Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Objectives
To explain the importance of prevention, awareness, and attitude as keys to survival.
To explain the human bodys needs and priorities and to show various ways of meeting those needs.
To provide the basis for creating a personal wilderness survival kit.
To improve students skills in fire building and shelter craft.
To ensure that our brothers and sisters return safely when they journey beyond roads end.
Introduction
The label wilderness survival is an attention grabber; it sells books, entices television viewers, and lures people
to expensive workshops. Unfortunately, the dramatization of survival stories can result in people thinking of the
great outdoors as an enemy to be feared or conquered. Having these misleading preconceptions and unfounded fears
of nature can quickly lead a lost hiker to panic, make poor decisions and possibly bring about their own death. The
information that follows, then, is an attempt to set the story straight and give you the confidence to make good
decisions. The rest is up to you.
Survival: The continuation of life or existence. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
We deal with survival every day of our lives; being in the wilderness just changes our approach. The human body
has seven primary requirements to function at peak performance (and ultimately to remain alive); take care of them
and life will go on. Getting back to civilization or being rescued is just icing on the cake.
Remember; nature is neutral it isnt out to get you nor does it care about you. In fact, it can be down-right
unforgiving. But primitive cultures have survived for thousands of years from the Equator to the Arctic without
electricity or grocery stores. If they can do it so can you; if youre well trained and well prepared. Study their ways
and watch animals for examples of how to use what nature provides. Learn from others mistakes; read books and
accident summaries about outdoor activities in which you participate.
While youre out there, dont just survive, but thrive. If you do get stuck, keep a positive attitude! Try to think of
the situation as a spontaneous vacation and enjoy the experience. If you dont if you lose control and panic or
convince yourself that youre going to die you may be condemning yourself to failure.
For the professional LEO operating in the wilderness, survival isnt enough. We need to be comfortable and
proficient enough to work effectively in the wilderness under difficult conditions for prolonged periods.
If youre stuck in the wilderness (what some might call a survival situation), something probably happened such
that: 1) You dont know where you are, or 2) You do know where you are, but will be delayed in getting to where
youd rather be. Neither necessarily constitutes a problem, much less an emergency. However, if you are unprepared
(mentally, physically, or with regard to equipment), what started as an inconvenience can quickly turn deadly.
Emergency: An unforeseen combination of circumstances or the resulting state that calls for immediate action. ibid
Solution: foresee everything. While this may be impossible, at least try to anticipate what might happen and be
prepared to deal with it accordingly. Take time to play what-if with some worst-case scenarios. One mistake rarely
gets you into serious trouble, but a series of them probably will. Learn to recognize when things are going sideways
on you. Stop and fix (or, better yet, prevent) the problem before it snowballs. In remote areas, life threats may
initially appear to require advanced skills and equipment that are unavailable. For these rare times you just have to get
creative and do your best, but never give up trying. Many emergencies, however, can be solved with a little thought, a
few basic skills and some well-chosen gear.
Note: This class will not teach you everything you may need to know in a given situation. The following are
some skills you should consider mastering before you need them.
[* These topics are introduced in BMOC.]
* map & compass navigation
* emergency medicine
* tactical wilderness travel
* GPS navigation
* knot tying
* avalanche avoidance
* shelter building: primitive
cordage making
* snowshoeing
* fire starting: modern tools
trapping & snare making
alpine & Nordic skiing
fire starting: primitive
fishing: fly, bait, and ice
rappelling
swimming
hunting: firearm & archery
rock climbing
river crossing
tracking
low & high angle rescue
white water rescue
edible plant identification
mountaineering
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
Sit: Calm down, dont make things worse; take a deep breath & relax; count to 10; get rid of tunnel vision.
Think: What is the situation? What are your immediate priorities? Separate wants from needs.
Observe: Look at gear, people, weather, natural surroundings; what skills & resources do you have available?
Plan: Choose the best option under the circumstances and execute it safely and efficiently.
Force yourself to slow down or stop: the natural tendency when we panic is to rush aimlessly. Laugh: it is
contagious and helps to relieve stress. You can find humor in anything if you look for it. Fear is also contagious and
leads to panic; recognize and face your fears. Keep minds busy with other things; sing. Be a strong leader: confidence
is infectious. Involve others to keep them focused and productive. By helping others (or ourselves) we stop being a
victim and become a rescuer. This will change your attitude and make it much harder to just give up and die. Stay
active and be constructive: play games, improve your shelter, make weapons, gather wood, etc. Think of things to
motivate you to not give up: family, religion, competitiveness, pride, etc. Dedicate your survival to someone, but
dont dwell on the past or future; focus and live in the moment; dont neglect your situational awareness. Set goals and
be methodical in reaching them; if anything seems impossible, set smaller, attainable goals and force yourself to meet
them. Delight in small achievements. Develop a mantra and repeat it out loud or use a repetitive pattern to get through
never-ending trials. If things go wrong, dont waste time worrying about it; just focus on doing the next thing
correctly. Take advantage of every opportunity and make the most of it. You cant change the environment, so you
have to see it for what it really is (not what you want it to be) and then change yourself accordingly. Pray: even if you
dont believe in a higher power, it will help put voice to your desire to live. However, dont count on God (or anyone
else) to get you out. Dont waste time blaming others for your situation; you got yourself into the mess, so you get out
of it. You control your destiny; decide what you want and make it happen.
Be flexible and creative. Never discard anything without evaluating all possible uses for the item; there is almost
no true garbage in an emergency. You may be cold, hungry, and in pain; you just have to tough it out. Soak-up the
hardship and move on. Remember what Nietzsche said: That which doesnt kill me makes me stronger. Improvise:
determine needs, inventory resources, consider all possible alternatives, select the most efficient in materials / time /
energy, plan construction to ensure it is durable and safe. How would animals or primitive people do it? If at first you
dont succeed, try, try again and again and again. Keep a diary if possible; it helps you to focus and organize. It
will also be a good story for your kids.
When you get home, dont be afraid to ask for help in dealing with residual stress. Critical Incident Stress
Debriefings can be helpful if you lost people or had other bad experiences which could result in survivors guilt.
Alpha
Numeral
Annul
Error
Left
Plan A - STAY PUT: Dont get more lost. Will you be missed? If conditions allow, stay with the vehicle after
the risk of fire or explosion has passed. Alternately, if safe to do so, move back onto your planned route and leave a
dated note. Take a head count and provide for immediate and ongoing needs; warmth, shelter, water, etc. Be patient!
Signal for help. International distress signals are SOS (see above) or anything in sets of three; e.g., gun shots, fires,
whistle blasts (which rescuers should answer with two), etc. If a helicopter does appear overhead and lower a sling,
put it under your armpits and keep your arms down at your side so you dont slide out! Other signals might include:
Planes / portable radio: 500 kHz, 2182 kHz, 8364 kHz, 121.5 MHz, 243.0 MHz. Try to transmit Mayday &
distress information during designated listening periods at 0-3, 15-18, 30-33, 45-48 minutes past each hour.
Agency radio / personal locator beacon (PLB) / cell phone / satellite phone: do not count on them working.
Whistle / air horn: carry farther than voice and require less effort; also bang on rocks / wood / metal. Consider
getting a plastic whistle (wont freeze to lips) with a pea-less design (pea could freeze & reduce effectiveness).
Mirror (those with an aiming prism are easiest): also CD, window glass, watch face, polished metal, foil, knife
blade, compass mirror, cup / pots, space blanket, etc. Glass mirrors have best range (20+ miles (32 km) with a
record of 105 miles (168 km)); metal are more durable; plastic
can float. Aim at rescuers and planes or just sweep the horizon.
