAs, PTAs and CECAs etc. These arrangements
are entered into either bilaterally or in a regional grouping.
24
India and The World
Some of the major ones are as follow

Agreement on South Asia Free Trade Area (SAFTA) was signed by all the
members of the South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) during
the 12th SAARC summit in Islamabad on 4th-6th January, 2004. It came into force
from 1st January, 2006.
Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) They are generally made between two countries. The agreements
are like stepping stones towards international integration into a global free market economy. It is
assumed that free trade and removal of regulations on investment will head to economic growth
reducing poverty and increasing standards of living and generating employment opportunity.
These agreements may allow transnational corporations more freedom to exploit workers shaping
the national and global economy to suit their interests.
Preferential Trade Agreements (PTAs) These pacts are among countries that provide preferred
trading status for the countries involved. Nearly all member countries of the World Trading
Organisation (WTO), belong to at least one agreement. The PTA can also be established through a
trade pact in which such preferential arrangements mark the first stage of an integration process
leading to closer economic relations.
The main objective of almost all PTAs is eventual FTA status, as outlined by the WTOs General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Individual countries may benefit more from PTAs, particularly if
the countries import less from partner countries.
Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreements (CECAs) They aim to strengthen and
enhance economic, trade and investment cooperation between the Parties. It progressively
liberalise and promote trade in goods and services as well as create a transparent, liberal and
facilitative investment regime. It enables the parties to explore new areas and develop appropriate
measures for closer economic cooperation.
SAFTA aims to promote and enhance mutual trade and economic cooperation among the
contracting states by
Eliminating barriers to trade in, and facilitate cross-border movement of goods.
Promoting free and fair competition to boost economic development.
Creating effective mechanism for the implementation and application of this
Agreement, for its joint administration and for the resolution of disputes.
Enhancing regional cooperation.
Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement (APTA) It formerly known as the Bangkok
Agreement, was signed on 31st July, 1975 as an initiative of the United Nations
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP). ESCAP is the
regional development arm of the United Nations for the Asia-Pacific region. The
Bangkok Agreement is essentially a preferential trading arrangement designed to
liberalise and expand trade progressively in the ESCAP region through measures
such as the relaxation economic cooperation.
Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation
(BIMSTEC) Sub-regional economic cooperation grouping of Bangladesh, India,
Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand was formed in Bangkok in June, 1997, Myanmar
joined the grouping in December, 1997.
Bhutan and Nepal too joined in February, 2004. It is visualised as bridging link
between the two major regional groupings i.e., ASEAN and SAARC. Its chairmanship
rotates among the member countries in alphabetical order. The immediate priority of
the grouping is consolidation of activities for greater economic cooperation.
25
BIMSTEC Priority Sectors

Six priority sectors of cooperation were identified at the 2nd Ministerial Meeting
in Dhaka on 19th November, 1998.
S.No.
Sector
Lead Country
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Trade and Investment

Technology
Energy
Transportations and Communication
Tourism
Fisheries
Bangladesh
Sri Lanka
Myanmar
India
India
Thailand
After the 8th Ministerial Meeting in Dhaka on 18th-19th December, 2005, a

number of new areas of cooperation emerged. Priority sectors increased from six to
thirteen.
S.No.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Sector
Lead Country
Agriculture
Cultural Cooperation
Environment and Disaster Management
Public Health
People to People Contact
Poverty Alleviation
Counter Terrorism and Transnational Crime
Myanmar
Bhutan
India
Thailand
Thailand
Nepal
India
The thirteenth session of the BIMSTEC Senior Officials Meeting recommended

the inclusion of a fourteenth priority area of cooperation
S.No.
14.
Sector
Climate Change
Lead Country
Bangladesh
The function of the lead country is to identify specific projects for facilitating
cooperation in consultation with an expert group drawn from member countries.
A Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation
between ASEAN (Association of South-East Asian Nations) was signed on
8th October, 2003 in Bali (Indonesia). The key elements of the agreement cover FTA
in goods, services and investment as well as areas of economic cooperation. The
agreement also provided for an early harvest programme, which covers area of
economic cooperation and a common list of items for exchange of tariff concessions as
a confidence building measure.
Sectors of Cooperation
Agriculture, fisheries and forestry

Servicesmedia and entertainment, health, tourism etc
Mining and energyoil and natural gas, power generation and supply
Science and technology
Transport and infrastructure
Manufacturingautomotive, drug and pharmaceuticals, textiles, petrochemicals,
food processing etc
26
India and The World
Human resource developmentcapacity building, education, technology

transfer etc
Othershandicrafts,
small and medium enterprises, Mekong Basin
Development, intellectual property rights, government procurement
India-Mercosur Preferential Trade Agreement It was signed between India
and Mercosur on 17th June, 2003. The aim of this framework agreement is to create
conditions and mechanisms for negotiations for a free trade area. APTA was signed in
New Delhi on 25th January, 2004, with the aim to expand and strengthen the existing
relations between Mercosur and India and promote the expansion of trade by
granting reciprocal fixed tariff preferences with the ultimate objective of creating a
free trade area between the parties.
Mercosur is a trading block in Latin America formed in 1991 and comprising
Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay.
CECA between India and Singapore aims to
strengthen and enhance the economic, trade and investment cooperation.
liberalise and promote trade in goods in accordance with the agreement.
establish a transparent, predictable and facilitative investment regime.
explore new areas of economic cooperation etc.
FTA between India and Sri Lanka aims to
promote through the expansion of trade the harmonious development of the
economic relations between India and Sri Lanka.
provide fair conditions of competition for trades between India and Sri Lanka etc.
PTA between India and Chile It was signed on 20th January, 2005. The
framework agreement also provides for a Joint Study Group to go into the issues
relating to a Free Trade Agreement between the two sides.
India-Afghanistan PTA
India-Bhutan PTA
India-Nepal Trade Treaty
Framework Agreement for establishing free trade between India and Thailand
FTA between India and Gulf Cooperation Council
India-Japan Trade Agreement
Joint study group between India and Korea
Trade Agreement between India and Bangladesh
Comprehensive economic cooperation and partnership agreement between
India and Mauritius
The above mentioned agreements not only aim at improving Indias economy,
but also seek to facilitate greater cooperation with countries in other areas as well.
Indias Energy Security through Economic Diplomacy

