CPU - Central Processing Unit

Pronounced as separate letters, CPU is the abbreviation for central

processing unit. Sometimes referred to simply as the central
processor, but more commonly called processor, the CPU is the
brains of the computer where most calculations take place. In terms
of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a
computer system.
On large machines, the CPU requires one or more printed circuit
boards. On personal computers and small workstations, the CPU is
housed in a single chip called a microprocessor. Since the 1970's the
microprocessor class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all
other CPU implementations.
The CPU itself is an internal component of the computer. Modern
CPUs are small and square and contain multiple metallic connectors
or pins on the underside. The CPU is inserted directly into a CPU
socket, pin side down, on the motherboard.
Each motherboard will support only a specific type (or range) of
CPU, so you must check the motherboard manufacturer's
specifications before attempting to replace or upgrade a CPU in
your computer. Modern CPUs also have an attached heat sink and
small fan that go directly on top of the CPU to help dissipate heat.
Two typical components of a CPU are the following:
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic
and logical operations.

 The control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from

memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU
when necessary.

Computer monitor
A 19-inch, 16:10 widescreen LCD monitor.
A monitor or a display (also called screen or visual display unit) is an
electronic visual display for computers. The monitor comprises the display
device, circuitry and an enclosure. The display device in modern monitors is
typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD) thin panel,
while older monitors use a cathode ray tube (CRT) about as deep as the
screen size.
Originally, computer monitors were used for data processing while television
receivers were used for entertainment. From the 1980s onwards, computers
(and their monitors) have been used for both data processing and
entertainment, while televisions have implemented some computer
functionality. The common aspect ratio of televisions, and then computer
monitors, has also changed from 4:3 to 16:9 (and 16:10).

Technologies
Further information: Comparison of CRT, LCD, Plasma, and
OLED and History of display technology

Multiple technologies have been used for computer monitors. Until the 21st
century most used cathode ray tubes but they have largely been superseded
by LCD monitors.

Measurements of performance
The performance of a monitor is measured by the following parameters:
Luminance is measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2
also called a Nit).

 Aspect ratio is the ratio of the horizontal length to the

vertical length. Monitors usually have the aspect ratio 4:3,
5:4, 16:10 or 16:9.
Viewable image size is usually measured diagonally, but the
actual widths and heights are more informative since they
are not affected by the aspect ratio in the same way. For
CRTs, the viewable size is typically 1 in (25 mm) smaller than
the tube itself.
Display resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each
dimension that can be displayed. Maximum resolution is
limited by dot pitch.
Dot pitch is the distance between subpixels of the same
color in millimeters. In general, the smaller the dot pitch, the
sharper the picture will appear.
Refresh rate is the number of times in a second that a
display is illuminated. Maximum refresh rate is limited by
response time.
Response time is the time a pixel in a monitor takes to go
from active (white) to inactive (black) and back to active
(white) again, measured in milliseconds. Lower numbers
mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image
artifacts.
Contrast ratio is the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest
color (white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the
monitor is capable of producing.
Power consumption is measured in watts.
Delta-E: Color accuracy is measured in delta-E; the lower the
delta-E, the more accurate the color representation. A deltaE of below 1 is imperceptible to the human eye. Delta-Es of 2
to 4 are considered good and require a sensitive eye to spot
the difference.
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 Viewing angle is the maximum angle at which images on the

monitor can be viewed, without excessive degradation to the
image. It is measured in degrees horizontally and vertically.

Keyboard
A keyboard is the set of typewriter-like keys that enables you to enter data
into a computer. Computer keyboards are similar to electric-typewriter
keyboards but contain additional keys. The keys on computer keyboards are
often classified as follows:
alphanumeric keys -- letters and numbers
punctuation keys -- comma, period, semicolon, and so
on.
special keys -- function keys, control keys, arrow keys,
Caps Lock key, and so on.

QWERTY, AZERTY, Dvorak and Other Keyboards

The standard layout of letters, numbers, and punctuation is known as a
QWERTY keyboard because the first six keys on the top row of letters spell
QWERTY. The QWERTY keyboard was designed in the 1800s for mechanical
typewriters and was actually designed to slow typists down to avoid jamming
the keys. The AZERTY keyboard is the French version of the standard
QWERTY keyboard. AZERTY keyboards differ slightly from the QWERTY
keyboard.
Another keyboard design, which has letters positioned for speed typing, is the
Dvorak keyboard. Unlike the traditional QWERTY keyboard, the Dvorak
keyboard is designed so that the middle row of keys includes the most
common letters.