Flashlights / laser flare / strobes / hand & aerial flares / smoke /
cyalume sticks: conserve expendable items until rescuers are in
sight. Beware of pyro, as many forest fires are started by them
each year, especially aerial flares shot over dry vegetation.
Gun shots: provide noise, muzzle flash, possibly tracer ammo; do
you need to conserve ammo for hunting or defense?
Fires: flames (at night) + green plants / water (for clear skies) or
petroleum / synthetics (for cloudy or snowy conditions) = smoke.
Heavy trees disperse smoke and make it hard to see flames; cold
air = poor smoke rise. Three fires in a triangle is hard to miss.
Ground to air signals: anything unnatural, paulin symbols (see
illustration at right), trenches, bright or contrasting colors,
movement, straight lines, right angles, buzz saw (cyalume
lights tied to a cord and swung in a vertical circle), shadows,
flashing lights, silhouettes, spell words with logs, body poses and
stick figures (see illustrations on next page). Make lines at least
3 x 18 (1 m x 5 m). Ensure good visibility by moving out into
Paulin Signals
the open. If a plane sees you, it should acknowledge as follows:
o Message understood: rocking side to side (wing tips up and down) or flashing a green signal lamp.
o Message not understood: fly a complete right-hand circle or flashing a red signal lamp.
When traveling in avalanche terrain, make sure your beacon is on. Improvise an avalanche cord by tying into
and dragging a long piece of orange parachute cord behind yourself; rescuers can follow this to find you.
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
Plan B - HIKE OUT: Move only if; 1) you dont have resources to stay put (e.g., no water), 2) you dont expect
to be rescued (didnt leave a trip plan / are off route / not overdue for a while), 3) it is unsafe to stay put (forest fires,
etc.), or 4) you know your location and have the ability to safely self-rescue. Remember that anywhere on the
continent is within walking distance if you have the time and resources. Determine where you are: if you dont have a
map, draw one; note landmarks, water sources, etc.; you can use time instead of distance for interval measures. The
best way out may not be way you came in: check for easier or shorter paths; carefully evaluate! If you lost the trail,
wagon-wheel to find it; mark your spot and search in each direction a short way. Can you safely climb a tree or seek
a high vantage point to look for landmarks without getting more lost? Dont leave gear when scouting, you might not
find it again; backtracking is hard, especially if snowing. Leave a dated note in a plastic bag at each camp describing
your condition and where youre going. Start early and stop early enough to set up camp: each hand above the horizon
= approximately 1 hour of Sun left. Dont rush: set a pace you can keep all day, and then keep it (remembering to take
adequate breaks). Keep your weight centered directly over your feet for good balance. Keep your sole flat for best
traction. Be careful: watch where you put hands & feet (snakes, slips, trips, etc.); dont reach where you cant see.
Step onto logs rather than over if sturdy, dry, and on the ground. Avoid steep cliffs. Use rest-step on steep hills:
step forward, lock the back knee to take weight, pause, shift weight, repeat. Use pressure breathing to increase oxygen
intake: take a deep breath in, purse lips, and blow against them before
letting air out (it should make a pah sound); this is most effective at high
altitudes. Mark your trail for rescuers or to backtrack; use flagging, cairns,
blazes, wands, stick figures, broken branches. Beware of drifting downhill
or circling: pick a distant spot, use a compass, leapfrog, or use a range.
Count offsets to get around obstacles (usually better than over or through):
use a back bearing to check. See also Navigation and Travel classes. Make
life easier: improvise hiking poles (two are better than one; they can aid
balance, check for snakes, and knock snow off of branches before it dumps
down your neck), snowshoes, snow goggles, raft, etc. Improvise a compass
by stroking a needle or paper clip with silk or magnet (check your radios
speaker).
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
Use celestial navigation aids: moss is not reliable. These methods only apply in the Northern Hemisphere:
Stick & Shadow: push a long stick in the ground, mark the tip of the shadow with a rock, wait 20 minutes and
mark the shadow tip again. A line through both
marks is roughly East and West; perpendicular
toward the stick is approximately South. It is most
accurate with a long stick and close to noon.
Watch & Sun: set your analog watch to local
standard time, point the hour hand at the Sun.
Halfway between the hour hand and 12 oclock
(going
clockwise
in
the
morning
and
counterclockwise in the afternoon) is roughly South.
Polaris: follow the last 2 stars in the Big Dippers
bowl up about 5 times the distance between them.
Polaris is at the end of the Little Dippers handle and
always indicates True North; it isnt the brightest star.
2) Oxygen 3 minutes: If you cant breathe, nothing else matters. American Lung Association
Carry medical equipment based on planned operations, remoteness of destination (potential need for first aid or
advanced care), and team members level of training. Treat immediate threats: ABCs, severe bleeding, hypothermia /
hyperthermia. Expect shock & treat for it! Treat secondary injuries as circumstances permit: get advanced training;
see also EMS lecture. If you have no painkillers for an injured partner, give them a placebo and tell them its a good
painkiller. Always maintain good sanitation: wash hands often using water / soap / wet wipes / hand sanitizer.
Dispose of human waste in a hole dug away from camp and water: use stones, snow, or friendly leaves for TP. Take
care of your feet: treat hot spots early, wash feet and change socks daily, air / dry your feet often. Protect your eyes!
3) Warmth 3 hours: Put on a hat and mittens before you go outside! Your Mother
Temperature is a double-edged sword. You need to keep your body very close to 98F (37C); being too hot can be as
lethal as being too cold. In our environment, with the limited coping mechanisms of the human body, cold is usually
the more dangerous of the two. Hypothermia affects our physical and mental abilities and can quietly kill. As a
warning sign, watch each other for the umbles; stumble, mumble, fumble, tumble, grumble. To stay warm, use the
Eds, but not necessarily in this order: Shed, Dead, Head, Bed, Red, Fed, Tread.
Shed Water Stay Dry! Water conducts heat about 25 times faster than air. Consider building a shelter before
building a fire. Protect from the outside: carry raingear and pre-fabricated shelters. Keep sleeping bags and extra
clothes in waterproof bags. Protect from the inside: limit exertion and sweating, ventilate and shed clothing as
needed. Powder snow is a good blotter: if you get soaked, roll around in it and brush it off. Moisture renders
cotton and down worthless (or worse) in cold environments.
Dead Air It is a great insulator. See also Basic Principles / Clothing lecture. Keep clothing clean and loosely
fitting. Ensure boots and other items are properly waterproofed. Dont dry clothes or boots too close to the fire;
synthetics can melt and leather can crack. Dress in layers: alter clothing as needed to avoid overheating.
Synthetics, wool, and silk are great. Improvise insulation: dead air = dry leaves / grass, moss, crumpled paper,
feathers, plant down (cattails, etc.). Hands and feet: youre helpless without them, so take care of them. Socks =
emergency mittens. Beware heat and sparks when wearing synthetics: dont burn holes or shrink-wrap yourself!
Consider color: camouflage or uniforms for work but also take some hunter orange (e.g., a traffic safety vest) or
bright royal blue clothing for visibility in case of emergency. Dark colors will be warmer and dry faster. Use
whatever is available as a windbreak. See also the Shelter section of this text.
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
Head Covered Cover your head and neck: they are areas of significant heat loss (or gain, in hot environments)
since they are often exposed and are highly vascular. Carry a wool or fleece hat even during the summer; it has a
great warmth to weight ratio.
Bed Down Rest, conserve your energy, and bundle up in whatever youve got or can find. Fluff sleeping bags
before use, dry daily if possible. Improvise with a pack stuffed full of dry leaves, etc. Down is good for dry
locations (small & light); synthetic fibers stay warmer when wet (bulky & heavy). Insulating pad: keeps you off
the heat-sucking ground or snow. Closed-cell foam pads are best. Improvise pads with extra clothes, pack,
evergreen boughs (especially Fir), coiled ropes, leaves, etc. Dont get into bed if youre cold; exercise first. Curl
into the fetal position to reduce your surface area. Share body heat with partners, pets, or stock animals if possible.