Energy security is assured, exclusive access to energy resources at affordable
prices to obtain sustainable economic growth rates and national economic
development.
Energy security becomes a necessity due to the following mentioned reasons
1. To achieve economic growth rates of over 8-10% to which a nation is
committed.
27
2. High global demand, supply constraints and geopolitical development

pushes up oil and gas prices.
3. Considerable international competition.
4. National policies for energy security have to be compatible with concerns
regarding climate change particularly in regard to greenhouse gases.
India needs to sustain as 8% to 10% economic growth rate over the next 25 years if
it is to eradicate poverty and meet its human development goals. To meet these India
needs at the very least to increase its primary energy supply by 3 to 4 times and its
electricity generation capacity/supply of 5 to 6 times of their 2003-04 levels. To
achieve these targets India would have to pursue all available fuel options and forms
of energy.
To achieve Indias energy requirements the following need to be attempted at the
domestic level
1. Augmenting domestic resources.
2. Maximising the use of national hydro power potential.
3. Obtaining the materials and technology to pursue civilisation nuclear power
projects.
4. Pursing energy efficiency and demand side management policies.
5. Diversifying energy sources through increased use of renewables.
Indias multifaceted global engagements and bilateral and regional strategic
energy partnerships are aimed at promoting
1. Domestic resources and capabilities.
2. Diversification of hydro carbon supply sources.
3. Acquisition of foreign hydrocarbon assets.
4. Gas Contractstrans-national gas pipelines.
5. Regional and global producerconsumer dialogue.
6. Enhancement of national knowledge for promoting conservation,
non-conventional fuels, pollution control, environment concerns.
Iran-Pakistan-India Gas Pipeline (IPI) It was also called peace pipeline, aimed
at constructing a 1620 mile pipeline from Irans South Pars fields in the Persian Gulf to
Pakistans major cities of Karachi and Multan and then further to Delhi, India. This
project is expected to greatly benefit India and Pakistan, which do not have sufficient
natural gas to meet their rapidly increasing domestic demand for energy. However,
India is not presently engaged due to security and cost concerns.
Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan India Pipeline (TAPI) It is a proposed
natural gas piepline being developed by the Asian Development Bank. The pipeline
will transport Caspian Sea natural gas from Turkmenistan through Afghanistan into
Pakistan and then to India. The long awaited is expected to head for a break through
after a proposed four nation summit at Ashgabat in Turkmenistan.
In order to achieve strategic energy security India have successfully acquired oil
and gas fields in Russia, Sudan, Vietnam, Myanmar and Libya and are exploring
opportunities in Africa, Central Asia and Latin America. Indian companies have
established joint ventures to get phosphates from Jordan and Senegal.
28
India and The World
Energy Security Unit

Energy security unit was first set-up within the investment and Technology
Promotion Division of the Ministry of External Affairs in September 2007. This
division provide inputs to articulate Indias position on energy security matters
various multilateral fora like the UNGA, G20, NAM, BRIC, IBSA, East Asian Energy
Ministers Meetings, CICA, Commonwealth, BIMSTEC, BRIC, ASEM, SAARC etc.
The Division played a key role in the country joining the first ever global body on
renewable energy sourcesInternational Renewable Energy Agency, (IRENA). The
Energy Security Division was closely associated with Indias membership of the
International Partnership for Energy Efficiency and Cooperation (IPEEC) and also
guided our growing engagement with the worlds biggest energy consumer club, the
International Energy Agency (IEA).
Defence Diplomacy
Defence had been and continue to be a vital means of protecting national interests
and hence preserving sovereignty of a state. Defence plays an important role as an
element of states offensive arsenal to influence the behaviour of other states and to
promote its own interests on the international stage. The success of defence diplomacy
depends on a synergy between the defence forces and diplomatic tactics.
Indias defensive mind set on security concerns persisted even after
independence. This resulted in the Chinese aggression against India in 1962. India
began to be counted seriously on the defence from only after it became a nuclear
weapons power. Circumstances determine, which aspects of defence force would
serve as important instruments of diplomacy. Taking into consideration Indias
principal security threats are on its land borders, it is obvious that in defence matters
Indias overwhelming emphasis has been on the Armed Force and the Air Force.
Nuclear weapons, missiles, satellites and cyber networks have added a new dimension
to warfare, Indias capabilities in these new areas constitute the principal strategic
forces for projecting Indias interests and for ensuring that India has a credible nuclear
deterrent.
On Indian Public Diplomacy

The 21st century realignment of power is becoming more of a reality day-by-day,
with the influence of Western powers waning to some extent and an increasingly
assertive role being played by the rising powers like China and India in the global
context. This trend has most recently been hastened by the global economic
downturn that comparatively had less effect on the Chinese and Indian economy
compared to those of the United States and Europe. Indias exponential economic
growth and recognition of its de-facto nuclear status by the US and other powers (after
the Indo-US nuclear deal) have altered external perceptions of India, with the country
being viewed as an emerging power with expanding global clout. In this scenario,
Indias attempt to amplify its soft power through public diplomacy becomes crucial.
India as new claimant of a place at the high table in the world has huge stakes in
the arena of global politics and thus, maintaining and enhancing its influence remains
a top priority for the country. In the 21st century, there has been more of a need for
states to use soft power so as to enchance ones attractiveness in international arena
29
and to show ones better side in order to stimulate cooperation and dampen resistance,
particularly concerning security policies. In this context, public diplomacy has
become a very important instrument of soft power, as well as being a vital tool of
Indian foreign policy. The undercurrent of Indian public diplomacy is to avow India
as a rising power of undeniable international significance and influence, which is
consistent with Indias demand to win a place at the high table by being granted the
permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.
India has already proved itself as a capable military and economic power in the
world, yet somehow it finds struggles to project this power to the world. There are
limits on what hard power can accomplish and thus a judicious mix of hard and soft
power or what is termed as smart power, is needed. Thus, the principal modus
operandi for augmenting Indias influence in the world can be achieved by expanding
its soft power. Soft power, the term coined by Joseph Nye, has become a portent
measure of a country' s power and influence in the world today. Soft power is the
ability to get what one wants through attraction rather than coercion or payments. Soft
power largely emanates from a countrys culture, its political values and institutions
and its foreign policy. India finds itself well-placed in possessing soft power resources
because of its rich culture and history, its democratic credentials, its technological
advancement, its large and influential diaspora and the leadership India wields among
the developing nations through multilateral institutions like Non-Alignment
movement. Thus, what distinguishes India's claim to global leadership is its unique,
unobtrusive, persuasive soft power or what South Asia expert Steven Cohen calls
Indias reputational power.
One of the most important tools for exercising a countrys soft power is public
diplomacy. Public diplomacy can be defined as, A government's process of
communicating with foreign publics in an attempt to bring about an understanding for
its nation's ideas and ideals, its institutions and culture, as well as its national goals and
current policies. It can be seen as an instrument that a country's government uses to
mobilise its resources to communicate with and attract the public of other countries
(rather than merely their governments) to promote its national interests through a
number of means, such as broadcasting, direct outreach programmes, cultural
diplomacy, educational and professional exchanges and so forth. Public diplomacy is
not only limited to influencing foreign publics, but also for gaining feedback on the
foreign perception of the host country. However, the most significant role of public
diplomacy is to inform, explain and interpret the nations goals and strategies to
foreign publics, in order to garner their support and create goodwill among other
nations in order to achieve its national interests.
Evolution of Public Diplomacy

