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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
Page 1
CHAPTER 2
Page 5
CHAPTER 3
Page 22
CHAPTER 4
Page 54
CHAPTER 5
: CHEMICAL BONDS
Page 79
CHAPTER 6
: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Page 100
CHAPTER 7
Page 130
CHAPTER 8
: SALTS
Page 148
CHAPTER 9
: MANUFACTURED SUBTSANCES
: IN INDUSTRY
Page 175
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
Chemistry
Careers
Doctor
Chemical Engineer
Geologist
Biochemist
Pharmacist
Uses of Chemical
Salt (NaCl)
Vinegar (CH3COOH)
Tiles/Cement (CaCO3)
Chemical Industry
Petroleum
Food
Chemical Substance
Electronic
Agriculture
Contribution of Chemical
Industries
Financial
Job opportunity
Development of
country
Making
Inference
Identifying
Problem
Making
Hypothesis
Collecting
Data
Planning an
Experiment
Controlling
Variables
Identifying
Variables
Interpreting
Data
Making
Conclusion
Writing
Report
1
Oxygen, O
Zinc, Zn
Chlorine, Cl
Potassium, K
Silver, Ag
Sodium, Na
Carbon, C
Phosphorus, P
Magnesium, Mg
Sulphur, S
Fluorine, F
Aluminium, Al
Lithium, Li
Barium, Ba
Copper, Cu
Bromine, Br
Lead, Pb
Neon, Ne
Argon, Ar
Calcium, Ca
Helium, He
Iron, Fe
Iodine, I
Metal Atom
Nonmetal Atom
Hydrogen gas, H2
Naphthalene, C10H8
Sugar, C6H12O6
Oxygen gas, O2
Methane, CH4
Ethanol, C2H6O
Water, H2O
Ionic Compound
Molecule
CHAPTER 2
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Element
Matter
Anything that
occupies space & has
mass.
Substance that
consists of only one
type of atom.
Compound
Substance that contains
two or more elements
that are chemically
bonded together.
Type of Particles
Atom
Molecule
Ion
Atom
Smallest particle of
an element that can
take place in chemical
reaction.
Ion
Is a positive charged
or negative charged
particle.
Matter is made up of
tiny & discrete particle.
Particle vibrate, moving
& collide with each other.
Particles move randomly.
There are forces between
the particle. Stronger the
forces, particle close to
each other.
Higher the temperature,
higher the kinetic energy
of particle.
Molecule
A group of two or
more atoms which are
chemically bonded
together.
Physical State
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Subatomic Particles
Electron
Proton
Neutron
Diffusion
Is a random movement
between different
particles from high
concentration to lower
concentration.
Molecule (ELEMENT)
Atom
Atom
+
Atom
Molecule (COMPOUND)
Atom
+ -
+ + Cation
Ionic Compound
Anion
Water Molecule
+
Oxygen Atom
Hydrogen Atom
A Glass of Water
6
Diffusion in Solid: Test tube is filled with a hot jelly and copper(II) sulphate crystal.
Difussion Rate:
Reason:
Diffusion in Liquid: A beaker is filled with water & potassium manganate (VII).
Difussion Rate:
Reason:
Diffusion in Gas: A gas jar is filled with few drop of bromine liquid.
Difussion Rate:
Reason:
Particles
Arrangement
States
SOLID
Forces between
particles
Particles Motion
Held together
very strong
weak
Packed closely in
orderly manner
LIQUID
Packed closely not in
orderly arrangement
GAS
Far apart from each
other
Solid
Shape :
Liquid
Gas
Shape :
Shape :
Ability to be
compressed:
Ability to be
compressed:
Ability to be
compressed:
Heating of Naphthalene
Cooling of Naphthalene
1. Why is solid naphthalene, C10H8 not heated directly with Bunsen burner?
2. Why is water bath used to heat the naphthalene?
3. During the cooling of naphthalene, explain why
a) the boiling tube must place in a conical flask?
5. The melting point of sugar is 184oC. The melting point of sugar cannot be
determined using same apparatus. Why? What apparatus can be used
instead?
10
Time (min)
Melting Point
Is the temperature at
which a solid changes into
a liquid at a particular
pressure.
Physical State
AB =
BC =
CD =
Also known as
latent heat of
fusion.
* label the melting point of the naphthalene in the diagram above as MP.
11
H
Time (min)
Freezing Point
Is the temperature at
which a liquid changes
into a solid at a particular
pressure.
Physical State
EF =
FG =
GH =
* label the freezing point of the naphthalene in the diagram above as FP.
12
13
NEUTRON
PROTON
Symbol : p
Relative electric
charge : +1
Relative mass: 1
Symbol : n
Relative electric
charge : 0
Relative mass: 1
ELECTRON
Symbol : e
Relative electric
charge : -1
NUCLEUS
Proton + Neutron
NUCLEON NUMBER =
Proton +
Number
Number of
Neutron
Definition
NEUTRAL ATOM
Number of proton
is equal to the
number of electron.
Nucleon number is
the total number of
proton and neutrons
in its atom.
Definition
Proton number is the
number of protons in
its atom.
14
Symbol of Elements
Element
Symbol
Element
Symbol
Element
Symbol
Element
Hydrogen
Carbon
Sodium
Sulphur
Helium
Nitrogen
Magnesium
Chlorine
Lithium
Oxygen
Aluminium
Argon
Beryllium
Fluorine
Silicon
Potassium
Boron
Neon
Phosphorus
Calcium
23
11
Na
Also represented
by sodium-23
Symbol
15
ISOTOPES
Atoms of the same
element has same
proton number but
different number of
neutron
Nucleon
Number
Element
Hydrogen-1
Proton
Number
1
No. of
Electron
Hydrogen-2
Hydrogen-3
Carbon-12
Carbon-13
Carbon-14
Oxygen-16
No. of
Neutron
Oxygen-17
Oxygen-18
Chlorine-35
17
Chlorine-37
Bromine-80
35
Bromine-81
To determine the
rate of absorption
of fertilisers by
plants.
To determine
the age of
artifact.
USES OF
ISOTOPES
To detect the
location of a
tumor in the brain.
To detect leaks in
underground
petroleum pipe.
To treat
cancer.