Computer Keyboard Standards

There is no standard computer keyboard, although many manufacturers
imitate the keyboards of PCs. There are actually three different PC
keyboards: the original PC keyboard, with 84 keys; the AT keyboard, also
with 84 keys; and the enhanced keyboard, with 101 keys. The three differ
somewhat in the placement of function keys, the Control key, the Return key,
and the Shift keys.
In addition to these keys, IBM keyboards contain the following keys: Page
Up, Page Down, Home, End, Insert, Pause, Num Lock, Scroll Lock, Break,
Caps Lock, Print Screen.
There are several different types of keyboards for the Apple Macintosh. All
of them are called ADB keyboards because they connect to the Apple
Desktop bus (ADB). The two main varieties of Macintosh keyboards are the
standard keyboard and the extended keyboard, which has 15 additional
special-function keys.

Image scanner
In computing, an image scanneroften abbreviated to just scanneris a
device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting, or an object, and
converts it to a digital image. Common examples found in offices are
variations of the desktop (or flatbed) scanner where the document is placed
on a glass window for scanning. Hand-held scanners, where the device is
moved by hand, have evolved from text scanning "wands" to 3D scanners
used for industrial design, reverse engineering, test and measurement,
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orthotics, gaming and other applications. Mechanically driven scanners that

move the document are typically used for large-format documents, where a
flatbed design would be impractical.
Modern scanners typically use a charge-coupled device (CCD) or a Contact
Image Sensor (CIS) as the image sensor, whereas older drum scanners use a
photomultiplier tube as the image sensor. A rotary scanner, used for highspeed document scanning, is another type of drum scanner, using a CCD
array instead of a photomultiplier. Other types of scanners are planetary
scanners, which take photographs of books and documents, and 3D scanners,
for producing three-dimensional models of objects.
Another category of scanner is digital camera scanners, which are based on
the concept of reprographic cameras. Due to increasing resolution and new
features such as anti-shake, digital cameras have become an attractive
alternative to regular scanners. While still having disadvantages compared to
traditional scanners (such as distortion, reflections, shadows, low contrast),
digital cameras offer advantages such as speed, portability and gentle
digitizing of thick documents without damaging the book spine. New
scanning technologies are combining 3D scanners with digital cameras to
create full-color, photo-realistic 3D models of objects.[citation needed]
In the biomedical research area, detection devices for DNA microarrays are
called scanners as well. These scanners are high-resolution systems (up to
1 m/ pixel), similar to microscopes. The detection is done via CCD or a
photomultiplier tube (PMT).

Printer (computing)
In computing, a printer is a peripheral which produces a representation of an
electronic document on physical media such as paper or transparency film.
Many printers are local peripherals connected directly to a nearby personal
computer. Network printers have built-in network interfaces can serve any
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user on the network. Individual printers are often designed to support both
local and network connected users at the same time. Some printers can print
documents stored on memory cards or from digital cameras and scanners.
Multifunction printers (MFPs) include a scanner and can copy paper
documents or send a fax; these are also called multi-function devices (MFD),
or all-in-one (AIO) printers. Most MFPs include printing, scanning, and
copying among their many features.
Consumer and some commercial printers are designed for low-volume, shortturnaround print jobs; requiring virtually no setup time to achieve a hard copy
of a given document. However, printers are generally slow devices (30 pages
per minute is considered fast, and many inexpensive consumer printers are
far slower than that), and the cost per page is actually relatively high.
However, this is offset by the on-demand convenience and project
management costs being more controllable compared to an out-sourced
solution. The printing press remains the machine of choice for high-volume,
professional publishing. However, as printers have improved in quality and
performance, many jobs which used to be done by professional print shops
are now done by users on local printers; see desktop publishing. Local
printers are also increasingly taking over the process of photofinishing as
digital photo printers become commonplace.
The world's first computer printer was a 19th century mechanically driven
apparatus invented by Charles Babbage for his difference engine.[1]
A virtual printer is a piece of computer software whose user interface and
API resembles that of a printer driver, but which is not connected with a
physical computer printer.

Computer speaker
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Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are speakers external to a