Although, public diplomacy is a relatively new concept in the sphere of
international affairs, it has promptly become an important foreign policy tool for
many governments. While the terminology is new, the practice of public diplomacy is
quite old. Public diplomacy was first used by the American Government during
World War I, when President Wilson created the committee on public information
(also called the creel committee) whose task was to make the US war aims known all
over the world. It was later successfully used during World War II to fight the Nazi
propaganda. Things took a more concrete shape with the creation of the United States
Information Agency (USIA) in 1953 to inform foreign audiences and explain US
30
India and The World
objectives to influence and gain support of foreign public opinions, which served US
interests immensely during the Cold War. However, the US lost interest in public
diplomacy initiatives after the Cold War, only to be rudely awakened and have to
reinvigorate public diplomacy after the events of 9/11 owing to increasing
anti-Americanism in some parts of the world.
It is not only the US, but every other power like China, UK, Russia and France are
all investing in public diplomacy initiatives today, largely because of an ever
increasing global integration, no country can stand in isolation and thus co-optive and
soft power have become the core realities of the day. Countries like France and the
United Kingdom have been running successful public diplomacy campaigns all over
the world, establishing cultural centers for example, but now newly emerged powers
like China are leaving no stone unturned to engage the world through its public
diplomacy activities. India, with its high stakes as an emerging power in the world
cannot lag behind in this battle of ideas.
A new understanding of public diplomacy is emerging in the highly globalized
and integrated world of today. Public diplomacy can no longer be about straight-line
propaganda or one-way communication in this information age because conditions
for the production and enactment of public diplomacy have changed significantly
because of the ways that global interdependence has radically altered the space of
diplomacy. Public diplomacy today has become more inclusive, where it includes
multilevel relations conducted by MNCs, NGOs, private groups and social
movements using new technologies of communication to interact with and petition
foreign publics. Emphasis has to be laid on adopting a more erudite grassroot
people-to-people communication, for two-way engagement as public diplomacy is not
only about communicating foreign policy, but also about developing a long-term
understanding of people, culture and values of the host country. Cultural diplomacy
has to be a part and parcel of public diplomacy for it to succeed in the globalised
world. Public diplomacy today can no longer be a one-size-fits-all approach. Rather, it
has to be tailored individually in consideration of the political and cultural enviroment
of a country. Thus, public diplomacy needs to be dynamic, flexible and capable of
adapting to changing circumstances.
Background of Indias Soft Power

India is one country that could always count itself among the few nations with
strong cards in the arena of soft power, even when it was deficient in hard power. India
began its journey as a self-determining state in 1947 with a soft power bang that faded
away after its greatest exponent, the countrys first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru,
died in 1964. During Nehrus time, India lacked hard power resources, being a poor
economy coupled with weak military capabilities. Despite this, India possessed
unparalleled soft power among the developing nations, as Indian foreign policy was
more idealistic in nature and vehemently campaigned for peaceful co-existence and
economic equality in world economy. The number of diplomatic forays Nehru made
into distant conflicts around the world was dizzying and brought instant recognition to
India as a responsible Asian country that was trying to solve global problems.
However, India had to soon face the harsh realities of international politics, where its
hard power capabilities were soon tested by China in the 1962 war, a war where India
had to face stark humiliation. The 1962 war with China, which was followed by the
1965 war with pakistan, forced India to reassess its priorities, with the country
31
choosing to focus on building its hard power capabilities and strengthening its hold in
South Asia while minimising its global role. India began flexing its muscles in South
Asia and played the role of a regional hegemon as illustrated by the clandestine role
India played in the 1971 Pakistan-Bangladesh war and later humanitarian military
intervention in Sri Lanka in 1987.
Ironically, even as India practically disappeared as an actor with influence in
far-flung regions of the global South like Africa and Latin America by the turn of the
century, it began to improve its hard power attributes by logging higher economic
growth and military prowess. During that period India's regional power rested on her
hard power capabilities ranging from diplomatic coercion to economic sanctions to
military interventions. Soft power strategies like economic cooperation and the
promotion of common political values only played a secondary role. However, India
could not play a very successful role as the regional hegemon, as India had to soon
withdraw its IPKF forces from Sri Lanka in the face of opposition from both the public
and the Government in Sri Lanka. India soon lost out on the goodwill that it had
created for itself in Bangladesh among both the Bangladeshi Government and public,
when it had helped them in attaining their freedom from Pakistan. Adding to India's
woes was the Pakistan-sponsored cross-border terrorism in kashmir. India, once again
faced with a changing international environment (the collapse of the Soviet Union)
and the regional dynamics, re-evaluated its approach towards and South Asia and the
world in the form of the Gujral doctrine. The Gujral doctrine emphasised that India
should play a bigger role in helping its neighbours while not requiring reciprocation
and at the same time avowing a policy of non-interference in internal affairs and
promotion of common economic interests and strengthening regional cooperation
through SAARC.
Thus India once again began to lay emphasis on the use of soft power in its foreign
policy conduct, as it had already proved its mettle as a rising power with proficient
hard power capabilities. At the turn of the 21st century, India found itself in a very
good position to play a bigger role in global politics owing to its military and economic
power coupled with a huge soft power potential. India at the same time realised that
hard power is not a one-stop solution to all of a countrys problems and neither is soft
power. Soft power is one arrow in a nations security quiver; it is not an all-purpose
panacea. Thus an over-reliance on either one in the present context of geopolitics will
only prove to be detrimental to India's future.
Indias Soft Power Potential