16
Maximum number
of electron filled in
the shell:
1st = 2 electrons
2nd = 8 electrons
3rd = 8 electrons
4th = 8 electrons
Valence Electrons
Electrons in the
outermost
occupied shell.
Electron
Configuration
Chlorine has
proton number 17.
17
Element
Proton
Number
Number of
Electron
Electron
Configuration
& Valence
Electron
Electronic Structure
E.C =
Hydrogen
1
V.E =
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
18
Element
Proton
Number
Oxygen
Fluorine
Number of
Electron
Electron
Configuration
& Valence
Electron
Electronic Structure
Neon
10
Sodium
11
Magnesium
12
Aluminium
13
19
Element
Proton
Number
Silicon
14
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Chlorine
Argon
Number of
Electron
Electron
Configuration &
Valence
Electron
Electronic Structure
15
16
17
18
20
Element
Proton
Number
Potassium
19
Calcium
20
Number of
Electron
Electron
Configuration &
Valence
Electron
Electronic Structure
21
CHAPTER 3
CHEMICAL FORMULAE & EQUATIONS
Average mass of
one atom of an
element
1/12 x mass of an
atom of carbon-12
Average mass of
one molecule
1/12 x mass of an
atom of carbon-12
Average mass of
one formula unit
1/12 x mass of an
atom of carbon-12
Example
1) Element mercury is 20 times
heavier than helium. Determine
the relative atomic mass of
element mercury if the relative
atomic mass of helium is 4.
+
Water, H2O
RMM =
Example
d) Ammonia, NH3
e) Iodine gas, I2
g) Sugar, C6H12O6
h) Ethanol, C2H6O
b) Potassium iodide, KI
23
NUMBER OF
PARTICLES
One mole of
substance contains
6.02 x 1023 particles.
Avogadro Constant
NA = 6.02 x 1023
mole = no of particles
NA
MOLE
Amount of substance
that contains as many
particles as the number
of atoms in exactly 12 g
of carbon-12
No of particles
= mole x NA
Molar Mass
= RAM/RMM/RFM
mole =
Mass
Molar Mass
Mass = mole x MM
VOLUME OF GAS
One mole of any gas
always has the same
volume under the
same temperature &
pressure.
Unit conversion
1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
Molar Volume
1) Room Condition
= 24 dm3 mol -1
2) At S.T.P
= 22.4 dm3 mol -1
mole =
Volume
Molar Volume
Volume = mole x MV
24
Example 1
1. A closed glass bottle contains 0.5 mol of oxygen gas, O2.
a) How many oxygen molecules, O2 are there in the bottle?
4. A sample contains 6.02 x 1025 molecule of water. How many moles of water
are there in the sample?
25
5. A container contains 1.806 x 1023 oxygen molecules, O2. A sample of 0.5 mol
of oxygen gas, O2 is added to the container. How many molecules are there
altogether in the container?
6. Calcium is needed for the formation of bones and teeth. How many calcium
ions are there in a serving of cereal that contains 0.007 mol of calcium ions?
26
Example 2
1. What is the mass of
a) 0.1 mol of magnesium? [RAM: Mg, 24]
2. How many moles of molecules are there in 16 g of sulphur dioxide gas, SO2?
[RAM: O, 16 ; S, 32]
3. How many chloride ions are there in 27.2 g of zinc chloride, ZnCl 2?
[RAM: Cl, 35.5 ; Zn, 65 ; NA = 6.02 x 1023]
27
4. What is the mass of carbon that contains 6.02 x 1023 carbon atoms?
6. How many moles of molecules are there in 2.8 g of carbon monoxide, CO?
28
Example 3
1. What is the volume of 1.2 mol of ammonia gas, NH3 at STP?
[Molar volume: 22.4 dm3 mol-1]
2. How many moles of ammonia gas, NH3 are present in 600 cm3 of the gas
measured at room conditions? [molar volume: 24 dm3 mol-1]
29
Example 4
1. What is the volume of 12.8 g of oxygen gas, O2, in cm3, at STP?
[RAM: O, 16 ; Molar volume: 22.4 dm3 mol-1]
2. How many molecules of carbon dioxide, CO2, are produced when 120 cm3 of
the gas is released during chemical reaction between an acid and a
carbonate at room conditions?
[Molar volume: 24 dm3 mol-1 ; NA = 6.02 x 1023]
3. What is the mass of 0.6 dm3 of chlorine gas, Cl2 at room condition?
[RAM: Cl, 35.5 ; Molar volume = 24 dm3 mol-1]
4. 3 dm3 of an unknown gas has a mass of 6.0 g at room conditions. Find the
molar mass of the gas.
30
CHEMICAL FORMULAE
Magnesium Nitrate
Water
A representation
of a chemical
substance using
letters and
subscript numbers.
Mg(NO3)2
H2O
Empirical Formula
The simplest
number ratio of
atoms in the
compound.
Compound
Molecular
Formula
Water
H2O
Ethene
Glucose
Empirical
Formula
CH2
C6H12O6
Copper(II) Oxide
Magnesium Oxide
31
1. Why do we start off with copper(II) oxide instead of allowing copper to react with
oxygen in the air in this experiment?
2. How do you test that the air in the tube has been removed completely?
3. Explain what will happen if we burn excess hydrogen gas without removing the air
completely in combustion tube?
4. Why we need to continue the flow of hydrogen gas after the heating of copper(II)
oxide?
5. Why do we need to repeat heating, cooling and weighing until constant mass is
obtained?
32
Example 1
Al
Ratio of Mole
Simplest Ratio
Empirical Formula of Aluminium Oxide =
b) 0.20 g of calcium reacts with fluorine to give 0.39 g of calcium fluoride. Find
the empirical formula of the calcium fluoride produced. [RAM: F, 19 ; Ca, 40]
33
34
Example 2
a) Butane has empirical formula of C2H5 and relative molecular mass of 58. Find
its molecular formula.
