Maxwells Equations

In static electric and magnetic fields, the Maxwells equations obtained so far are:
Differential form

E 0

D

H J

Controlling principle

Integral form

E
dL 0
Gausss Law
D dS dv
Amperes Circuital Law
H dL J dS
Non-existence of isolated magnetic poles B dS 0

Potential around a closed path is zero

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Contained in the above equations is the equation of continuity for steady currents,

J 0

J dS 0

(5)

Modification of Maxwells equations for the case of time varying fields

First Modification of the first Maxwells equation
E 0 ; E dL 0 ; ----(1)

To discuss magnetic induction and energy, it is necessary to include time-varying fields, but only
to the extent of introducing the Faradays law.
Faradays law states that the voltage around a closed path can be generated by

a time changing magnetic flux through a fixed path ( transformer action) or

by a time-varying path in a steady magnetic field (electric generator action)

Faradays law: The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the negative of the time
rate of change of magnetic flux enclosed by the path.

B dS
t
t S
In our study of electromagnetics, interest centers on the relation between the time changing
electric and magnetic fields and a fixed path of integration.

E
dL

For this case the Faradays law reduces to,

B dS
E dL
t
S
The partial derivative w.r.t time indicates that only variations of magnetic flux through a fixed
closed path or a fixed region in space are being considered.
Thus, for time varying fields,

equation (1) gets modified to

B
B
E
E dL S t dS
t

(6)

Second Modification: Modification of the Continuity equation for time varying fields:
Current is charges in motion. The total current flowing out of some volume must be equal to the
rate of decrease of charge within the volume [charge cannot be created or destroyed- law of
conservation of charges]. This concept is needed in order for understanding why current flows
between the capacitor plates. The explanation is that the current flow is accompanied by charge
build up on the plates. In the form of equation, the law of conservation of charge is

d
J
dS - dt dv
If the region of integration is stationary, this relation becomes,

J
dS - t dv
Applying divergence theorem to this equation, we get,

J
)dv dv

t
If this relation is to hold for any arbitrary volume, then, it must be true that,

----

(7)

---- ( 8 )
J
t
This is the time-varying form of the equation of continuity that replaces equation (5).

Third Modification: Modification of the Maxwells equation for the Amperes Law:
Taking the divergence of equation (3) we get the equation of continuity as,

H J 0
(Divergence of curl is zero- vector identity).
Thus Amperes law is inconsistent with the time varying fields for which the equation of

continuity is J . To resolve this inconsistency, James Clerk Maxwell in the mid 1860s
t
suggested modification of the Amperes law to include the validity for time varying fields also; He
suggested substitution of Gausss law (2) into the equation of continuity (8) giving,

J .
t

But we know that D .

( D)
D
Therefore we get ,
J

, on interchanging the time
t
t
and space differentiation.

D
D
Therefore
J
0
or
(J
)0
----- (9)
t
t
This equation may be put into integral form by integrating over a volume and then applying the
divergence theorem:

D
(
J

d
S
0
t

------ (10)

D
Equations 9 and 10 suggest that ( J
) may be regarded as a total current density for time
t

D
varying fields. Since D is the displacement density,
is known as the displacement current
t
density.
Consider now a capacitor connected to an ac source as shown in figure.
I

When applied as shown in figure to a surface enclosing one plate of a two-plate capacitor,
equation ( 10 ) shows that during charge or discharge, the conduction current in the wire attached
to the plates is equal to the displacement current passing between the plates.
Maxwell reasoned that the total current density should replace J in Amperes law with the result
that

D
H J
t

----- (11)

Taking the divergence of this equation gives equation (9) and thus the inconsistency has been
removed. Note that the Equation (11) has not been derived from the preceding equations but
rather suggested by them. Therefore when Maxwell proposed it, it was a postulate whose validity
had to be established by experiment.
Integrating equation (11) over a surface and application of Stokes theorem gives the integral form
of the equation:

D
---- (12)
H dL (J t ) dS
This equation states that the mmf around a closed path is equal to the total current enclosed by
the path. Thus equations 11 and 12 replace the static form of Amperes law (3).