India has often been regarded as cultural superpower with an expansive hoard of
soft power resources. Very few countries can match the rich history, culture and
civilisation of India that creates an unparalleled interest and appeal for India abroad.
In addition to this, India's vibrant and thriving democracy, its independent and free
media, its democratic institutions and its increasingly aware and pulsating civil society
all contribute to Indias soft power. Along with this, Indias values of non-violence
(ahimsa) and peace and the use of these methods in its struggle against colonialism
have inspired and continue to inspire generations of leaders all over the world.
Additionally, Indias exponential economic growth and innovation and leadership in
information technology, have earned India, admiration the world over.
32
India and The World
Indias entertainment industry and Bollywood have given India an edge over
many other countries in the world and have enchanced Indias image. Indian movies
find a large number of takers in not only Asian countries (with some similarity of
culture), but are climbing the popularity charts rapidly, in Africa, the Americas and
Europe as well. Indian music, dance, fashion and art add to Indias growing soft power
base. Along with this, the contribution of new-age Indian authors to English literature
has to be credited in increasing awareness and interest about Indian society, polity and
culture.
The popularity of Indian cuisine and Yoga all over the world has only amplified
the worlds fascination with the Indian nation. The large and influential Indian
diaspora is another one of India's assets in the realm of soft power. Indian diaspora has
many a times played a pivotal role in shaping up positive policies towards India in
many countries, especially the United States. India's commitment to humanitarian
rights in the world and its role in the UN peacekeeping mission has earned India a lot
of respect.
In the information age, Nye has argued, the side with the better story to tell often
wins. India must remain the land of the better story. As a society with a free press and
a thriving mass media, whose people whose are daily encouraged to unleash their
creative energies, India has an extraordinary ability to tell stories that are more
persuasive and attractive than those of its rivals. India has to compete with soft power
of other countries, especially China in the time to come, as China expands its
influence gradually all over the world. India, in some ways has an advantage in this
competition of influence over China because of its soft power resources.
As the worlds largest democracy, with a vibrant press and thriving entertainment
industry, India has huge soft power advantage over authoritarian China and its
state-controlled media. The implication is India can take advantage of that goodwill as
Asias two giants battle for influence in the region and arount the world. Another
point is that Indias rise, unlike the rise of China, is not being viewed with trepidation
and alarm in many countries. India derives real political mileage from the prestige
attached to its title of worlds largest democracy. Being a democracy, India can assert
a political influence in the world, especially now, when more and more countries are
clamoring for democracy, as witnessed in the Arab spring.
Indian Public Diplomacy Initiatives Undertaken Since

2006
The public diplomacy division of the Ministry of External Affairs was established
in may 2006 with an aim to educate and influence global and domestic opinion on
key policy issues and project a better image of the country commensurate with its
rising international standing. Closely modelled after the US state departments
approach to public diplomacy, the division will attempt to sensitise and influence
think tanks, universities, media and experts to create a more nuanced understanding
of the governments stance on tricky issues
Its not only the public diplomacy division of the MEA thats engaged in
promoting Indias image abroad, but is also aided by Indian Council for Cultural
Relations (ICCR), which remains the pre-eminent instrument of cultural diplomacy.
The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting also lends support to the public
diplomacy initiative with the ministrys strategic use of the media, which is
responsible for international cooperation in the field of mass media, films and
33
broadcasting and interacts with its foreign counterparts on behalf of the Government
of India. Apart from these, many other Government agencies carry out programmes
that promote the Indian image abroad and engage in public diplomacy, both
independently and collectively.
Brand India was one such campaign that was organised by Indian Brand Equity
Foundation and the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India and
the Confederation of Indian Industry. The foundations primary objective was to
build positive economic perceptions of India globally. It aimed to effectively present
the India business perspective and leverage business partnerships in a globalising
market place. To this end the foundation developed a number of promotional
campaigns, including brochures, films, print ads,and panels which emphasised Indias
strong economy and encouraged national and international investment.
Many notable initiatives have been undertaken by the Indian Government to
engage in an effective public diplomacy campaign in order to promote Indias
interests. Some of these programmes have been campaigns like Pravasi Bharatiya
Divas and Know India programme specifically targeted at the huge and influential
Indian diaspora that cannot only, aid Indias development, but as well as, promote its
interests all over the world. Programmes like Pravasi Bharatiya Divas and Know
India campaign have met resounding success as the number of delegates taking part
have increased rapidly year after year.
Other initiatives include publications, documentary films and cultural events that
showcase different facets of the Indian nation. Once such popular publication is the
India perspective magazine that is published in 17 languages and distributed over
150 countries in the world. The magazine seeks to project Indias rich cultural
heritage, its composite pluralistic society as well as its vibrant economy.
The Indian public diplomacy division also partners with major domestic and
international universities, think tanks and research organisations to organise seminars
and conferences on subjects that are relevant to Indias concerns and hosts delegations
form various countries and organisations to provide them with a broad-based
exposure to India, along with organising lectures and other events within India with
the objective of fostering a more informed discourse on Indias foreign policy. These
include lecture series on Indian foreign policy that have been organised by the
Ministry of External Affairs in universities in India and abroad in UK, Indonesia and
South Korea. One such conference and workshop was organised in December 2010,
by the Ministry of External Affairs and the centre for media studies titled Public
Diplomacy in the Information Age. Attended by scholars, journalists, business
leaders and diplomats, the conference was aimed at exploring Indias public
diplomacy potential. The conference helped reach some key conclusions as well as the
reasons for embarking upon active public diplomacy.
Other than these, Indian diplomatic missions regularly organise Indian film and
music festivals locally, where both commercial and classical music and films are
screened. India to increase its outreach to foreign public, has invested in public
diplomacy 2.0 to promote a two-way communication, which stresses more on
listening to the foreign public rather than telling. The Indian public diplomacy
division has also taken to the social media in a big way by creating and regularly
updating its accounts on Twitter, Facebook and You Tube.
As a part of its outreach programmes the public diplomacy division has also tied
up with the India-Future of Change (IFC) initiative, which seeks to emphasise Indias
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India and The World
position as a catalyst of change. IFC is a five-year initiative that promises to take India
to the world and get students and professional across geographies to compete,
collaborate and strengthen ties between India and the world. The initiative signifies an
innovative effort at communicating the emerging realities to a global audience and
managing a collaborative dialogue of what Brna India begets as it readies to become
a global power.
Success Stories of Indian Public Diplomacy

India has played a significant role in providing aid and development assistance to
many countries in Africa and Asia. In Africa, e.g., India has reached out to countries
including Senegal and Ghana to help with projects ranging from rice production to
information technology development. India has played a major role in infrastructural
development in Afghanistan by building roads, highways, hospitals, schools, etc,
which have won India not only admiration in Afghanistan, but elsewhere as well. The
role India plays in UN peacekeeping forces further augments Indias goodwill in the
world; the Indian help in disaster management and assistance during the 2004
tsunami in South and South-East Asia and the Pakistan earthquake of 2005 have been
successful exercises in Indian public diplomacy.
There are instances when India has used public diplomacy effectively as a foreign
policy tool, as demonstrated in 2009, when the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan
Singh used the meeting with Pakistani President Zardari, first one after 26/11 Mumbai
terror attacks, on the sidelines of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Summit in
Yekaterinburg to drive home his concerns. On another occasion, he spoke of the
sustainability of the Indian way of development as being inclusive, tolerant and plural
in a clear reference to China. Thus, the Indian Government is slowly and steadily
using public diplomacy to further its foreign policy interests in the world.
Limitations of Public Diplomacy