35
36
Metal
Atom
Cation
(+ve ion)
Nonmetal
Atom
Anion
(-ve ion)
Zinc
Zn
Zn2+
Oxygen
O
IONIC
COMPOUND
Ionic
Formulae
Zinc Oxide
ZnO
Ionic
Formulae
O2-
Silver
Silver
Chloride
Ionic
Formulae
Chlorine
37
Charge
1+
2+
3+
Charge
1-
23-
Name of Cation
Formula of Cation
Hydrogen ion
H+
Lithium ion
Li +
Sodium ion
Na +
Potassium ion
K+
Silver ion
Ag +
Ammonium ion
NH4 +
Barium ion
Ba 2+
Calcium ion
Ca 2+
Magnesium ion
Mg 2+
Zinc ion
Zn 2+
Copper(II) ion
Cu 2+
Iron(II) ion
Fe 2+
Lead(II) ion
Pb 2+
Aluminium ion
Al
3+
Iron(III) ion
Fe 3+
Name of Anion
Formula of Anion
Hydroxide ion
OH -
Chloride ion
Cl -
Fluoride ion
F-
Bromide ion
Br -
Iodide ion
I-
Nitrate ion
NO3 -
Oxide ion
O 2-
Sulphate ion
SO4 2-
Carbonate ion
CO3 2-
Phosphate ion
PO4 3-
38
Name of Cation
Formula of
Cation
Name of Cation
Hydrogen ion
Hydrogen ion
Lithium ion
Magnesium ion
Sodium ion
Barium ion
Potassium ion
Potassium ion
Silver ion
Iron(II) ion
Ammonium ion
Ammonium ion
Barium ion
Zinc ion
Calcium ion
Aluminium ion
Magnesium ion
Lithium ion
Zinc ion
Iron(III) ion
Copper(II) ion
Sodium ion
Iron(II) ion
Calcium ion
Lead(II) ion
Silver ion
Aluminium ion
Copper(II) ion
Iron(III) ion
Name of Anion
Formula of
Cation
Lead(II) ion
Formula of
Anion
Name of Anion
Hydroxide ion
Phosphate ion
Chloride ion
Bromide ion
Fluoride ion
Oxide ion
Bromide ion
Carbonate ion
Iodide ion
Iodide ion
Nitrate ion
Chloride ion
Oxide ion
Sulphate ion
Sulphate ion
Nitrate ion
Carbonate ion
Hydroxide ion
Phosphate ion
Fluoride ion
Formula of
Anion
39
Name of Cation
Formula of
Cation
Name of Cation
Hydrogen ion
Hydrogen ion
Lithium ion
Lithium ion
Sodium ion
Sodium ion
Potassium ion
Potassium ion
Silver ion
Silver ion
Ammonium ion
Ammonium ion
Barium ion
Barium ion
Calcium ion
Calcium ion
Magnesium ion
Magnesium ion
Zinc ion
Zinc ion
Copper(II) ion
Copper(II) ion
Iron(II) ion
Iron(II) ion
Lead(II) ion
Aluminium ion
Aluminium ion
Iron(III) ion
Iron(III) ion
Lead(II) ion
Name of Anion
Formula of
Anion
Name of Anion
Hydroxide ion
Hydroxide ion
Chloride ion
Chloride ion
Fluoride ion
Fluoride ion
Bromide ion
Bromide ion
Iodide ion
Iodide ion
Nitrate ion
Nitrate ion
Oxide ion
Oxide ion
Sulphate ion
Sulphate ion
Carbonate ion
Carbonate ion
Phosphate ion
Phosphate ion
Formula of
Cation
Formula of
Anion
40
Name of Cation
Formula of
Cation
Name of Cation
Hydrogen ion
Hydrogen ion
Lithium ion
Lithium ion
Sodium ion
Sodium ion
Potassium ion
Potassium ion
Silver ion
Silver ion
Ammonium ion
Ammonium ion
Barium ion
Barium ion
Calcium ion
Calcium ion
Magnesium ion
Magnesium ion
Zinc ion
Zinc ion
Copper(II) ion
Copper(II) ion
Iron(II) ion
Iron(II) ion
Lead(II) ion
Aluminium ion
Aluminium ion
Iron(III) ion
Iron(III) ion
Lead(II) ion
Name of Anion
Formula of
Anion
Name of Anion
Hydroxide ion
Hydroxide ion
Chloride ion
Chloride ion
Fluoride ion
Fluoride ion
Bromide ion
Bromide ion
Iodide ion
Iodide ion
Nitrate ion
Nitrate ion
Oxide ion
Oxide ion
Sulphate ion
Sulphate ion
Carbonate ion
Carbonate ion
Phosphate ion
Phosphate ion
Formula of
Cation
Formula of
Anion
41
Example
Construct the chemical formula for each of the following ionic compound.
a)Magnesium hydroxide
b) Silver iodide
c) Potassium Bromide
d) Zinc nitrate
e) Sodium carbonate
f) Aluminium oxide
g) Copper(II) iodide
h) Iron(II) sulphate
i) Magnesium oxide
j)Calcium carbonate
l) Ammonium phosphate
m) Sodium hydroxide
n) Zinc bromide
o) Lead(II) nitrate
p) copper(II) sulphate
42
Example
1.
1) Nitric acid
b) Magnesium oxide
2) Lead(II) iodide
c) Carbon dioxide
3) Copper(II) nitrate
d) Copper(II) oxide
4) Zinc sulphate
e) Lead(II) bromide
5) Iron(II) chloride
f) Calcium chloride
6) Iron(III) chloride
g) Hydrochloric acid
7) Chlorine gas
h) Copper(II) sulphate
8) Potasium nitrate
i) Hydrogen gas
9) Silver nitrate
j) Water
k) Sulphuric acid
l) Silver chloride
m) Potassium nitrate
13) Ammonia
n) Calcium carbonate
o) Aluminium oxide
p) Oxygen gas
q) Oleum
r) Ammonium sulphate
s) Sodium chloride
t) Zinc oxide
43
Example
1.
1) Nitric acid
b) Magnesium oxide
2) Lead(II) iodide
c) Carbon dioxide
3) Copper(II) nitrate
d) Copper(II) oxide
4) Zinc sulphate
e) Lead(II) bromide
5) Iron(II) chloride
f) Calcium chloride
6) Iron(III) chloride
g) Hydrochloric acid
7) Chlorine gas
h) Copper(II) sulphate
8) Potasium nitrate
i) Hydrogen gas
9) Silver nitrate
j) Water
k) Sulphuric acid
l) Silver chloride
m) Potassium nitrate
13) Ammonia
n) Calcium carbonate
o) Aluminium oxide
p) Oxygen gas
q) Oleum
r) Ammonium sulphate
s) Sodium chloride
t) Zinc oxide
44
Example
1.