Maxwells equations:
In summary, the Maxwells equations are as follows:

Differential form

H D J

E B

Controlling principle

Integral form

d
L

J dS


Potential around a closed path is zero E dL B dS

Gausss Law
D dS dv
Non-existence of isolated magnetic poles B dS 0

Amperes Circuital Law

(I)
(II)
(III)
(IV)

Contained in the above equations is the equation of continuity,

J
J dS - dv

t
t
In all the cases the region of integration is assumed to be stationary.

WORD STATEMENT FORM OF FIELD EQUATIONS:

The word statements of the field equations may readily be obtained from the integral form of the
Maxwells equations:

I.

The mmf around a closed path is equal to the conduction current plus the
time derivative of the electric displacement through any surface bounded by the
path.
II.
The emf around a closed path is equal to the time derivative of the magnetic
displacement through any surface bounded by the path.
III.
The total electric displacement through the surface enclosing a volume is
equal to the total charge within the volume.
IV.
The net magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.

Alternate way of stating the first two equations:

1.

The magnetic voltage around a closed path is equal to the electric current through
the path.

2. The electric voltage around a closed path is equal to the magnetic current through
the path

Boundary Conditions using Maxwells equations:

The integral form of Maxwells equations can be used to determine what happens at the boundary
surface between two different media.( Find out why not the differential form?)
The boundary conditions for the electric and magnetic fields at any surface of discontinuity are:
1.

The tangential component of E is continuous at the surface. i.e., it is the same just outside the
surface as it is at the inside the surface.

2.

The tangential component of H is discontinuous across the surface except at the surface of a
perfect conductor. At the surface of a perfect conductor, the tangential component of H is
discontinuous by an amount equal to the surface current per unit width.

3.

The normal component of B is continuous at the surface of discontinuity.

4.

The normal component of D is continuous if there is no surface charge density. Otherwise D is

discontinuous by an amount equal to the surface charge density.
y
X

Proof:

Ex1

1, 1 , 1
( medium 1)

Ex2

2, 2, 2
( medium 2)

x/2
x/2

EY1

EY2

Ex3

Ex4
X

Fig 2 A boundary between two media

Let the surface of discontinuity be the plane x=0 as shown in fig 2.

Conditions on the tangential components of E and H

1. Condition for Etan at the surface of the boundary:
Consider a small rectangle of width x and length y enclosing a small portion of each media (1) and (2).
The integral form of the second Maxwell equation ( II ) is,

B dS

E
dL

For the elemental rectangle of fig 2, we apply this equation and get
E y2 y E x2

x
x
x
x
E x1
E y1 y E x3
E x4
B z x y
2
2
2
2

----(13)

where Bz is the average magnetic flux density through the rectangle x y . Now, as this area of the
rectangle is made to approach to zero, always keeping the surface of discontinuity between the sides of the
triangle. If Bz is finite, then as x o, the RHS of equation 13 will approach zero. If E is also assumed to
be finite everywhere, then, x/2 terms of the LHS of equation 13 will reduce to zero, leaving
for x = 0.

Ey2 y - Ey1 y = 0
Therefore

Ey2
=
That is, the tangential component of E is continuous.

Ey1

2. Condition for Htan at the surface of the boundary:

Now the integral form of the first Maxwells equation ( I ) is

H dL

(D J) dS
S

For the elemental rectangle this equation becomes,

H y2 y H x2

x
x
x
x
H x1
H y1 y H x3
H x4
(D z J z ) x y
2
2
2
2

----(14)

If the rate of change of electric displacement D and the current density J are both considered to be finite,
then, as before, equation (14) reduces to
Hy2 y - Hy1 y = 0
for x = 0. Therefore
Hy2

Hy1

That is, the tangential component of H is continuous (for finite current densities i.e., for any actual case).