Public Diplomacy, despite its instrumental role as a foreign policy tool, cannot be
used to solve all Indian foreign policy problems. There are limits on the role public
diplomacy can play especially in the age of communication and information
revolution. Information in the 21st century cannot be controlled and the notion that a
government can control its own image through some sort of managed propaganda is
only an illusion. Thus, public diplomacy can achieve only certain targets, as interal
contradictions of a country, more so of a democratic country like India, cannot be
hidden.
India's perception in the world is changing with Indias economic growth, its
technological advancement, its de-facto nuclear status, its growing military
capabilities and rising soft power and influence in the world. However, this is only one
side of the story, as Indias glaring poverty (having the largest population of
malnourished children in the world is a dear and troubling reminder of India's
struggles as the country develops) farmer suicides, Maoist insurgency, humanitarian
and separatist problems in Kashmir and North-East, repeated terrorist attacks are all
impediments to a successful Indian public diplomacy, which become obstacle in
India's journey to be a great power.
35
Strengthening Indian Public Diplomacy

Public diplomacy, despite its shortcomings remains an essential tool in the
foreign policy arsenal of the Indian Government to enhance its power and influence in
the world. Public diplomacy is not merely a generic activity for disseminating data
about India. It is not expected o be limited to detailing the economic growth and
industrial potential of the country, and its democratic credentials. Public diplomacy is
a target oriented activity both in term of objectives and audience. Indian public
diplomacy has to focus on dialogues with the foreign audience, it has to lay stress on
the need for strategic communication. Public diplomacy today needs to have a better
understanding of cooperation, collective interests and engagement with other nations.
A very important instrument of soft power is public diplomacy, which cannot just
restrict itself to propaganda anymore and has to look beyond and involve
inter-cultural dialogues.
Indian public diplomacy can be augmented by increasing funding for cultural
activities in Indian consulates and embassies. India should also try and develop
cultural centers all over the world on the lines of British Council, American
Information Resource Centers, Alliance Francoise and the confucius institutes started
by China. These institutes increase their respective countries soft power by projecting
a favourable image of their countries to the outside world through public relations
exercises. India should also expand its educational and professional exchange
programs with foreign universities and organisations and at the same time invite
prominent members of civil society of other countries to facilitate a better
understanding of Indian culture, interests and values, so that they can picture India in
a favourable light. Innovativeness, foresight, marketing blitz, strategic planining and
psychological management are imperative for any successful public diplomacy effort
and thus India needs to invest handsomely in public diplomacy as it forms a
connecting link between nations and provides a strategic leverage in foreign policy.
The 2014 Elections : Impact on Public Diplomacy

The 2014 general elections in India are highly awaited and anticipated the world
over. There is significant speculation as to whether the Congress-let UPA (United
Progressive Alliance) will come back to power or will the BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party)
-led NDA (National Democratic Alliance) succeed in replacing the ruling party of the
last 10 years. Both the parties have been running vigorous campaigns around their
projected Prime-Ministerial leaders (yet not confirmed officially), namely Rahul
Gandhi for the Congress and Narendra Modi (present Chief Minister of the Indian
state of Gujarat) for the BJP. Both Rahul Gandhi and Narendra Modi have been
running dynamic campaigns, focusing on engaging with the Indian public at large.
Modi has managed to conduct many successful and impactful talks and
engagement sessions with various interest groups in india, ranging from young
university and college students, to women entrepreneurs, to the lower-caste groups,
etc not only this, he is already on the path to reincarnate a new image of himself (trying
to rid himself of the communal image) and has had very successful engagements with
dignitaries and diplomats from the US (a country that had refused visa to Modi on his
earlier accounts of a tainted communal image) and the UK. Narendra Modi has been
projecting an image of himself as a modern, tech-savvy, development-oriented,
peoples leader. If Narendra Modi were to be elected the Prime Minister of India in
36
India and The World
the 2014 elections, the face of Indian public diplomacy will certainly undergo some
change from the present. He has already suggested a road map for restructuring the
Ministry of External Affairs in India, where he wants to bring in new department that
focuses on the new strategy of diplomacy that focuses on trade and economics. Hes
also talked about restructuring the Indian image abroad more vehemently and he
wants to do this by building India as a developmental model for the developing
nations and making the government function more transparent and accountable.
On the one hand, Narendra Modi with his greater emphasis on engagement with
both interest groups in India and abroad, a more open and transparent policy,
promises to offer Indian public diplomacy a fresh vigour. Yet, on the other, he may be
more detrimental to the Indian image abroad, as he is viewed as an authoritarian,
communal leader by many in the world, which may hurt the two very strong virtues of
Indian soft power-democracey and secularism. However, for now one can only wait
and watch the outcomes of the 2014 elections and how it will shape up Indian public
diplomacy efforts in the future.
Conclusion
Indian public diplomacy is a relatively new strategy adpoted by the Indian
Government, but its importance is highly valued today as it has become a vital
instrument of Indias soft power. Not only this, but public diplomacy is also an
important tool in Indias foreign policy arsenal, which can be used to leverage Indias
international imprint in the world, keeping in mind Indias ascendance in
international affairs. Public diplomacy has to be integrated into Indian foreign
policy-making process in form of a comprehensive and cohesive strategy. Therefore,
public diplomacy cannot be just an afterthought, but has to become imperative at all
levels of foreign-policy making. Thus, for India to become a great power in the world,
the Indian Government has to exploit all resources of soft power, of which public
diplomacy is a crucial one.
India in the Indian Ocean Region