Red Fire It is usually not as immediately necessary as shelter, but sometimes it can be a real life-saver (if you
are wet / cold) and is often a major life-improver. It provides for heat, light, cooking, water purification, signaling,
and insect smudging, tempers wood & metal for tools, deters animals & the Boogie Man, gives a mental boost,
keeps you stationary, preserves meat, bakes clay pots, burns out bowls & canoes, fells trees, sterilizes tools, heats
rocks for bed / sauna / cooking. Carry three or more firestarters: metal match, matches, lighters, flares, etc. Carry
tinder: candles, Esbit / trioxane tabs, Vaseline & cotton, etc. Gather and improvise with what nature provides. See
Appendix 3. Remember the fire tripod: fuel + oxygen + heat. Lose any one of these and your fire will go out.
Location: Place your fire pit near your shelter (but not too close); beware ladder fuels / cornices / snow on
branches / etc. Consider the risk of forest fires. Clear an area at least 6 (2 m) in diameter to bare mineral soil to
prevent spreading. If possible, dig a shallow bowl-shaped pit to help focus the coals as it burns. Do you really
need a rock ring? Perhaps a couple of stones (not from a water source, which can explode as the trapped moisture
expands in the heat) to support pots or block wind. Build a base out of rocks, metal, bark or green wood to
exclude moisture and minimize heat loss to ground. Construct reflectors on the opposite side of the fire and
behind you to minimize heat loss; use a space blanket, wall of logs, or rock face.
Fuel: gather a large supply of dead and dry wood or other fuels. Look for sticks suspended above the ground
or attached to standing snags; also check under logs and ledges or cut into large wood to get at dry interior (often
the best). Lack of bark is usually a good sign that it is dead, but not necessarily dry. In general, gather away from
water (go uphill a ways) and on the lee side of ridges or those with a southern exposure; sunny areas are best. Soft
woods (evergreens) will burn hot and fast and produce very few coals (good for kindling) while hardwoods
(deciduous) burn slower and produce good coals (use for larger fuel). Try to find sticks you can break by hand; if
necessary, lever a branch between two trees by pushing on the end instead of breaking with foot or knee; use the
fire to burn logs in half or just feed in from one end. Prepare large fuel, then kindling, finally tinder (keep it dry
until ready to light; perhaps in your jacket). Snap-Test & Sort: as you gather, check to see if a stick breaks in half
or just bends; if the latter, dont use it for kindling. Group pieces by size for ease of feeding the fire.
Construction: heat rises, so fire burns up. Build a log cabin, tipi, or use a brace to lean fuel against and
provide verticality. Leave an opening for the lit tinder bundle; usually best to light on the windward side. It is
often more efficient to sit close to a small fire than far from a large fire. Dont waste wood. Ensure enough
oxygen (dont smother it, blow gently or fan if needed) but not too much (provide a windbreak). Smoke indicates
poor combustion (lack of oxygen, wet fuel, etc.). Have water or mineral soil (not duff that could smolder) ready
for extinguishing. Prepare Tinder: remove hard, crumbly bark and pith, then twist, rip, shred, or pound the fibers
to get them as small and airy as possible (greater surface area = easier ignition). If possible, combine very fine
material with slightly longer-burning items so that it doesnt flash and go out too quickly.
Ignition: use your firestarters wisely; one match = one fire (or more, if you split them). Carry matches in a
waterproof safe, never loose in pockets! Light a candle to sustain the flame if using poor tinder. Have plenty of
ventilation to ensure that neither the fire nor you suffocate. This is especially important in tight shelters. Caution:
Most petroleum-based and synthetic materials give off toxic gases when burned. Gradually add slightly larger
pieces, being careful not to smother the flames. Keep it vertical! Green and wet wood will burn much more
slowly: use for overnight or signaling; dry it by the fire. To stay warm overnight bury coals, wait for the dirt to
stop steaming, and sleep on top. Use heated rocks (again, not from a water source) or a hot water bottle in bed.
Once you have fire, keep it: bank embers for morning (pile up coals and cover with ashes, and poke an air hole) or
carry it with you; coals wrapped in wood bundle full of ashes, a torch, or dry mullein (it makes a great punk).
Before you leave camp, make sure the fire is completely extinguished and cold: dont start forest fires!
Fed Stoke your metabolism by staying well fed; eating fat or protein before bed will help you to sleep
warmer. Eat only if you have an adequate water supply; digestion requires a lot of water (carbs least so). Drink
water since it can cool or warm you (dehydration = thick blood = poor circulation); hot drinks rule! Dont use
nicotine or caffeine: they are vasoconstrictors = decreased peripheral blood flow = frostbite. Dont consume
alcohol: it is a depressant and a vasodilator = increased peripheral blood flow = hypothermia. Dont hold urine: a
full bladder requires more body heat to keep it warm than an empty one does.
Tread If it is cold where you are, move someplace warmer: away from waters edge, farther south, etc. Cold air
settles in valleys so climb a little way up the mountain slope to avoid. However, paradoxically, as warm air rises,
it cools: a 1000 altitude gain = 3 to 5 F drop (1000m = 5 - 7 C), so dont go too high. Try isometric exercises
(contracting muscles without moving joints) while sitting or lying in bed. Aerobics quickly warm you up, but be
aware that sweat will quickly chill you when you stop moving so dont overdo it.
Chemical Heat Packs Good for short term, providing isolated heat; use for hands, feet, etc. unless frostbit.
Dont apply them directly to your skin; use very cautiously with hypothermic patients. See EMS lecture.
Sunlight Wear dark colors and stay out of the shade; southern exposures offer the best chance for Sun.
4) Shelter 3 hours: Home is where you make it. Tom Brown, Jr.
It keeps you drier, provides a windbreak, helps retain heat, allows for better rest, gives a mental boost, and helps keep
you in one place so that youre easier to find. Depending on design, it can offer protection from rain, snow, wind,
cold, heat, sun, animals and insects.
Location Considerations: Simplify life; look for proximity to building materials, wood, water, and food.
Beware of things coming at you from above:
o Snags / widow-makers: dead trees, beaver-cut tress, snow on limbs; raise your arm 45 and look 360 around.
o Rock fall: beware chutes, cliffs, obvious paths, scree / talus fields, etc; is there earthquake potential?
o Avalanche: as for rock fall, plus evaluate terrain, weather and snow conditions. See Avalanche lecture.
o Lightning: avoid high points, open areas, shallow caves, metal, or tall trees. See Appendix 6.
Beware of things coming at you from below:
o Depressions or poor drainage: you dont want to wake up in a puddle.
o Hazardous plants: poison ivy, poison oak, cacti, etc.
o Hazardous animals: snakes, anthills, etc.
Beware of things coming at you from the sides:
o Flash floods: avoid dry creek beds, slot canyons, flood plains, and riverbanks.
o Wind: avoid passes, ridgelines, large open areas, and any place with frequent strong winds. Note that winds in
mountains generally blow downhill at night and uphill during the day. This means that cold air will usually
flow like water down drainages at night.
o Game trails: you dont want a bear, moose, or skunk walking through your bed.
Think about comfort: close to water is usually colder, may have many more insects and heavier dew.
Consider visibility to potential rescuers: locate near large clearings with a good line of sight to see them and signal.
Designs and Materials: Be creative; what are you keeping out (or in); what are available resources?