1) Nitric acid
b) Magnesium oxide
2) Lead(II) iodide
c) Carbon dioxide
3) Copper(II) nitrate
d) Copper(II) oxide
4) Zinc sulphate
e) Lead(II) bromide
5) Iron(II) chloride
f) Calcium chloride
6) Iron(III) chloride
g) Hydrochloric acid
7) Chlorine gas
h) Copper(II) sulphate
8) Potasium nitrate
i) Hydrogen gas
9) Silver nitrate
j) Water
k) Sulphuric acid
l) Silver chloride
m) Potassium nitrate
13) Ammonia
n) Calcium carbonate
o) Aluminium oxide
p) Oxygen gas
q) Oleum
r) Ammonium sulphate
s) Sodium chloride
t) Zinc oxide
45
Example
Name the following ionic compound by using their IUPAC name.
Ionic
Formula
Name
Ionic
Formula
NaCl
KI
MgO
BaSO4
Cu(NO3)2
CaCO3
Al2O3
FeCl3
ZnCl2
LiOH
CuO
FeSO4
AgNO3
NaOH
MgBr2
ZnO
PbSO4
PbI2
Name
NaBr
Br Bromide
Na +
Sodium
Sodium Bromide
46
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
a) Qualitative Aspect
K(S) + H2O(l)
KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Reactant
Product
H2 (g) +
O2 (g)
b)
CuO (s) +
c)
Cl2 (g) +
NaBr (aq)
d)
Mg (s) +
HCl (aq)
HCl (aq)
H2O (l)
CuCl2 (aq) +
H2O (l)
NaCl (aq)
Br2 (l)
MgCl2 (aq) +
H2 (g)
47
Example 2
Write a balanced equation for each of the following reactions.
Ammonia gas
d) Ammonia gas react with oxygen gas to yield nitrogen monoxide gas and
water.
f) When solid zinc carbonate is heated, it decomposes into zinc oxide powder
and carbon dioxide gas.
48
Example 3
1. Construct balanced chemical equations:
a) Magnesium react with oxygen will produce magnesium oxide.
b) Sodium metal react with chlorine gas will produce sodium
chloride.
c) Potassium oxide react with water will produce potassium
hydroxide.
d) Lithium metal react with water will produce lithium hydroxide
and hydrogen gas.
e) Zinc metal react with water will produce zinc oxide and
hydrogen gas.
f) Calcium carbonate react with hydrochloric acid will produce
calcium chloride, water and carbon dioxide.
49
i) Iron metal react with chlorine gas will produce iron(III) chloride.
j) Magnesium metal react with nitric acid with produce
magnesium nitrate and hydrogen gas.
k) Zinc metal dissolved in copper(II) chloride will produce zinc
chloride and copper metal.
l) Chlorine gas react with potassium bromide will produce
potassium chloride and bromine gas.
m)Copper(II) carbonate when heated will produce copper(II)
oxide and carbon dioxide.
n) Lead(II) nitrate when heated will produce lead(II) oxide,
nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen gas.
o) Potassium iodide react with lead(II) nitrate will produce lead(II)
iodide and potassium nitrate solution.
p) Sodium hydroxide react ammonium chloride will produce
sodium chloride, water and ammonia gas.
q) Zinc metal react with hydrochloric acid will produce zinc
chloride and hydrogen gas.
r) Magnesium oxide react with sulphuric acid will produce
magnesium sulphate react with water.
50
b) Quantitative Aspect
2H2 (g) +
2 molecule
Or
2 mol
O2 (g)
2H2O(l)
1 molecule
Or
1 mol
2 molecule
Or
2 mol
51
52
Calculate the volume of oxygen gas, O2 measured at STP that can obtained
from the decomposition of 34 g of hydrogen peroxide.
[RAM : H, 1 ; O, 16 ; Molar volume = 22.4 dm3 mol-1]
4. 16 g of copper(II) oxide, CuO is reacted with excess methane, CH4. Using the
equation below, find the mass of copper that is produced.
4CuO (s) + CH4 (g)
53
CHAPTER 4
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
54
55
Antoine Lavoiser
(1743 1794)
Johann Dobereiner
(1780 1849)
John Newlands
(1837 1898)
divided element
according their
similar chemical
properties
arranged element
in order of
increasing atomic
mass
Lothar Meyer
(1830 1895)
Dmitri Mendeleev
(1834 1907)
56
GROUP
The number of
valence electron in
an atom decides the
position of the group
of an element.
Element with
similar chemical
properties are
placed in the same
vertical column
GROUP
Valence electron 1
and 2
18 vertical column
called a group
7 horizontal rows
called a period
GROUP
Valence electron 3
until 8
Example:
PERIOD
Equal to the number
of shell occupied
with electrons in its
atom
57
Exercise
5. Element R has a proton number of 11. Its atom has 6 neutrons. In which group
and period can you find element R in the Periodic Table?
58
59
GROUP 18
GROUP 18
consist of helium,
neon, argon,
krypton, xenon
and radon
Known as
NOBLE GAS
Exist as
monoatomic gas.
ELECTRIC
CONDUCTIVITY
SOLUBILITY
GROUP 18
NOBLE GAS
DENSITY
MELTING &
BOILING POINT
60
p/s:
61
treatment cancer
62
Exercise
1. Table below shows the electron arrangements of atoms of elements P, Q,
and R.
Element
Electron Arrangement
2.8
2.8.18.8
2.8.18.32.18.8
a) Arrange the element in ascending order of boiling points. Give reasons for
your answer.
63
GROUP 1
Known as Alkali
Metals.
Have valence
electron of 1.
Consist of elements
such as lithium,
sodium, potassium,
rubidium, caesium
and francium.
HARDNESS
APPEARANCE
GROUP 1
ALKALI METALS
ELECTRIC
CONDUCTIVITY
DENSITY
MELTING
POINT
64
Element
Atomic Size
Melting /
Boiling
point
Density
Hardness
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium
Caesium
Francium
A melting point of a metal indicates the strength of its metallic bonding in its
structure.
Generally, the strength of metallic bonding is directly proportional to the number
of valence electron per atom divided by the radius of a metal.