It is situated between the Atlantic
ention on the
and the Pacific and extending
United Nations Conv
S)
approximately 74 million square
Law of the Sea (UNCLO , is the
tre
kilometer, the Indian Ocean region
of the sea aty
It is also called the law
that resulted from the
serves as a natural transit lounge for
international agreement
nce on the Law of the
fere
Con
s
most of the worlds traffic. Currently,
third United Nation
1973, through 1982. It
nearly over 80% of trade passing
Sea which took place from
ber 16, 1994. It is an
came into force on Novem
through the Indian Ocean is destined
y
that provides a regulator
to countries outside the region. The international treaty
and
s
sea
s
rld
wo
for the use of the
Indian Ocean Region (IOR) served as framework
vation and equitable
ans to ensure the conser
oce
an intense battleground for the
the marine environment
usage of resources and
industrialising European countries
tion and preservation of
and to ensure the protec
sea.
the
of
seeking raw material and markets in
the living resources
Asia and Africa during the colonial
area. During the Cold War Period
coinciding with the decolonisation of Afro-Asian countries, the two superpowers
enforced their maritime influence in the region.
37
However, the Post Cold War era gave rise to the need for a socio-political strategic
approach towards the Indian Ocean littoral countries in view of enhanced maritime
security in the region. Besides its strategic significance it is the area where terrorism is
most widespread. It is the area where the bulk of worlds rapidly growing population
resides. It is also the area where some of the worlds most dynamic economics are
located. The IOR will not only address Indias security concerns to an appreciable
extent but also would facilitate Indias emergence as a regional and global player. The
coming into force of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS) in November 1994 have compelled India to concentrate more on this
strategically important maritime zone. This had led to the maritime doctrine of 2004
and maritime strategy of 2006. The November, 2008, terrorist attacks launched from
the sea on Mumbai have critically accelerate the strategic significance of the region.
The strategic importance of the
sq mile atoll of coral
region is not merely limited for
Diego Garcia It is the 17
the Indian Ocean
of
dle
mid
addressing security concerns of India
and sand in the
itary one of the most
but also due to growing stakes of
considered by the US mil
on the Earth. It has
ate
est
countries outside the Indian Ocean
valuable pieces of real
ic airbase.
been used by US as strateg
rim. The United Nations General
) It is one of ten
OM
RIC
(AF
Assembly Resolution of December,
Africa Command
mands of the United
1971, on declaring the Indian Ocean as
unified combatant com
dquartered at Kelly
hea
a zone of peace has facilitated its use by
States armed forces
ny. It is responsible
Barracks, Stuttgart, Germa
countries out side the region. The US
s and military relations
for US military operation
Navy has an overwhelming presence in
area of responsibility
an
s
ion
with 53 African nat
the Persian Gulf. In the Indian Ocean it
Egypt.
covering all of Africa except
has a presence in Diego Garcia for
decades and has set-up an African
Command (AFRICOM) that have
strategic implications for Indian Ocean region and Indias own security.
NATOs growing presence in the region without any clear future vision is also an
irritant. France claims to be an Indian Ocean power because of reunion and a few
other islands. The US and NATOs presence in the Indian Ocean projected to
increase for the sake of Gulf energy, Afghanistan and Iraq. Chinas strategy of
establishing maritime presence in places dotted around the Indian Ocean including in
Indias nearest neighbours-its string of pearls strategy.
String of Pearls Strategy
It is a strategic move which involves establishing a series of nodes of military and economic
throughout the Indian Ocean Region. This strategic relations move is an excellent way to enfold a
greater area of territory, there by gaining more influence on the global stage. The strategy includes
increased access to airfields and ports, Myanmar Sittwe port, Coco Island, Burma Hiangyi,
Khaukphyu, Mergui and Zadatkyi are main areas of Chinese interest.
Sri Lanka-Hambantota port is being developed by China and China is a supplier of military wares to
Sri Lanka.
Pakistan-Gwador port was built with Chinese assistance.
Nepal, Bangladesh, Maldives, Mauritius, Seychelles, Thailand and Cambodia are also of Chinese
interest as part of this strategy.
Fortunately, there are many confidence building and cooperative frameworks

already in place such as the India sponsored MILAN exercises, Indias active
participation in the Asian Regional Forum (ARF) and Indias participation in the
38
India and The World
regional cooperation agreement on combating piracy and armed Robbery against

ships in Asia (ReCAAP). There are some other informal and Track II dialogues such
as Shangri -La Dialogue sponsored by London based International Institute of Strategic
Studies (IISS) and the Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific (CSCAP).
Its growing bilateral military ties with the countries of the region have also served to
create a higher level of mutual comfort between India and these countries.
Defence cooperation with foreign countries illustrates will the close inter
relationship between India's foreign policy an defence policy. Foreign defence
cooperation is the most sensitive aspect in any bilateral relationship. Defence and
diplomacy are really two sides of the same coin. The goal in either case is the same
namely the defence of Indias unity territorial integrity and sovereignty from outside
threats, only the means are different.
Role of Indian Navy

The Indian Navy and the Coast Guard retain their traditional defensive roles and
being part of Indian Armed Forces will conduct military operations in the
neighbourshood; protect Indias increasingly important trade and energy SLOCS;
protect the resources of Indias Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) ; protect Indias
offshore assets, including oil and gas; safeguard its deep sea mining areas in the central
Indian Ocean where India has been allotted a mining area of 150000 sq km; deal with
piracy and counter terrorism. The strategic importance of the region had boosted
Indian Navys role as a foreign policy tool especially after the Alondra Rainbow
incident.
India shares maximum coastal boundary zone with the Indian Ocean, which is
gaining geopolitical significance with the growing menace of sea-piracy. This scenario
call for the upgradation of the Indian Naval forces. Consequently, Indian Navy has
become the focus of attention of the Indian defence budget. Indian Naval ships are on
an operational deployment to the South China Sea and North West Pacific an part of
Indias Look East Policy while the ships of the Western Fleet are on overseas
deployment to Horn of Africa, Red Sea and the Western Mediterranean. The
enhancement of the strategic importance of the Indian Navy promises to strengthen
the bases of Indias defene diplomacy.
Alondra Rainbow Incident In 1999 India's coast guard successfully interdicted a hijacked
Japanese vessel, Japan woke up to the realisation that India was a credible naval power and was
convinced that Indian Navy could play a key role in ensuring Japanese energy security.
Indias role in tackling Somali Piracy Piracy in the Gulf of Aden particularly off the Somalian
Coast, has been increasingly posing threat to international maritime prompting India to deploy a
warship in the area to ensure that the danger is neutralised. India has proposed a pro-active role
for its navy in a UN-flagged effort to tackle the threat to maritime traffic from piracy.
The measures proposed by India to tackle piracy in Somalia are
Reinforcement of tracking the trail of ransom money to different parts of the world, as was
entrusted to the Interpol.
Prosecution of the beneficiaries of ransom money for abetting piracy.
Consideration of the conduct of the naval operations under the UN as the preferred option.
Sanitisation of the Somali Coast Line through identified corridors and buffer zones and tracking
of fishing vessels around the Somali Coast.
Enactment of national laws on priority to criminalise piracy as defined UNCLOS and the
prosecution of suspected and imprisonment of convicted pirates apprehended off the Coast of
Somalia.
39
Indias Joint Defence Exercises