Natural: even a few trees, bushes, or large rocks will provide a valuable windbreak. Also look for caves,
overhangs, under / in logs, tree wells in snow (Spruce are great). Beware of previous owners or current
residents (bears, snakes, skunks, hornets, spiders, etc.); consider smoking-out caves before use.
Debris hut: create a low A-frame, stuff dry leaves in and over, secure the top if windy, burrow in.
Lean-to / A-Frame: use a tarp & cord or natural materials. Shingle from bottom to top with boughs or bark (Birch
is great). Dig down to bare earth to thermalize; when covered with 8 of snow, it will be apx. 20F inside.
Quinzhee: works in very shallow snow; pile snow into a large mound at least chest high, insert sticks > 1 (.3 m)
long, allow it to settle for about an hour, then burrow in until you reach the ends of the sticks, use excavated
snow to build a tunnel entrance to help block wind, then continue as for a snow cave.
Snow cave: burrow at an upward angle into large drifts (beware avalanche danger); dont get sweaty while
digging, make the roof dome-shaped and smooth to prevent drips & add strength, create an elevated sleeping
platform (colder air will sink), make ventilation holes high & low (especially if using a candle or stove inside
since carbon monoxide and smoke rise), block entrance with pack or snow blocks, keep interior cold enough to
see your breath, keep your digging tools inside with you, mark perimeter and entrance on the snow above.
Snow is a great insulator, so more is better; >1 (0.3 m) thick is great. However, avoid the conductive cooling
of direct contact with the snow by using a sleeping pad, bed of evergreen boughs, or whatever you can find.
Construction Considerations: how much time and energy do you have to invest?
Size: small to conserve heat but big enough to lie down and sit up; minimize effort used to build. In a pinch, make
it just big enough to curl up in; if practical, make big enough to also store wood, etc.
Insulation: all around and underneath (especially on snow); dead air space and waterproof ground barrier.
Wind Protection: create a door (even just a pack or plug of snow) and build additional windbreaks.
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
Water Impermeability: if using porous cloth, stretch tightly and angle 40-60; 2 layers with a gap is best. Even
something as simple as a thick layer of dry leaves will keep you dry underneath during a rain shower.
Ventilation: high & low. Never use stoves indoors (carbon monoxide poisoning). In snow shelters it is very
important to recheck your vents often to ensure they arent blocked by fresh or drifting snow.
Orientation: door facing 90 degrees to strong winds (to avoid drifts) or facing SE for morning Sun.
Appearance: most natural shelters blend in very well; mark them with clothing, tarp, flags, etc.
Carry: take ready-made shelters and the tools to improvise or improve on natural shelters.
Tent / bivy bag / body bag: as small as feasible for conditions, sturdy, freestanding, waterproof and seam-sealed.
Tarp / poncho: look for sturdy models with grommets and side snaps; military surplus or sil-nylon.
Space blanket / contractor bags / trash bags: compact, immediate action shelter and many other uses.
Parachute (550) cord: get the kind with 7 strands inside an outer sheath; melt ends to seal them. Improvise with
fishing line, shoelaces, gun slings, roots, tape, bandages, or natural cordage. Practice tying knots until you can
do them with your eyes closed, one-handed, etc. See Appendix 2 and Knots class.
Tools such as folding snow saws / wood saws / axe: dont cut branches that are under tension, they can kill!
Snow shovel: for digging snow caves and rescuing avalanche victims; metal blades are much better than plastic.
Mosquito repellant & netting (tent or head-sized) / jungle hammock: warmer weather only.
Sunscreen & lip balm (30 SPF): remember inside ears and nostrils when around water or snow.
Sunglasses / goggles: dark, 100% UV, side shields, polarized; improvise with mask (slit cut in tape / bark) or soot.
Clear glasses: for walking through dark woods & helicopter operations. Always protect your eyes!
Shelter Living: limit trips into and out of shelter to conserve heat so yes, pee indoors (e.g., in a bottle). Brush
off clothes and consider removing boots before entering to keep shelters clean and dry. Try smudging to repel
insects; burn cedar boughs or termite nests.
10
Tarp Techniques
Tarp
Button
using a Slip
Knot
Timber Hitch
Truckers Hitch
Tension System
Girth Hitch
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
Slip Knot
11
Thermalized A-Frame
(Headache log at
mid-thigh high.)
12
pulled
pulled
Fill a tarp/bag with snow, then twist the neck as you pound the snow to compact it. Tie
off p-cord with a slip half hitch. Pound and massage it in the door hole to form it to
shape. Allow to set for a couple of hours before removing. To enter; step in with one
leg, then the other, bringing your head in last. Pull the plug into place.
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
13
14
7) Food 3 weeks: Men frequently starve, not from want of necessaries but for want of luxuries. H.D. Thoreau
This is your last priority (unless youre diabetic), so dont get distracted by it. Most SAR cases last less than 3 days, so
dont get too anxious about eating. However, it provides warmth, energy for work & travel, and improves attitude &
health so, if possible, dont ignore it. Ration your energy reserves as well as your food. Carry high-energy, no-prep or
low-prep foods: eat lightly and often, trying for 4000-6000 Calories per day. Dont eat if you cant drink: digestion
requires water (carbohydrates need the least water and are the most useful, though fats are also helpful during winter).
Note that blood is considered food, not water; it contains salt and will not quench thirst. Make sure your foods wont
freeze in winter (e.g., Power Bars), melt in summer (chocolate), or spoil. Consider carrying a stove, fuel and a metal
pot / cup: they provide hot food & drinks and can purify water. These also give you the option of taking dehydrated or
freeze-dried meals (MREs dont require a stove.) Propane and butane dont function as well when very cold or at high
altitude; white gas is better for these circumstances. Beware frostbite, which can be caused by touching cold metal or
super-cooled fuels with bare skin. Dont use stoves in tents (fire hazard) or
enclosed snow shelters (carbon monoxide can quickly kill). Boiling is the
best method for cooking while preserving nutritional value if you drink the
cooking water. You can use hot rocks (not from a water source) to boil in a
pit, Birch bark box, hat, or animal skin. For long-term situations, a varied diet
is important: get vitamins (Pine needles are rich in Vitamin C), minerals,
protein, and fats. Skin everything but fish (scale?) and birds (pluck):
eviscerate and clean well before cooking thoroughly. Never clean, cook, eat
or store foods near camp in bear country. Avoid strong odors (fish, blood,
etc.) and hang or secure smelly items between large boulders or carry a Bear
Resistant Food Container (BRFC). In an emergency, burn or bury leftovers &
garbage far downwind from camp; under normal ops these should be stored
with food items and carried out.
The counter-balance method.
Mammals and Birds: trap or snare using shoelaces, parachute cord, fishing line, brass / copper / stainless steel wire,
mousetrap; dig pits, build deadfalls, etc.; maintain natural look and smell of trap area. Hunt with gun (carry bird
shot as well as slugs or buckshot) or make bow / spear / sling / slingshot / bola / throwing stick; dawn & dusk are
usually best. Liver = lots of vitamins, but discard if it is discolored or spotted. (This is a sign of tularemia in
rabbits and other rodents & small animals. Be aware that you can contract this and other diseases from handling
inflected animals without gloves or by drinking contaminated water. Thoroughly cooking will make most meat
safe to eat.) Collect eggs whenever possible; they are edible in all stages of development.
Fish: carry fishing line & small hooks or a net, build traps, make a spear, catch with hands, and look for crayfish under
rocks and shellfish on the bottom. All fresh water fish should be cooked to kill parasites.
Insects, Worms, etc.: learn edible local varieties. These are a great source of protein and fat; theyre more palatable if
roasted / put into stews. Gather in tall grass with a sweep net made of a shirt or headnet on a hoop with a long
handle. If possible, starve them for 1-2 days; remove legs and wings. Avoid any that bite, carry disease, eat
carrion or dung, are hairy, or have more than 6 legs. Bees and wasps provide honey, but be careful if gathering it.