A metallic bond can be defined as the electrostatic force between the
positively charged metallic ions and the sea of electrons.
Electropositivity is the measurement of an atom to release an electron and form
positive ion
When going down the group, what happen to the electropositivity of the
element? Why?
65
2 Li2O (s)
2LiOH (aq)
Alkaline metal burn in chlorine gas, Cl2 to form white solid metal chloride
2Na (s) + Cl2
2NaCl (aq)
Exercise :
1. Why does Group 1 element have similar chemical properties?
2. Why is paraffin oil used to store metals such as sodium and potassium?
66
[ Discussion ]
1. Why are the experiments involving sodium and potassium demonstrated by
your teacher and not carried out by the students?
2. Write the chemical equations for the reactions of lithium, sodium and
potassium with
a) Water, H2O
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
b) Oxygen gas, O2
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
:
67
3. Write the chemical equations for the reactions between the products from
the combustion of each alkali metal with water.
Lithium
:
Sodium
:
Potassium
:
Exercise
1. A student performs two experiments to study the reaction of alkali metal with
water.
Experiment
Metal used
Observation
Sodium
Lithium
a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between sodium and lithium
with water.
Lithium
:
Sodium
:
b) Between reactions of Experiment 1 and 2, which is more vigorous? Explain
your answer from the point of electron arrangement.
68
GROUP 17
GROUP 17
GROUP 17
consist of fluorine,
chlorine, bromine,
iodine and
astatine.
Known as
HALOGENS.
Elements are
poisonous.
Have valence
electron of 7.
Exist as diatomic
molecules.
Element
Symbol of
Atom
Symbol of
Molecule
Physical
state at
room
condition
Colour
Fluorine
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
Astatine
Density
Electric
Conductivity
Physical State
HALOGENS
Smell
69
Element
Atomic
Size
Melting /
Boiling
point
Density
Electronegativity
Fluorine
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
Astatine
HCl
HOCl
FeCl3 (s)
2) Bromine
3) Iodine
2) Bromine
3) Iodine
2) Bromine
3) Iodine
71
[Discussion]
1.
2.
:
:
:
:
:
:
3.
4.
5.
:
:
:
:
:
:
72
4.
5.
6.
:
:
:
:
:
:
73
Exercise
1. Table below shows several halogen elements with their proton numbers.
Halogen
Proton Number
17
35
a) State the group that the halogen elements belong to in the Periodic Table.
ii) From your answers in (b)(i), deduce the period of elements X and Y.
ii) Electronegativity
e) i) Iron glow brightly when reacting with element Y. Write the chemical
reaction to represent this reaction.
ii) Predict the observation for the reaction between iron and element Z.
iii) Why the physical state of halogen differ when down the group?
75
Reactivity
Group
1
17
1
17
1
17
1
17
76
Elements in a Period 3
Element
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Chlorine
Argon
Symbol
Proton Number
Electron
Arrangement
Metal Properties
Physical State
[RC]
Atomic Radius
Electronegativity
Property of the
oxide
77
Transition Elements
Transition elements are elements from Group 3 to Group 12
All the elements are metals, usually solids with shiny surfaces, ductile,
malleable and have tensile strength.
Have high melting and boiling point as well as high density.
Good conductors of heat and electricity.
Three special characteristics of transition element
Show different oxidation number in their compound.
Form coloured ions or compound.
Act as catalysts.
78
CHAPTER 5
CHEMICAL BONDS
Almost all chemical
substances exist as
compounds in nature
except inert gases
and other stable
element (such as
gold and silver).
Atom of other
element that have
less than eight
valence electron
are not stable
Ionic Bond
Covalent Bond
79
Ionic Bond
Example:
Formation of
Cation
Formation of
Anion
Non-Metal atom
from group 15, 16
and 17 tend to
accept the
electrons.
80
Exercise
1.
b) Magnesium ion
c) Aluminium ion
81
2.
b) Oxide ion
c) Nitride ion
82
1.
2.
3.
X
4.
Y + e
5.
6.
7.
8.
X+ +
Y-
83
Exercise
1.
b) Magnesium oxide
84
c) Calcium chloride
d) Aluminium oxide
85
2.
b) Magnesium oxide
86
c) Calcium chloride
d) Aluminium oxide
87
Ionic Equations
Equation that represent the formation of ionic compounds are
known as ionic equation.
Example:
a) Formation of sodium chloride, NaCl
i) Chemical Equation :
ii) Half-ionic Equation :
Exercise
1.
b) Magnesium chloride
c) Aluminium oxide
88
Exercise
1.
2.
Proton
Number
A
1
Electron
Arrangement
Ionic
Formula
Atom
Proton
Number
11
12
17
20
19
17
13
13
17
Electron
Arrangement
Ionic
Formula
Compound
Formula
89
Covalent Bond
Covalent bond is the
chemical bond
formed through the
sharing of electron
between two or more
non metal atom to
form covalent
compound.
90
91
Exercise
1.
b) Carbon dioxide
92
c) Ammonia
b) Tetrachloromethane , CCl4.
93
Example:
If atom P has 8 protons and atom Q has 9 protons, determine the
formula of the covalent compound formed.
94
Exercise
Proton
number
Electron
config.
Atom
Proton
number
Electron
config.
Compound
formula
2.4
2.7
AB4
16
17
95
IONIC BOND
COVALENT BOND
Similarity
Differences
Formation
Particles
Force of
Attraction
96
COVALENT COMPOUND
PROPERTIES
Melting &
Boiling point
Electric
Conductivity
Physical State
Solubility
97
Exercise
1. (a) Table 1.1 shows the proton number of three elements, X, Y, and
Z. The letters used do not represent the actual symbols of the
elements.
Element
X
Y
Z
i)
Proton Number
6
12
17
Table 1.1
ii)
iii)
i)
98
Melting pt
(oC)
Boiling pt
(oC)
Solubility in
water
Solubility in
organic
solvent
800
1 420
Soluble
Insoluble
- 95
86
Insoluble
Soluble
Table 1.2
i) State the physical state of the following compound at room
condition.
U : _______________________________________________________
V : _______________________________________________________
ii) State the type of compound for U.