computer, that disable the lower fidelity built-in speaker. They often have a
low-power internal amplifier. The standard audio connection is a 3.5 mm
(approximately 1/8 inch) stereo phone connector often color-coded lime
green (following the PC 99 standard) for computer sound cards. A plug and
socket for a two-wire (signal and ground) coaxial cable is widely used to
connect analog audio and video components. Rows of RCA sockets are found
on the backs of stereo amplifier and numerous A/V products. The prong is
1/8" thick by 5/16" long. A few use an RCA connector for input. There are
also USB speakers which are powered from the 5 volts at 500 milliamps
provided by the USB port, allowing about 2.5 watts of output power.
Computer speakers range widely in quality and in price. The computer
speakers typically packaged with computer systems are small, plastic, and
have mediocre sound quality. Some computer speakers have equalization
features such as bass and treble controls.
The internal amplifiers require an external power source, usually an AC
adapter. More sophisticated computer speakers can have a subwoofer unit, to
enhance bass output, and these units usually include the power amplifiers
both for the bass speaker, and the small satellite speakers.
Some computer displays have rather basic speakers built-in. Laptops come
with integrated speakers. Restricted space available in laptops means these
speakers usually produce low-quality sound.
For some users, a lead connecting computer sound output to an existing
stereo system is practical. This normally yields much better results than small
low-cost computer speakers. Computer speakers can also serve as an
economy amplifier for MP3 player use for those who wish to not use
headphones, although some models of computer speakers have headphone
jacks of their own.
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Motherboard
A motherboard (sometimes alternatively known as the mainboard, system board,
planar board or logic board[1]) is a printed circuit board (PCB) found in all modern
computers which holds many of the crucial components of the system, such as the central
processing unit (CPU) and memory, and provides connectors for other peripherals.
Motherboard specifically refers to a PCB with expansion capability - the board is the
"mother" of all components attached to it, which often include sound cards, video cards,
network cards, extra hard drives or other forms of persistent storage, TV tuner cards,
cards providing extra USB or Firewire slots, and a variety of thousands of other kinds of
custom components. (The term mainboard is applied to devices with a single board and
no additional expansions or capability - in modern terms this would include controlling
boards in televisions, washing machines and other embedded systems, which are not true
motherboards.)
Prior to the advent of the microprocessor, a computer was usually built in a card-cage
case or mainframe with components connected by a backplane consisting of a set of slots
themselves connected with wires; in very old designs the wires were discrete connections
between card connector pins, but printed circuit boards soon became the standard
practice. The Central Processing Unit, memory and peripherals were housed on
individual printed circuit boards which plugged into the backplate.
During the late 1980s and 1990s, it became economical to move an increasing number of
peripheral functions onto the motherboard. In the late 1980s, motherboards began to
include single ICs (called Super I/O chips) capable of supporting a set of low-speed
peripherals: keyboard, mouse, floppy disk drive, serial ports, and parallel ports. By the
late 1990s, many personal computer motherboards supported a full range of audio, video,
storage, and networking functions without the need for any expansion cards at all; higherend systems for 3D gaming and computer graphics typically retained only the graphics
card as a separate component.
The early pioneers of motherboard manufacturing were Micronics, Mylex, AMI, DTK,
Hauppauge, Orchid Technology, Elitegroup, DFI, and a number of Taiwan-based
manufacturers.
The most popular computers such as the Apple II and IBM PC had published schematic
diagrams and other documentation which permitted rapid reverse-engineering and third9

party replacement motherboards. Usually intended for building new computers

compatible with the exemplars, many motherboards offered additional performance or
other features and were used to upgrade the manufacturer's original equipment.

Hard disk
A hard disk is part of a unit, often called a "disk drive," "hard drive," or "hard disk drive,"
that stores and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data on an
electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces. Today's computers typically come
with a hard disk that contains several billion bytes (gigabytes) of storage.
A hard disk is really a set of stacked "disks," each of which, like phonograph records, has
data recorded electromagnetically in concentric circles or "tracks" on the disk. A "head"
(something like a phonograph arm but in a relatively fixed position) records (writes) or
reads the information on the tracks. Two heads, one on each side of a disk, read or write
the data as the disk spins. Each read or write operation requires that data be located,
which is an operation called a "seek." (Data already in a disk cache, however, will be
located more quickly.)
A hard disk/drive unit comes with a set rotation speed varying from 4500 to 7200 rpm.
Disk access time is measured in milliseconds. Although the physical location can be
identified with cylinder, track, and sector locations, these are actually mapped to a logical
block address (LBA) that works with the larger address range on today's hard disks.
How is data read and stored on a hard drive?
Data sent to and from the hard drive is interpreted by the disk controller, which tells the
hard drive what to do and how to move the components within the drive. When the
operating system needs to read or write information, it examines the hard drives File
Allocation Table (FAT) to determine file location and available areas. Once this has been
determined, the disk controller instructs the actuator to move the read/write arm and align
the read/write head. Because files are often scattered throughout the platter, the head will
often need to move to several different locations to access all information.
All information stored on a traditional hard drive, like the above example, is done
magnetically. After completing the above steps, if the computer needs to read information
from the hard drive it would read the magnetic polarities on the platter. One side of the
magnetic polarity is 0 and the other is 1, reading this as binary data the computer can
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understand what the data is on the platter. For the computer to write information to the
platter, the read/write head aligns the magnetic polarities, writing 0's and 1's that can be
read later.
External and Internal hard drives
Although most hard drives are internal hard drives, many users also use external hard
drives to backup data on their computer and expand the total amount of space available
to them. External drives are often stored in an enclosure that helps protect the drive and
allow it to interface with the computer, usually over USB or eSATA. A great example of a
backup external device that supports multiple hard drives is the Drobo.
External hard drives come in many shapes and sizes. Some are large, about the size of a
book, while others are about the size of a cell phone. External hard drives can be very
useful for backing up important data and taking with you on the go. They can store a lot
of information, including music and movies.

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