Plants, Amphibians, and Fungi: learn edible and poisonous local species. Gathering plants is usually easier and safer
than hunting. Caution: if in doubt as to edibility, do not guess since some are highly toxic in very small amounts.
Animals eating of a particular plant does not mean that it is safe for humans (especially true of birds). Even the
oft-cited Edibility Test isnt foolproof (it
doesnt keep you from eating Water Hemlock, a
highly-toxic plant), so take the time to memorize
a few easily-identified, nutritious, common plants
in your area. Dont bother with mushrooms; they
have almost no nutritional value, are easily
misidentified, and are potentially deadly.
Reptiles: hunt and trap as you would mammals.
Beware venomous species (dead snakes can still
bite you) and dont eat Box Turtles as they can
be toxic. Reptiles commonly carry Salmonella,
so cook well and wash your hands. Eggs are all
edible if you can find them.
15
16
MY ESSENTIALS
Many of these items could be listed under multiple categories; those that could are obviously more valuable than
those that could not. Remember, though, that your store of knowledge and ability to improvise may prove more
important than what is in your kit. Ultimately, its not what you have, but how you use it that matters.
Mental Health: adequate skills, knowledge, and preparation; family photos; religious book / talisman; deck of cards;
survival guide; harmonica; stuffed animal; good luck charm; any item that makes you (or your patient) happy
You: hiking partner(s); filing a trip plan; comms / SAR system (dispatch, family, local Ranger Station, etc.)
Extra Clothing: synthetic / wool / silk base layer; more warm layers than you expect to need (wool / synthetic);
down coat; extra wool socks; water-proof pants & jacket; brimmed hat; rain hat; hood; Buff; gaiters; fleece / wool
balaclava / cap; gloves; mittens; over-mitts; boots; bandana; Nomex clothes; immersion / dry suit
Shelter & Protection: heavy garbage / contractor plastic bags; space blanket; tarp; poncho; body bag; bivy bag; tent;
Tyvek / Visqueen sheet; foam pad; sleeping bag; 7-strand parachute cord; leather gloves; helmet; clear glasses;
sunglasses / goggles; ear plugs; SPF lip balm; sunscreen; snow shovel; snow saw; entrenching tool; bungee cords;
cable-ties; jungle hammock; insect head-net / sheet; insect spray; body armor; OC spray, shotgun slugs / 00 shot;
fire shelter
Sharp Knives & Tools: Swiss army knife; lock-blade knife; fixed-blade knife; multi-tool; razor; card-tool; machete;
cable saw; pocket-chainsaw; folding saw; hatchet; axe; whet stone; flat file; gear-specific tools & instructions
Eats: more than you expect to need; granola / energy bars; hard candy; candy bars; GORP; peanut butter; pemmican;
bouillon; jerky; freeze-dried / dehydrated meals; MREs; dry soup; dehydrated fruit; salt packets; liquid fuel /
Esbit / compressed gas stove; stove fuel; pot; spoon; heavy duty foil; can opener; snare wire; speed hook;
monofilament / spectra line; small hooks; treble hooks; split-shot sinkers; flies; lures; swivels; gill / cast net;
firearm; ammo (bird/buck shot); spear tip; mousetrap; plants book; snare diagrams; snares; bear-bag / BRFC
Navigation & Travel: waterproofed topographic maps; settable declination compass; button compass; GPS receiver;
UTM grid template; altimeter; clinometer; binoculars / scope; watch; weather radio; waterproof paper; pencil;
pen; pacing beads; pack; hiking poles; snowshoes; skis; sled; crampons; ice axe; climbing harness; climbing rope;
Prusik loops / accessory cord; tubular webbing; carabiners; snow pickets / flukes / ice screws; rock protection; ice
spikes; snow wands; avalanche probe; waterproof stuff-sacks; inflatable raft; extra paddles; PFD; spare tires &
belts; extra gas & fluids; jumper cables / starter kit; tow strap / chain; tire chains; winch / come-along; Fix-a-Flat
Tinder & Firestarters: metal match; strike-anywhere / Lifeboat / Storm matches in a waterproof case; sandpaper /
striking strip; Zippo lighter; windproof / butane lighter; butane / propane torch; road flare; Fusee; magnifying
glass; Fresnel lens; prepared tinder; inner tube squares; commercial fuel tablets; large candles; novelty candles
Illumination: headlamp; flashlight; coin-cell LED light; extra bulbs; extra batteries; cyalume sticks; candle lantern;
parachute flares; night vision goggles / scope; thermal imager
Consider also red / blue / IR bulbs or filters.
Aid Kit: treatment report forms; latex / nitrile gloves; shears; moleskin; waterproof tape; gauze pads; Q-tips; iodine /
alcohol swabs; triangular bandages; roll bandages; Bandaids; tweezers; CPR mask; Sam splint; QuikClot; 2nd
Skin; thermometer; reusable hot packs; cold packs; Ace bandage; large irrigation syringe; tongue depressor; steristrips; tincture of benzoin; EMS book; hand sanitizer; soap; prescription medications; oral / IV analgesics;
destination-specific medications; Epinephrine; antihistamine; hydrocortisone cream; oral antibiotics; antibiotic
ointment; anti-diarrheals; potassium permanganate; intubation kit; suture kit; vitamins; Gold Bond powder; skin
lotion; extra prescription glasses; biohazard bags; tampons; sanitary napkins; toilet paper; duct tape; safety pins;
large & small needles; awl; dental floss; thread; hot glue stick; SeamGrip; superglue; gear-specific repair kits;
spare parts; hose clamps; Medic Alert tag; laminate your name & medical history, emergency contact & drug info
Liquids: wide-mouthed bladder; wide-mouthed bottles; quart / gallon Ziploc freezer bags; unlubricated condoms;
chlorine dioxide tablets; iodine tablets / tincture; water filter; clear plastic sheet; surgical tubing; drinking straw;
metal cup; Thermos vacuum flask; sports drink mix / Gookinaid; herbal tea; ice chisel; pre-fabricated solar still
Signaling: glass signal mirror; pea-less whistle; laser flare; mini air horn; aerial / shotgun / hand flares; strobe light;
dye marker; smoke grenade; tracer ammo; flash-bang; satellite / cell phone; phone card; CB / FRS / VHF /
agency radio; extra battery packs; clamshell AA battery pack; avalanche beacon; Personal Locator Beacon;
Sharpie marker; retro-reflective tape; orange plastic surveyors tape; clothes-pin markers; orange traffic / hunters
safety vest; laminated card of ground-to-air signals & radio instructions / frequencies
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
17
Summary
Improvise, overcome, adapt. Gunny Highway in Heartbreak Ridge
You must do everything possible to AVOID PROBLEMS initially and mitigate them when necessary. Training and
preparation will take you only so far. We will give you the basic skills, but when your plans go sideways and you find
yourself lost, wet, and cold, it is what you have inside that really matters. Be a survivor through the use of:
Prevention
Planning
Preparation
Proficiency
Judgment
Awareness
Knowledge
Experience
Observation
Adaptation
Attitude
Confidence
Improvisation
Determination
Courage
In order to stay functional, you must satisfy the bodys seven BASIC REQUIREMENTS; take care of them and life
will go on: Positive (or Professional) Mental Attitude, Oxygen, Warmth, Shelter, Water, Sleep, Food. Unless there
are serious injuries, you will probably be most concerned with satisfying four of them:
PMA: STOP, dont panic, stay positive, laugh, take charge, set goals, signal for help, never give up.
Warmth: Remember the Eds; head covered, dead air, shed water, bed down, red fire, fed well, tread.