__________________________________________________________
iii) Explain why melting point and boiling point of compound U is
higher than V?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
99
CHAPTER 6
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electrolytes are
substances that can
conduct electricity when
they are in molten state
and aqueous solution.
This due to the present of
free moving ions in the
electrolytes.
Non-electrolytes are
substances that can not
conduct electricity when
they are in all state. This
because non-electrolyte
exist as molecule which
means contain no ions.
Electrolysis is a process
whereby compounds in
molten or aqueous state
are broken down into
their constituent
elements by passing
electricity through them.
Example
2NaCl (l)
2Na (s) +
Cl2 (g)
Chlorine Gas
Sodium Metal
100
101
Product of Electrolysis
Ion
discharged
at Cathode
All ion metal
except
Copper ion
Observation
Half-equation
Product
Observation
Half-equation
Product
Copper ion
Hydrogen
ion
Ion
discharged
at Anode
Oxide ion
Chloride ion
Bromide ion
Iodide ion
Hydroxide
ion
Gas Test
Hydrogen
gas
Oxygen gas
Chlorine gas
102
1.
2.
Which electrode is
a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
103
Exercise
104
b) Cathode
c) Electrolysis
b) What ions are present in the electrolyte? Write the formulae for
the ions present in the electrolyte.
105
106
107
Generally, there are 3 factors that may influence the selective of ions
during electrolysis of an aqueous solution
1. Position of ions in the electrochemical series
2. Concentration of ions in the electrolytes
3. Types of electrodes used in the electrolysis
108
1.
2.
Which electrode is
a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
109
Exercise
1.
Carbon electrode
Copper(II)
sulphate solution
ii) cathode :
(c) Write a half equation for the reaction at the
i) anode
ii) cathode :
(d) The blue colour of copper(II) sulphate solution fades if the
electrolysis is carried for a long period of time. Explain why.
110
2.
Carbon electrode
Dilute sulphuric
acid
3. Base on the answer 1(c) and 2(c), name the process that occur
at the
a) anode
b) cathode
111
1.
2.
Which electrode is
a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Exercise
1.
Carbon
electrode
Dilute Hydrochloric
acid solution
Experiment A
Carbon
electrode
Concentrated
Hydrochloric acid
solution
Experiment B
Diagram above show the apparatus set up for the experiments of
electrolysis using two different concentration of hydrochloric acid.
a) State all the ions that are present in the electrolyte
i) Experiment A :
ii) Experiment B :
113
ii) Experiment B :
ii) Experiment B :
ii) Experiment B :
114
1.
2.
Which electrode is
a) Cathode
=
b) Anode
=
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
115
Exercise
1.
Carbon
electrode
Copper(II) sulphate
solution
Experiment A
Copper
plate
Copper(II) sulphate
solution
Experiment B
Diagram above show the apparatus set up for the experiments of
electrolysis using two different electrodes immersed in copper(II)
sulphate solution.
a) State all the ions that are present in the electrolyte
i) Experiment A :
ii) Experiment B :
116
ii) Experiment B :
c) Write half equation for the reaction at the anode and cathode in
i) Experiment A :
ii) Experiment B :
ii) Experiment B :
117
Electrolysis in Industry
1)
Most common
application:
Extraction of Metal
Extraction of aluminium
from aluminium oxide.
i) Extraction of metal
ii) Purification of metal
iii) Electroplating
2)
3)
Purification of Metal
In purification:
The impure metal is made to be the
anode
The cathode is a thin layer of pure metal
Electroplating
Electroplating is a process to coat
one metal onto another metal.
The purposes of electroplating
onto metal are:i) Make it look more attractive
ii) more resistant to corrosion
In electroplating :
object to be electroplated
as the cathode
anode is the metal used for plating
Electrolyte is a solution of the
compound of the electroplating
metal
Copper nugget
118
Extraction of Metal
[ Draw the apparatus of electrolysis for extraction of aluminium from aluminium oxide ]
b) Anode
3) Observation
a) Cathode
b) Anode
4) Half equation
a) Cathode
b) Anode
119
Purification of Metal
b) Anode
3) Observation
a) Cathode
b) Anode
4) Half equation
a) Cathode
b) Anode
120
Electroplating
b) Anode
3) Observation
a) Cathode
b) Anode
4) Half equation
a) Cathode
b) Anode
121
Voltaic Cells
A simple voltaic cell can be made by dipping two different
types of metals in an electrolyte
Electron flow from one metal to another metal through the
connecting wire in the external circuit.
More electropositive metal will release electron, thus act as
the negative terminal. Less electropositive metal will accept
electron and act as the positive terminal.
Continuous flow of electron produces an electric current.
Simple zinc-copper
Voltaic
Daniell Cell 1
1. Used salt bridge
Salt bridge contain inert
ions or salt that does not
react with electrolyte.
Example:
Daniell Cell 2
123
Exercise
1.
For the simple voltaic cell that you see at the diagram
Mg
Cu
Magnesium sulphate
solution
c) Write the half equation for the changes that occur at each
the electrode.
124
Tendency of
metal to release
electrons to
form ions
increases
Tendency of cation
to receive
electrons to form
metals
increases
125
Example: The voltaic cells are constructed as shown in the figure. The
voltmeter reading of the cell I is 1.1 V while that of cell II is
2.5 V.
Cell 1
Cell 2
126
The ability of metal to displace another metal from its salt solution
If the M can displace metal N from an aqueous N salt solution, then:
i) Metal M is more electropositive than metal N
ii) Metal M is placed at a higher position than metal N in the ECS
Example: Zinc and copper(II) sulphate sulphate solution
Observation :
Half-equation :
Exercise
1.
The diagram shows an electrolytic cell. The left section of the cell
(S) is a source of electricity to drive the right section (T) of the
cell.
Copper
Zinc
Aluminium
Aluminium
Sulphate
S
Zinc Sulphate
Copper(II) Sulphate
128
129
CHAPTER 7
ACIDS AND BASES
Arrhenius Theory
A base defined as a
chemical substance
that can neutralise an
acid to produce a
salt and water.
An acid is a chemical
compound that
produces hydrogen ions,
H+ or hydroxonium ions
H3O+ when dissolve in
water.
An alkali is defined as
a chemical
compound that
dissolve in water to
produce hydroxide
ions, OH- .