Maitree 2010 Indian and Thai armies participated in a 14 day exercise with a focus
on counter terrorism operations in Jharkhand, India as part of efforts to boost
interoperability between the two forces.
Indradhanush 2010 UK-India joint air exercise to acknowledge the defence
cooperation between the UK and India, enhance mutual operational
understanding and learn from each others experience.
Garuda IV A measure of enhanced co-operation between France and India. In 2010,
the fourth edition of joint air exercises was held at Istres airbase in France.
SIMBEX It stands for Singapore India Maritime Bilateral Exercises. In 2010,
India-Singapore naval exercise was held near the coast of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands and in the Bay of Bengal.
Indra 2010 India-Russia joint military exercise focussing on counter terrorism
operations. It will particularly focus on anti- insurgency measures in mountainous
terrain.
Nomadic Elephant The troops of India-Mongolia engaged in joint exercise to
counter insurgency.
Indian Foreign Policy : Federal

The democratically elected political executive and Parliament are held solely
responsible for the formulation and implementation of foreign and defence policies.
On the basis of this logic, the Constitution makers had clearly defined and demarcated
jurisdictional boundaries by assigning foreign and strategic policy-making roles only
to the Central Government and limited the role of regional-State Governments to deal
with local law and order and developmental activities. So, in the more than six
decades of post-independence phase of democracy, foreign and defence policies have
been pursued by the Central Government on the basis of its perceptions of national
interests.
Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi as Prime Ministers followed the
policy of non-alignment with two power blocs in the post-world war phase of the
international structure of power. The collapse of the USSR meant this bipolarity in
international relations was replaced by a unipolar global order and India adjusted and
adapted its foreign and defence policies accordingly. But, unfortunately, we are now
witnessing a new process where foreign policy-making is becoming subservient to
short-sighted political interests of regional-state parties and leaders, who are working
contrary to the logic of our national foreign policy interests and objectives. The states
acquiring proactive role in the foreign policy of the nation.
First, ever since the 1990s in the immediate aftermath of economic liberalisation,
local governments have been aggressive in pursuing economic diplomacy with both
the US and other countries. Some clear examples of this point being Andhra Pradesh
and Karnataka. In recent years, even other states such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil
Nadu and Bihar have been pro-active and wooed foreign governments. State
Governments such as Gujarat and Bihar have in fact started global summits, where
potential investors from other parts of the world are present.
40
India and The World
The second reason for the ever increasing role of local governments in foreign
policy is the trend of coalition politics, in which regional parties have an important
role to play. These regional parties have been able to exercise a considerable influence
over foreign policy, especially with regard to the neighbourhood. In certain cases,
they have even intervened on issues which in the past would be considered the
exclusive domain of the Central Government.
The competitive populism in Tamil Nadu over the situation of Tamils in Sri
Lanka has generated a great deal of alarm in New Delhi over the manner in which
political issues relating to a state have begun impinging on India's foreign and security
policies. Though somewhat over the top, the Dravidian parties have a point, but a
general one rather than the specific case they are advocating. Given our linguistic,
ethnic, religious and ideological divisions, these views often come across as those
belonging to this or that section. But this diverse country must have a single policy and
its execution must be the responsibility of its Federal Government. There are no
constitutional or institutional mechanisms to relay those interests. So, with Union
Governments taking the form of coalitions, they have become vulnerable to party or
sectional pressure which often takes the form of pure blackmail.
Regional Players Prominent in Foreign Policy-Making