Shelter: Safe location (up, down, around), small, wind- and water-proof, insulated, ventilated, visible.
Water: Ration your sweat, drink whenever possible, collect whenever possible, purify if you can.
The ability to improvise can be a lifesaver, but things will be a lot easier if you carry the appropriate clothing and
equipment for your target environment. You must assemble a well-reasoned kit and then keep it with you. If you
purchase one pre-assembled (not recommended), modify it to suit you and your needs; a shoddy kit may be worse than
no kit if it gives a false sense of security. Consider your bodys needs, the environment, remoteness, weather, and
address MY ESSENTIALS at a minimum. Bad things may only happen to the other guy, but remember; to me, you
are the other guy! (Note: If camping or hiking with children, dont forget to outfit them with quality clothes and ageappropriate equipment; e.g., a whistle should always be around their neck with the understanding that it is only to be
used in an emergency; also matches, lighter, pocket knife, and a large plastic bag would be good for older kids. Check
out the Hug-a-Tree program for other useful information: http://www.gpsar.org/hugatree.html.)
You must PRACTICE the skills you have learned in order to become proficient and then to remain so.
Fire Starting: Get lots of dead & dry fuel, build vertically over a good base, use reflectors and windbreaks. Be
comfortable with using a metal match and a variety of artificial and natural tinders. See what is locally available.
Shelter Building: Utilize natural shelters, improvise with natural materials, and improve them with your gear.
Experiment with rigging a tarp and digging a snow cave. Learn basic knots and their uses (and limitations).
Water Collection: Build a solar still or transpiration bag, use your filter, melt ice & snow on your stove.
Navigation: Compete with map, compass and GPS, try geocaching, become familiar with the celestial aids.
Signaling: Try using mirrors and making ground signals. While not a component of survival in the strictest sense,
signaling may help get you rescued before your resources or willpower are exhausted.
Other: Master and stay familiar with any seldom-used gear (stove, tent, PLB, avalanche beacon, etc.). Pay
attention during everyday life to potential survival resources. Where do you see water (streams, ponds, seeps);
what sources of tinder are around you; what kinds of hazards exist in your area? This will help keep you in the
habit of constantly being aware of your surroundings.
10 dollars
8 dollars
7 dollars
6 dollars
5 dollars
2 dollars
1 dollar
0 dollars
Priceless
18
Signaling: Practice with a partner: dont signal third parties unless it is an actual emergency.
Signaling mirror: practice using the aiming prism by putting the fireball on your target.
Any shiny surface: practice aiming the bright spot through your fingers like open sights on a rifle.
Experiment with laser flares during day and night to test effectiveness.
Try using Morse Code to communicate with a partner via flashlight or flag across a field or valley.
Twirl a cyalume stick on the end of a 3 (1 m) piece of cord at night to create a buzz saw effect.
Fire Starting: Check safety of area; clear ground to mineral soil, low wind, no fire restrictions or ladder fuel.
Gather & snap-test triple the amount of fuel you think youll need: use dead, dry, and down wood (in the interest of
LNT); in a real emergency, gather wood from off the ground (it will be drier).
Practice Alaskan Splitting (cut halfway through a 2 long branch a few inches from one end; hit a stump/rock with
the tip, causing the stick to split; make another cut a few inches lower at 90 to first cut, repeat).
Practice batoning (use your knife as a wedge by pounding it through a log with another log), pop & twist to split
smaller pieces (place knife point on a stick, blade away, and swing both together down onto a log to drive it in,
then twist wood on the blade to split it), and making feather sticks (keep your arm locked straight).
Build structure: dry base, brace (verticality), reflectors, heavy fuel, kindling, tinder; ensure ventilation.
Practice with metal match and a variety of natural and artificial tinders. What can be found in your area?
Ensure that your fire is completely extinguished before leaving. See also Appendix 3.
Navigation: Participate in orienteering competitions or geo-caching to hone your map & compass and GPS skills.
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
19
20
Diagonal Lashing
Half Hitch, Timber Hitch, Timber Hitch with a Half Hitch, Clove Hitch
Bowline
Illustrations taken from AFR 64-4.
Sheet Bend
21
Figure 8 on a Bight
Girth Hitch
Slip Knot
Prusik Knot
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
Mnter Hitch
22
Great
Tinder
combo!
cotton balls (make a good wick)
Vaseline / VapoRub / antibiotic ointment (needs wick)
Esbit / trioxane / hexamine fuel tablets
commercial fire paste / fire ribbon
large candles / novelty candles (stay lit well)
magnesium shavings
char cloth (cotton heated without O2, catches sparks well)
lint (natural fibers are best)
powdered charcoal / charred rotten punky wood
Cattail / Cottonwood / Milkweed / Willow / Thistle seeds
dried flowerettes of Goldenrod / Mullein / etc.
dried grass / leaves / moss / lichen
dried conifer needles / cones
some fungi (especially tinder fungus & Amadou)
dried inner tree bark (Cottonwood, Aspen, Willow, etc.)
outer bark of Birch (even wet) / Cedar trees
powdered / shaved wood (especially soft-woods)
pitch wood / fat wood (base of standing dead Pines)
wet blisters / dried & powdered pieces of pitch
nests of birds / Paper Wasp / mice (beware hantavirus)
wax from bee / wasp nests (needs wick)
hair / animal fur
bird down
toilet / tissue / notebook / waxed paper
paper money / cardboard / fiberboard
steel wool (00 or finer)
plastic utensils (make good candles) / shavings
inner-tube rubber / rubber bands
unraveled natural-fiber twine / rope
shredded cotton clothing / bandages
shredded sanitary napkins / tampons / diapers
potato- / corn-chips / other fried carbohydrates
cigarettes / cigars / pipe tobacco
high proof alcoholic drinks / denatured alcohol
alcohol-based hand sanitizer / wet wipes / prep pads
gasoline / vehicle fluids (Caution: explosion hazard!)
vehicle air filters / fabric skin of small planes
gunpowder (from bullets / pyrotechnics)
solid fuel from flares (must get it hot to ignite)
some insect repellents / cosmetics / etc.
some medical ointments / lotions (needs wick)
some aerosol sprays
ether-based glues
some photographic film
calcium carbide + water (makes acetylene gas, Caution!)
alcohol-propelled OC spray?
Some tinders require a flame, not just a spark, to ignite. Experiment with new methods but do so safely!
It is better to become familiar with and practice with useful items in your area than to memorize these lists.
Check TSA regulations before flying: lighters, fuels, strike-anywhere matches, and flares are prohibited.
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
23
DONT PANIC
Sit down, breathe, count to 10; YOU ARE STILL ALIVE!
Think about what you need to survive or get out
Observe gear, people, weather; improvise & adapt
Plan the safest course; execute safely & efficiently
Signal: use groups of 3, large X, SOS, wave both arms,
anything unnatural & contrasting with background
Priorities
PMA laugh, think of family, stay busy, sing, focus
Oxygen ABCs, shock, good sanitation, be careful
Warmth head, dead air, shed, bed, red, fed, tread
Shelter up/down/around, small, insulate, ventilate
Water stay hydrated, ration sweat, boil / filter,
iodine = 4 drops/qt, bleach = 2 drops/qt, 30+ min.
Sleep rest often, dont push too hard, massage
Food only with water; snare, hunt, fish, eggs; boil
Fire
Safe location and good ventilation if near a shelter
Fuel: lots of dead, dry wood (snap test); large to small
Oxygen: build vertically, block or use wind
Heat: spark to start; base and reflectors to conserve
Synthetic / petroleum or green branches for smoke
Ensure you completely
it before
Signal: usedouse
groups
of 3, X,leaving
SOS, wave both arms,
Navigation
Sig
My stride = ___ paces / km or ____ paces / mile
Stay put if possible; dont get more lost!