Example
HCl (g)
H2O
NaOH(s)
H2O
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
130
BASICITY OF AN ACID
Is the number of ionisable hydrogen atoms per molecule of an
acid.
Monoprotic Acid
Diprotic Acid
Triprotic Acid
131
STRONG ACID
WEAK ACID
WEAK ALKALI
132
Conduct
electricity
Litmus paper
ACID
Taste
Corrosive
Litmus paper
pH Value
ALKALI
Taste
Corrosive
Conduct
electricity
133
134
dm3
Grams per
( g dm-3)
*known as Molarity
Concentration
Unit Conversion
Grams per
dm3 ( g dm-3)
molar mass
molar mass
Example
1. The molarity of a bottle of nitric acid, HNO3 solution is 2.0 mol dm-3.
What is the concentration of the solution in g dm-3?
[RAM: H, 1 ; N, 14 ; O , 16]
135
1.
2.
A 250 cm3 nitric acid solution contains 0.4 moles. Calculate the
molarity of the nitric acid.
136
3.
4.
5.
6.
137
7.
8.
138
9.
139
Exercise
1.
Find the volume of 2.0 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid, H2SO4 needed to
prepare 100 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid, H2SO4.
2.
b)
140
3.
4.
5.
141
Neutralisation
Acid-base titration
Reaction of an acid
and a base that
produce salt and
water.
Acid-base indicator is
used to detect the end
of titration.
Eg: methyl orange,
phenolphthalein and
litmus.
An acid of known
concentration is
carefully delivered from
burette to completely
neutralise a known
volume of an alkali in a
conical flask.
Titration using
phenolphthalein
142
NEUTRALISATION
ACID-BASE
TITRATION
143
Example
1.
Acid-base Indicator
Indicator
Colour in
alkalis
Colour in neutral
solution
Colour in
acids
Methyl orange
phenolphthalein
litmus
product
which,
A = acid
a = no of mole of acid
B = base
b = no of mole of base
MAVA = a
Therefore
and
MAVA
MBVB
MBVB = b
a
b
Exercise
1.
145
2.
What is the volume of 0.5 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid, H2SO4 needed
to neutralize 25.0 cm3 of 0.8 mol dm-3 ammonia, NH3 solution?
3.
146
4.
5.
147
CHAPTER 8
SALTS
A salt is an ionic
substance produced
when the hydrogen
ion of the acid is
replaced by metal
ion or an ammonium
ion.
NaCl
NaOH
(Base)
HCl
(Acid)
148
Table of Salts
Complete the table below.
Metal ion
Sulphate salt
(SO42-)
Chloride salt
(Cl-)
Nitrate salt
(NO3-)
Carbonate salt
(CO32-)
K+
K2SO4
KCl
KNO3
K2CO3
Na+
Ca2+
Mg2+
Al3+
Zn2+
Fe2+
Sn2+
Pb2+
Cu2+
Ag+
NH4+
Ba2+
Based on the table above, mark the insoluble salt.
149
SOLUBLE
INSOLUBLE
K+ , Na+ , NH4+
All soluble
none
Nitrate salts
(NO3- )
none
Chloride salts
(Cl-)
Sulphate salts
(SO42-)
Carbonate
salts
(CO32-)
Oxide salts
(O2-)
Sodium carbonate,
Na2CO3
Potassium carbonate,
K2CO3
Ammonium carbonate,
(NH4)2CO3
Sodium oxide, Na2O
Potassium oxide, K2O
Calcium oxide, CaO
(slightly soluble)
Hydroxide salts
(OH-)
(slightly soluble)
150
Burette
Evaporating dish
NaCl solution
HCl solution
NaOH solution
Copper(II) nitrate
Solution + excess
CuO
heat
heat
Copper(II) nitrate
solution
Evaporating Dish
152
Crystallization
is a process to crystallize
the soluble salts.
Recrystallization
process will carried out in
order to get pure and
more defined crystal
Physical characteristic of
crystals
Fixed geometrical shapes
such as a cuboids,
rhombic or prism
Flat surface, straight edges
and sharp angles.
153
Double Decomposition
154
2. Ionic Equation:
chromium(III) nitrate
+ water
155
NiO (s)
156
Fe2(CO3)3 (s)
157
158
Example
1.
6.0 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 Xn+ solution reacts completely with 4.0
cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 Ym- solution to form a salt XmYn. Write the
ionic equation and hence determine the empirical formula of
the salt reaction.
2.
18.0 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 solution of Px+ ions reacts completely
with 9.0 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 solution of Qy- ions to form a salt
PyQx. Write the ionic equation and hence determine the
empirical formula of the salt in this reaction.
159
Exercise
1. Calculate the number of moles of aluminium sulphate
produced by the reaction of 0.2 mole of sulphuric acid with
excess aluminium oxide.
[0.067 mol]
160
161
GREEN
PALE GREEN
REDDISH-BROWN
GREEN
INSOLUBLE
BLUE
YELLOW/BROWN
[depend on concentration]
INSOLUBLE
BLUE
BROWN
BLACK
INSOLUBLE
162
WHITE
COLOURLESS
WHITE [cold]
WHITE
YELLOW [cold]
INSOLUBLE
YELLOW [hot]
INSOLUBLE
INSOLUBLE
BROWN [hot]
163
Gas test
Oxygen gas
hydrogen gas
Wooden splinter
Hydrogen gas, H2
Oxygen gas, O2
Carbon dioxide
HCl acid
Sulphur dioxide
HCl acid
Sodium Sulphite, Na2SO3
Sodium Carbonate,
Na2CO3
chlorine gas
ammonia gas
Red litmus paper
164
Heating
Metal Oxide +
Carbon dioxide
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ white ]
residue
[ white ]
Salts
1.
Calcium carbonate
2.
Magnesium carbonate
3.