The withdrawal of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam from the United Progressive
Alliance Government could be seen as being part of the rough and tumble of coalition
politics. Actually, it is more likely that the party has used the Sri Lankan crisis to push
for a separation from the UPA, because it is politically expedient for it to do so. After
all, what is happening in 2013 or even what happened in 2012 - is not the worst that
has be fallen the Tamils of Sri Lanka.
But with general elections looming, competitive populism seems to be ruling the
roost. The DMK wanted the UPA government to pilot a resolution in the United
Nations demanding an international probe into alleged war crimes tantamount to
genocide in Sri Lanka. Then with Tamil Nadu Chief Minister J Jayalalithaa joining the
fray, the demands escalated - a boycott of the Commonwealth Heads of Government
summit to be held later this year in Colombo, a ban on Sri Lankan players in the Indian
Premier League matches in Tamil Nadu and an Assembly resolution asking the Union
Government to get the UN to create a separate Eelam in Sri Lanka.
The DMK and the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam are only a more
extreme manifestation of a trend we have been witnessing recently in India, where
coalition constituents and states are bringing foreign and security issues to the
bargaining table. Actually, the leader of this pack has been the Indian left for which
the United States is a permanent anathema. This is what led to the crisis in UPA-I in
2008 when the left pulled out of the coalition because it opposed the India-US civil
nuclear deal. This move of the Left was also pitched as much on its belief that nothing
good could come out of an agreement with imperialist America, as its attempt to
cloak the decision in the garb of attacking America for its anti-Muslim policies.
The next instance of this state-first approach occurred when West Bengal Chief
Minister and then UPA coalition partner, Mamata Banerjee, opposed the river waters
agreement with Bangladesh. In September 2011, on the eve of Prime Minister
Manmohan Singh's visit to Dhaka, the Union Government was forced to call off the
signing of a pact that would have ratified a formula for sharing the waters of the Teesta
with Bangladesh.
41
The surprise entrant into this club was Narendra Modi who suddenly jumped into
the Sir Creek issue on the eve of the Gujarat elections. In a letter to the Prime Minister,
Mr Modi said that not only should India not hand over the Creek to Pakistan, it should
stop any dialogue with Islamabad on the issue. Any concession by New Delhi would
affect Gujarat negatively.
In all four instances, it is possible to argue for a Union of India stand rather than
that of the state or party in question. In Sri Lanka, the Government of India has had to
balance its policies to ensure that Colombo does not drift towards Beijing and
Islamabad. There also is the question of pushing resolutions on the territorial issues of
other countries, having burnt our hands on the Kashmir issue once. Equally,
resolutions on human rights in international bodies are a double-edged sword,
especially given our own shoddy record in dealing with internal insurgency.
As for the Teesta issue, there were expectations that in exchange for the river
waters treaty, Bangladesh would sign an agreement giving India transit rights to its
land-locked North-East. Clearly, while West Bengal may have notionally given up
something, there was the advantage of the greater good that would accrue, not only for
the North-Eastern states, but West Bengal as well, through the increased commerce
that would have resulted from a transit agreement.
In the case of the nuclear deal, too, the net gainer was India. It was the US which
had to abandon its sanctions regime against us and agree to allow civil nuclear
commerce to resume with India. Given the balance of power in the international
system, it was a deal only the US could pilot - not France, China or Russia - though all
of them had to finally put their stamp on it through the Nuclear Suppliers Group.
In Gujarat, the boundary between India and Pakistan on Sir Creek remains
disputed and as a result, the maritime boundary between the two countries has yet to
be finalised. In this sense, India and Pakistan are both losers, not only because no one
will invest in exploiting the natural resources from a disputed area, but also because
they will lose out on the extended exclusive economic zone they can get under the UN
convention on the laws of the seas.
Barring Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, all Indian
States share borders with other countries or with the international waters of the sea. In
that sense, they have interests or issues that may intersect with the foreign and security
policies of the country.
In recent times, we have seen how the politics of Kerala has impinged on a foreign
affairs issue relating to two Italian marines. There is Jammu and Kashmir which still
complains about the short shrift it got on the matter of river waters when the Union
Government signed the Indus Waters treaty with Pakistan. As for waters, the Chief
Ministers of Bihar and Asom too have important issues which impinge on our
relations with Nepal and China.
The increasingly pro-active role of states in foreign policy raises some interesting
questions. First, state intervention in foreign policy is not always obstructionist and
examples of Tripura and Punjab clearly reiterate this point. Second, many times allies
are more troublesome in the foreign policy realm than those who are not part of the
coalition, as is evident from the examples discussed. Third, some leaders are very
aggressive when it comes to wooing countries outside the immediate neighbourhood,
but fail to do so within it.
42
India and The World
The US is one in which the interests of its federal constituents are taken into
account in the formulation and exercise of foreign and security policies. This enables
its upper chamber, the senate, to be the lead house on foreign policy issues - ratifying
international agreements, approving appointments of envoys and so on. The senate,
as is well known, has a membership which is not based on population - each state,
large and small, populous and otherwise, has the same number of senators.
It would be difficult to graft something like the US system on to the Indian system.
Yet, clearly the time has come when Mizoram and Nagaland also have a say in India's
Myanmar policy, instead of merely having to bear its consequences.
References
1. Tapan Biswal (ed) International Relation Macmillan Publishers India Ltd. 2009. p474.
2. Mahendra Kumar, Theoretical Aspects of International Politics, Shiva Lal Agarwal and Co
Agra, p357.
3. Tapan Biswal (ed) International Relation, Macmillan Publisher India Ltd., 2009, p477.
4. Tapan Biswal (ed) International Relations, Macmillan Publisher India Ltd., p470.
5. Saroj Bishoyi, Multilateral Economic organisational International Monetary and Trade
Regimes in Tapan Biswal (ed) International Relations, Macmillan Publisher India Ltd.,
p227.
6. Salvin Paul, Indias Foreign Policy in Tapan Biswal (ed) International Relations,
Macmillan Publishers India Ltd. 2009, p108.
7. Tapan Biswal (ed) International Relations, Macmillan Publisher India Ltd. 2009, p472.
8. Tapan Biswal (ed) International Relations, Macmillan Publishers India Ltd., 2009, p473.
9. Salvin Paul, Indias Foreign Policy in Tapan Biswal (ed) International Relations,
Macmillan Publishers India Ltd, 2009, p102-112.
10. OP Gauba, in Introduction to Political Theory, Macmillan Publishers India Ltd. 2007,
p301.
11. Jayanta Kumar Samal, Cold War and Post-Cold War Era in Tapan Biswal (ed)
International Relations, Macmillan Publishers India Ltd. 2009, p72.
12. Manoram Year Book 2009, p479-483.
13. Salvin Paul Indias Foreign Policy in Tapan Biswal (ed) International Relations, Macmillan
Publisher India Ltd. 2009, p125.
14. Salvin Paul, Indias Foreign Policy in Tapan Biswal (ed) International Relations
Macmillan Publishers India Ltd., 2009, p112-123.
15. Salvin Paul, Indias Foreign Policy in Tapan Biswal (ed) International Relations Macmillan
publishers India Ltd. 2009, p123.
16. Jyotindra Nath Dixit, Indian Foreign Policy and Its Neighbours, Gyan Publishing House,
New Delhi, July 2001 pp 16-20.
17. V P Dutt, Indias Foreign Policy since Independence, NBT India.
18. Mahendra Kumar Theoretical Aspects of International Politics, Shiva Lal Agarwal &
Company, Agra pp365-367.
19. Rajiv Sikri, Challenge and Strategy Rethinking Indias Foreign, Policy, SAGE Publications
India pp220-241.
20. India as an Emerging Economic Power, Ministry of External Affair, Government of India.
21. Indias Trade Agreements, www.business.gov.in.
22. Rajiv Sikri, Challenge and Strategy Rethinking India's Foreign Policy, SAGE Publications,
India pp 199-219.
23. Rajiv Sikri, Challenge and Strategy Rethinking Indias Foreign Policy, SAGE Publications
India pp 243-257.
24. Newsletter Ministry of Home Affairs p 7th October, 2011.
43
Model Practice Questions

(2 Markers20 Words)
1. East Asia Summit.
2. State the significance of Bus Diplomacy in India-Pakistan relations.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
What is the importance of CBMs in bilateral relations?

Role of Public Opinion in Indias Foreign Policy.
Nuclear Suppliers Group
Significance of reopening of Nathu La in Indo-Sino relations.
SAFTA
Energy Security
UNCLOS
Assess the role of Indian Navy in tackling piracy.
Garuda IV
(12/15 Markers150 Words)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Role of Indian community in Indo-US relations.

Effects of 9/11 attacks in USA on international relations.
How important is IndoUS civil nuclear cooperation from Indian perspective?
What is the importance of Indias joint defence exercise in Indias foreign policy?
How India seeks to ensure its energy security through economic diplomacy?
Discuss Indias foreign policy towards USA from Nehru to Manmohan Singhs years.
What role is to played by BIMSTEC in promoting regional cooperation?
Examine the relevance of Pt Jawaharlal Nehrus ideas in the international relations of today.
(20/30 Markers250 Words)

1. How US War on terrorism catalysed its relations with India and Pakistan?
2. Assess India-Pakistan relations under Manmohan Singh.
3. Evaluate the efforts made by India under Manmohan Singh to improve relations with China.
4. Examine Indias policy towards the Nehru to Manmohan Singhs era.
5. Examine Indias role as an emerging economic power.
6. Discuss Chinas string of pearls strategy and its implications.

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1

Indias Foreign Policy

India has a cherished history of collaboration with

East Asia Summit

Origin of Indian Foreign Policy