Improvise: hiking poles, snowshoes, raft, etc.
Compass: stroke needle with silk or magnet (in radio)
Time: 1 hands width = apx. 1 hour of Sun left
Watch: local hour hand at sun, halfway to 12 is S
Stick: 2 shadow tips 20 min apart, line is apx E/W
Polaris: end of Big Dipper bowl up 5X distance = N
Mag + East Dec (or West) = True [My dec = _______]
Note: These topics are only a few main items intended to jog your memory; they are not all-inclusive nor are they
sufficient for proper planning and preparation of an operation or family outing. Take the time to make your own
checklists and cheat sheets or coordinate them with family, friends, or coworkers. See Appendix 7 for suggestions. It
is your life (and reputation) on the line, so invest a little thought and effort now to ensure you are properly prepared in
case the excrement hits the rotating ventilation device.
24
25
Insects and Arachnids: these are potentially the most dangerous animals due to chance of anaphylaxis, West Nile,
Lyme Disease, etc. Carry epinephrine and antihistamines if you are (or might be) allergic; ask your partners if they
are. See EMS lecture for discussion of treatment protocols for these and other environmental injuries. Avoid rotten
logs, dark holes, and calm moist areas: watch for webs, anthills, hives, etc. Camp in breezy areas or build a smudge
fire. Shake out blankets and clothes before getting into or putting on. Use repellent & head nets; wear light colored,
long-sleeved clothes; tuck pants into socks; smear on mud as a protective layer.
Black Widow Spider: black with a red hourglass under abdomen; found throughout area; painful bites.
Brown Recluse Spider: brown with a dark violin shape on back; rare in NW; severe localized tissue damage.
Hobo Spider: brown with a pale stripe on back & herringbone abdomen; throughout area; bite like Recluse.
Yellow Sac Spider: almost transparent with a yellow abdomen; US & SW Canada; bite like Recluse.
Ticks: check yourself often (especially in hair and on lower legs); often found in tall grasses and woods.
Any Animal Acting Strangely: most are afraid of humans, many are nocturnal; suspect illness if otherwise.
All Mushrooms & Any Plant You Cant Positively Identify. Just say no. If you cant positively identify it as
being edible, dont eat it. This goes for berries too. Some plants can have edible roots but toxic bark (or vice versa),
others require special preparation to make parts useable. Cooking does not neutralize all toxins and some species can
be lethal in very small quantities. Just because an animal eats it does not mean that it is safe for humans to consume
(although mammals are a better indicator than birds); dont trust the edibility test. Beware of using as food skewers:
toxins can get into your food through brief contact. Beware of using as firewood: some toxins can be carried in smoke
and inhaled. Beware of using as bedding or toilet paper: use only those plants you know wont give a rash.
Cacti: may be found in dry areas at low elevations; watch where you step, grab, sit, or squat.
Stinging Nettles: common across most of North America, especially in moist areas, often in large patches. Grows
to 8 feet (2.4 m) tall, green with 4-angled stems covered with stiff stinging hairs. Leaves are opposite and oval with
greenish flowers. Hairs act like a bee stinger; when stuck, the tip breaks off and a sack of irritant is injected into the
skin. After being dried, the stingers lose their power and the remaining fibers make excellent cordage material.
Western Poison Oak: ranges from BC to Mexico, generally west of the Cascades in thickets and woods. A
bushy, vine-like shrub with stiff and smooth branches, groups of three green, lobed, shiny leaves (similar to oak tree
and turning red in fall), and smooth white berries. Touching any part of the plant (especially the sap) can cause
dermatitis. It is transferable from packs, pets, or other people. Try to wash off any irritants with soap. Do not eat it or
burn it since irritants can cause major damage to digestive and respiratory tracts.
Poison Ivy: ranges over most of the western United States and SW Canada in dry, sunny areas as well as river
valleys. It is a bushy plant, often forming thickets, with three leaflets that are almost smooth around the edges and
sharply pointed at the tip. White berries form from small white flowers. Leaves turn red in fall. Properties are the
same as those of Poison Oak. Remember: Leaves of three, let it be.
Poison Ivy
Summer (left) and Autumn
(right)
Photos Taylor, Richard J.,
Northwest Weeds: The Ugly and
Beautiful Villains of Fields,
Gardens, and Roadsides, 1990,
Mountain
Press
Publishing,
Missoula, Montana. Used with
permission.
26
27
28
Environment
Are there recurring weather patterns such as afternoon lightning, daily showers, fog, etc. near your route?
What is the weather forecast for the duration of your trip? Include type and amount of precipitation, high and low
temperatures, wind speed & direction, and pressure systems. Monitor for any last-minute updates.
What is the weather forecast for the week prior to your departure?
What is the weather forecast for the week after your scheduled return?
How might the predicted winds be affected by your route (e.g., traveling through passes or over ridges)?
How might the predicted temps be affected by the predicted / adjusted winds? See Appendix 9.
How might the predicted temps be affected by your planned altitude? Approximately a 4F drop per 1000 gain.
When will the Sun rise and set? Many GPS units can predict this for a programmed location and date.
When will the Moon rise and set? Many GPS units can predict this for a programmed location and date.
What phase will the Moon be in (full / new)? Many GPS units can predict this for a programmed location and date.
Are there plant, animal, or insect hazards (or annoyances) with which everyone needs to be familiar?
Will you need to bear-bag, use BRFC, or otherwise safeguard your food?
Will you need insect repellent, head nets, anti-histamines, Epinephrine, etc.?
Are there human hazards such as open hunting season, anti-government groups, etc. in the area?
Travel
Will you need passports or other travel documents?
How are you getting to the trailhead? If commercial transport, check gear restrictions and book early!
Are your vehicles adequate for the journey, properly prepared, and well maintained?
Will you be returning to your vehicles or do you need to arrange for a shuttle at the end of the trip?
Do you need to make arrangements with air assets or other entities (e.g., guides) for on-scene support?
Are there turn-around times or other no-go criteria you need to establish?
Check the current declination for your destination at http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag-web/#declination.
For each leg of the inbound and outbound routes; identify direction (degrees true), distance, pace count, estimated
time to travel (at slowest persons speed), terrain evaluation (uphill / downhill, forest / scree, etc.), elevation gain /
loss, and waypoint identification features.
How far will you travel each day? Figure about 2 - 3 mph + 1 hr / 1000 gained or 1 hr / 2000 lost.
Identify catching features and mark them on the maps. Will you recognize them when on the ground?
Identify baselines and mark them on the maps. Can you identify them in the dark or during a blizzard?
Identify safety bearings, mark them on the maps, and have everyone memorize.
Where will you switch from one safety bearing / baseline / catching feature to the next?
Identify potential bailout routes and mark them on your maps.
Identify campsites and mark them on the maps.
Will you be able to reach each campsite in time to set up camp before dark?
Identify water sources along your route and mark them on the maps. Are they consistently reliable?
How much water do you need to carry?
Do you need to cache food, water, or other supplies (e.g., batteries) along your route?
If traveling along the seashore, what are the predicted tidal levels and times? Any Spring or Neap tides?
Are there any places where the tides will dictate your schedule?
Are there any physical hazards along your planned route such as rivers, cliffs, glaciers, swamps, etc.?
Can you plan the route to go around these hazards or otherwise mitigate their danger or misery?
If your route will cross glacially fed rivers, can you time the crossing for early in the day?
If your route involves rivers, are there gauging stations or flow meters you can access online to find levels & trends?
If your route will cross steep terrain or glaciers, do you have the training and equipment to safely go?
Evaluate the slope angle and aspect of hills youll be hiking across or below. Is there avalanche potential?