Aluminium carbonate
Chemical Equation
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ white ]
Salts
1.
residue
[ yellow hot ]
[ white cold ]
Chemical Equation
Zinc carbonate
165
Carbonate Salt
Heating
Metal Oxide +
Carbon dioxide
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ brown ]
residue
[ brown ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Iron(III) carbonate
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ green ]
residue
[ black ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Copper(II) carbonate
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ white ]
Salts
1.
residue
[ brown hot ]
[ yellow cold ]
Chemical Equation
Lead(II) carbonate
166
Carbonate Salt
Heating
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ white ]
residue
[ grey ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Mercury(II) carbonate
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ white ]
residue
[ shiny grey ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Silver carbonate
Heating
Carbonate salts
[ white ]
Salts
1.
residue
[ golden yellow ]
Chemical Equation
Aurum(II) carbonate
167
nitrate salts
Nitrate Salt
Heating
Heating
nitrate salts
[ white ]
residue
[ white ]
Salts
1.
Calcium nitrate
2.
Magnesium nitrate
3.
Aluminium nitrate
Chemical Equation
Heating
nitrate salts
[ white ]
Salts
1.
residue
[ yellow hot ]
[ white cold ]
Chemical Equation
Zinc nitrate
168
Nitrate Salt
Heating
Heating
nitrate salts
[ brown ]
residue
[ brown ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Iron(III) nitrate
Heating
nitrate salts
[ blue ]
residue
[ black ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Copper(II) nitrate
Heating
nitrate salts
[ white ]
Salts
1.
residue
[ brown hot ]
[ yellow cold ]
Chemical Equation
Lead(II) nitrate
169
Nitrate Salt
Heating
Heating
nitrate salts
[ white ]
residue
[ grey ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Mercury(II) nitrate
Heating
nitrate salts
[ white ]
residue
[ shiny grey ]
Salts
1.
Chemical Equation
Silver nitrate
Nitrate Salt
Heating
nitrate salts
[ white ]
Salts
1.
Potassium nitrate
2.
Sodium nitrate
residue
[ white ]
Chemical Equation
170
OBSERVATION
OBSERVATION
Salt needed to be
dissolved into water
first to produce
aqueous salt
solution.
OBSERVATION
OBSERVATION
Ionic Equation
Ionic Equation
Ionic Equation
Ionic Equation
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
171
Salt needed to be
dissolved into water
(soluble salts) or in
dilute acid then
filtered (insoluble
salts) first to produce
aqueous salt solution.
No precipitate
White precipitate
Coloured precipitate
Green
Brown
172
Salt needed to be
dissolved into water
(soluble salts) or in
dilute acid then
filtered (insoluble
salts) first to produce
aqueous salt solution.
No precipitate
White precipitate
Coloured precipitate
Green
Brown
173
Procedure
Observation
Fe 2+
Fe 3+
Pb 2+
NH4 +
Exercise
1.
Identify the aqueous solutions based on the test and observation given.
Type
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Observation
Potassium thiocyanate,
KSCN, solution is added.
Potassium iodide, KI, solution
is added.
Ammonia solution, NH3, is
added until excess.
A little hydrochloric acid is
added.
A sulphuric acid, iron(II)
sulphate solution and
concentrated sulphuric acid
is added.
Ammonia solution is added
until excess.
K2 CO3
ZnCl2
PbCl2
Answer
CuSO4
NaNO3
FeCl3
174
CHAPTER 9
MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY
SULPHURIC ACID
The Uses of
Sulphuric Acid
175
[ Cause by ]
[ Cause by ]
[ Effect ]
POLLUTION of
Sulphur DIOXIDE
Burning of Sulphur
[ Explain the formation of acid rain & write the chemical equation ]
[ Explain the formation of acid rain & write the chemical equation ]
176
177
Burn in
the air
Stage 1
[ write the chemical equation ]
Catalyst:
Temp. :
Pressure:
Stage 2
[ write the chemical equation ]
Dissolves in
concentrated H2SO4
Stage 3 ( i )
Stage 3 ( ii )
178
AMMONIA
[ Label the uses of ammonia ]
The Uses of
ammonia
179
Properties of
ammonia
White fumes
180
1 part
3 parts
Catalyst chamber
Catalyst
Temperature
Pressure
:
:
:
[ Write the balance chemical equation ]
The unreacted
mixture will flowed
back
Condenser
[ state what happen in the condenser ]
181
(NH4)2SO4
Burette
Evaporating dish
(NH4)2SO4 solution
Ammonia solution
Alloys
Physical
Properties
Of pure metal
Ductile
[ state the definition of the ductile and draw the particle arrangement ]
malleable
[ state the definition of the malleable and draw the particle arrangement ]
183
alloys
Alloy is a mixture of two or more elements
which is the major component is pure
metals.
Foreign elements either metal or
non-metal is added into pure metal.
The size of foreign elements either
smaller or bigger.
It will disrupt the orderly arrangement of
pure metal. Thus, the properties of pure
metals improved.
Aim of making
alloys
184
COPPER-NICKEL
DURALUMIN
STEEL
Pure metal : 99% Iron
Foreign element : 1% Carbon
- Strong
- Hard
- Withstands corrosion
- To make bridge, vehicles,
building & train tracks
BRASS
STAINLESS STEEL
PEWTER
BRONZE
185
Synthetic Polymers
Polymer
Polymer
RUBBER
Monomer
CELLULOSE
Natural
polymers
Monomer
Polymer
PROTEIN
Polymer
Monomer
FAT
Polymer
Monomer
STARCH
Monomer
Amino acid
Isoprene
186
Polymer
Synthetic
polymers
POLYPROPENE
Monomer
Monomer
Polymer
NYLON
Polymer
Monomer
Polymer
PERSPEX
Monomer
187
glass
Main
characteristics
188
Type of Glass
FUSED SILICA GLASS
SODA-LIME GLASS
Method of Productions
Method of Productions
Compositions
Compositions
Properties
Properties
Uses
- Transparent
- Low melting point
- Easily shaped
- Easily broken
- Cannot withstand heat & chemical
reaction
Uses
189
Type of Glass
BOROSILICATE GLASS
Method of Productions
Method of Productions
Compositions
Compositions
Properties
Properties
Uses
- Very transparent
- Shiny
- High density
Uses
190
ceramics
Common
properties
191
Uses of
ceramics
192
Composite Materials
REINFORCED CONCRETE
SUPERCONDUCTOR
Compositions
Compositions
Properties
Properties
Uses
Uses
193
FIBRE GLASS
FIBRE OPTICS
Compositions
Compositions
Properties
Properties
Uses
Uses
194
PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS
CERAMIC GLASS
Compositions
Compositions
Properties
Properties
Uses
Uses