Are avalanche hazard predictions available for your destination? Check ahead and again pre-departure.
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
29
Identify safe, sheltered locations for rest breaks (or emergency bivy sites) and mark them on the maps.
Identify rally points and mark them on the maps. Where will you switch from one point to the next?
Identify benchmarks or easily identifiable places for altimeter calibration and mark them on the maps.
What is the highest elevation you will be crossing?
If needed, will everyone have time to acclimatize before starting or en route?
Do you need to carry acetazolamide, dexamethasone, O2 or other high altitude precautions?
Identify the approximate elevation of tree line along your route. Does it change significantly with aspect?
Identify the approximate elevation of snow line along your route. Does it change significantly with aspect?
Communications & Assistance
Establish SOP for responding to potential problems (fall through ice, avalanche, injury, lost person, etc.).
Will you have adequate radio or cell phone coverage in order to contact dispatch or call for help?
Do you need to consider taking a personal locator beacon and / or satellite phone?
If you are multi-agency or an otherwise mixed group, are your radios and other electronics compatible?
Have you established communications plans with each other and Dispatch?
Identify locally available sources of LE backup / EMS / SAR and their anticipated response times.
Identify phone numbers and driving directions from the trailheads to the nearest hospital / trauma center.
Leave a copy of your Trip Plan with a responsible party (family, neighbor, Ranger Station, or Dispatch).
Law Enforcement
Do you have enough people, with the right training, to safely conduct the operation?
Do you have a written operations plan and any supporting documents (warrants, photos, etc.)?
Does everyone understand team positions and the chain of command?
Have you rehearsed team movement formations and hand signals?
Have you established Immediate Action Drills for potential scenarios (chance contact, hasty ambush, etc)?
Have you rehearsed the actual mission tasks (building entry, arrest procedure, etc.)?
Have you provided clothing, gear, and food for prisoners (or patients) during the journey back to the vehicles?
Do you have up to date intelligence on the target / vicinity?
Before You Hit the Trail
Has weather prior to departure been as predicted? If not, reevaluate the plan based on actual conditions.
Does each member of the team have a map with the routes, waypoints, rally points, etc. marked on it?
Has everyone formed a mental picture of the overall operations area and memorized the safety bearings?
Has everyone set his or her watch to correct local time (as determined by GPS)?
Has everyone set the correct magnetic declination on his or her compass?
Has everyone set the correct map datum and format on his or her GPS and programmed important waypoints?
Has everyone cleared the track log on their GPS and turned it on with the appropriate interval (if desired)?
Has everyone calibrated his or her altimeter to a known, correct value at or near the trailhead?
Has everyone tuned his or her radio to the correct frequency?
Has everyone tested their avalanche transceiver and then set it to transmit?
Make sure all trail gear has been removed from vehicles and securely stowed in packs or on stock, ATVs, etc.
Does anyone have questions or concerns?
Notify dispatch that youre starting your trip or sign in at the trail register / climbing register.
Upon Return to Trailhead
Turn off GPS, radios, avalanche transceiver, etc.
Sign out at trail / climbing register and notify dispatch or safety contact.
Load vehicles and police trailhead / parking area for gear and trash. Dont leave stuff on your car roof!
Make any additional notes on trail conditions, food, gear, or other important information for future reference.
LEMOS / BMOC / IWS
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Age Sex
EMS
Emergency Contact
Phone
_____ ________________________________________
__________________ _________________
_____ ________________________________________
__________________ _________________
_____ ________________________________________
__________________ _________________
_____ ________________________________________
__________________ _________________
_____ ________________________________________
__________________ _________________
_____ ________________________________________
__________________ _________________
_____ ________________________________________
__________________ _________________
_____ ________________________________________
__________________ _________________
Identify by number each person who will personally be carrying these items:
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Outbound Route: Describe & show on maps. Identify direction, distance, estimated travel time, elevation gain / loss, etc..
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Ending Location: (Trailhead / coordinates) ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Return ETA Date: _____________ Time: ___________
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Mason, Elizabeth, ed. Mountain Travel and Rescue. Lakewood, CO: National Ski Patrol, 1995.
ISBN 0-929752-05-8.
McManus, Patrick F. A Fine and Pleasant Misery. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1981. ISBN 0-8050-0032-1.
Meyer, Kathleen. How to Shit in the Woods. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1994. ISBN 0-89815-627-0.
National Aeronautical Charting Office. U.S. Government Flight Information Publication Supplement: Alaska. Silver
Spring, MD: NACO / FAA / DOT, 2006.
Peterson, Lee Allen. Peterson Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977.
ISBN 0-395-92622-X. Learn your local flora.
Prater, Gene. Snowshoeing: From Novice to Master. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 2002. ISBN 0-89886-891-2.
Ralston, Aron. Between a Rock and a Hard Place. New York: Atria, 2004. ISBN 0-7434-9281-1.
Read, Piers Paul. Alive. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2005. ISBN 0-06-077866-0.
Selters, Andy. Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1999. ISBN 0-89886-658-8.
Shackleton, Sir Ernest. South. New York: Konecky & Konecky, unknown year. ISBN 1-56852-252-5.
Simpson, Joe. Touching the Void: The True Story of One Man's Miraculous Survival. New York: HarperCollins,
1998. ISBN 0-06-016027-6. An inspirational survival story.
Smith, Matthew B. Revisiting the Ten (or More?) Essentials. Ski Patrol Magazine, pp. 46-49, Winter 2006.
Stark, Peter. Last Breath: Cautionary Tales From the Limits of Human Endurance. New York: Ballantine, 2001.
ISBN 0-345-44150-8. Discusses several ways to die in the great outdoors.
US Air Force. Aircrew Survival: Air Force Pamphlet 36-2246. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office,
1996 (Diane Publishing Company, 1996). ISBN 1579790003. A good size for your vehicle kit.
US Air Force. Search and Rescue Survival Training: Air Force Regulation (AFR) 64-4, Volume I. Washington, DC:
US Government Printing Office, 1985.
US Air Force. Student text for Arctic Survival training course (S-V87-A-SH-01). 2011.
US Army. Military Mountaineer Course Student Handout. Jericho, VT: Army Mountain Warfare School, 2007.
Vizgirdas, Ray S. Beware the Fallacy of Plant Edibility Tests. Wilderness Way Magazine, pp.12-18, Vol. 5, Issue 2.
Weiss, Eric A., M.D. Comprehensive Guide to Wilderness & Travel Medicine. Oakland: Adventure Medical Kits,
1997. ISBN 0-9659768-0-7. A good size for your first aid kit.
Wilkerson, James A., ed. Medicine for Mountaineering. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1992. ISBN 0-89886-331-7.
Good info on many wilderness medical issues.
Wilkinson, Ernest. Snow Caves for Fun and Survival. Denver: Windsong Press, 1986. ISBN 0-912510-03-X
Williamson, John E., ed. North American Accidents in Mountaineering. Golden: American Alpine Club, 1997-2006.
ISBN 0-930410-88-2 et al. Lessons in what not to do.
Wiseman, John. The SAS Survival Handbook. London: HarperCollins, 1995. ISBN 0-00-217185-6.
www.anbg.gov.au/flags - Australian National Botanical Gardens.
www.equipped.com - Equipped to Survive. Lots of good information and gear reviews.
www.lightningsafety.com - National Lightning Safety Institute.
www.hobospider.org - Hobo Spider. Also includes information on other dangerous spiders.
www.LNT.org - Leave No Trace. Provides many good suggestions for walking softly in the woods.
www.treadlightly.org - Tread Lightly! Focuses on motorized travel and recreation in the wilderness.
Personal instruction from David Lawrence and the staff of the US Air Force 336th Training Group.
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