In case of a perfect conductor: A perfect conductor has infinite conductivity. In such a conductor, the
electric field strength E is zero for any finite current density. However, the actual conductivity may be
very large and for many practical applications, it is useful to assume it to be infinite. Such an
approximation will lead to difficulties because of indeterminacy in formulating the boundary conditions
unless care is taken in setting them up. The depth of penetration of an ac field into a conductor decreases
as the conductivity increases. Thus in a good conductor a hf current will flow in a thin sheet near the
surface, the depth of the sheet approaching zero as the conductivity approaches infinity. This gives to the
useful concept of a current sheet. In a current sheet a finite current per unit width, J z amperes per meter
flows in a sheet of vanishingly small depth x, but with the required infinitely large current density J, such
that
limx 0, Jx = Jz
Now consider again the above example the mmf around the small rectangle. If the current density J z
becomes infinite as x0, the RHS of equation 14 will not become zero. Let J z amperes per metre be the
actual current per unit width flowing along the surface. Then as x0, equation 14 for H becomes,
Hy2 y - Hy1 y = Jsz y.
Hence
Hy1 = Hy2 - Jsz

---- (15)

Now if the electric field is zero inside a perfect conductor, the magnetic field must also be zero, for
alternating fields, as the second Maxwells equation shows. Then, in equation 15, H y2 must be zero.
So,
Hy1 =

- Jsz

----(16)

This equation states that the current per unit width along the surface of a perfect conductor is equal to the
magnetic field strength H just outside the conductor. The magnetic field and the surface current will be
parallel to the surface, but perpendicular to each other. In vector notation, this is written as,

J n H
where n is the unit vector along the outward normal to the surface.

Conditions on the normal component of B and D

3.Condition on the normal component of D (Dnor):
The integral form of the third Maxwells equation is

D dS
S

dV

vol

----( III )

Consider the pill-box structure shown in fig 3. Applying the third Maxwells equation to this pill-box
structure, we get
D n1 dS D n2 dS edge x dS
----(17)

DN1
dS
1 1 1

2 2 2
DN2
Fig 3 A pill-box volume enclosing a portion of a boundary surface
In this expression, dS is the area of each of the flat surfaces of the pillbox, x is their separation, and is
the average charge density within the volume x dS. edge is the outward electric flux through the curved
edge surface of the pillbox. As x 0, that is, as the flat surfaces of the pillbox are squeezed together,
always keeping the boundary surface between them, edge 0, for finite values of displacement density.
Also, for finite values of average density , the RHS of equation (17) reduces to

D n1 dS D n2 dS

0
for x = 0.Then for the case of no surface charge condition on the normal components of D
Dn1 = Dn2

---- (18)

That is, if there is no surface charge, the normal component of D is continuous across the surface.
In the case of a metallic surface: In the case of a metallic surface, the charge is considered to reside on
the surface. If this layer of surface charge has a surface charge density S Coulombs per square meter,
the charge density of the surface layer is given by
S
C/m 3
x
where x is the thickness of the surface layer. As x approaches zero, the charge density approaches
infinity in such a manner that

lim x0 x S
Then in fig 3, if the surface charge is always kept between the two flat surfaces as the seperation between
them is decreased, the RHS of equation (17) approaches S dS as x approaches zero. Equation 17 then
reduces to
D n1 D n2 S
----( 19 )

When there is a surface charge density S, the normal component of displacement density is
discontinuous across the surface by the amount of the surface charge density.
For any metallic conductor the displacement density, D = E within the conductor will be a small
quantity( it will be zero in the electrostatic case, or in the case of a perfect conductor). Then if the medium
(2) is a metallic conductor, Dn2 = 0 ; and the equation (19) becomes
Dn1 = S
----(20)
The normal component of the displacement density in the dielectric is equal to the surface charge
density on the conductor.
4 Condition on the normal component of B (Bnor):
The integral form of the fourth Maxwells equation is

B
dS

----( IV )

The pill-box structure is again shown in fig 4 for magnetic flux density. Applying the fourth Maxwells
equation to this pill-box structure, we get
B n1 dS B n2 dS edge 0

----(21)

BN1
dS
1 1 1

2 2 2
BN2
Fig 4 A pill-box volume enclosing a portion of a boundary surface
In this expression, dS is the area of each of the flat surfaces of the pillbox, x is their separation, and is
the average charge density within the volume x dS. edge is the outward electric flux through the curved
edge surface of the pillbox. As x 0, that is, as the flat surfaces of the pillbox are squeezed together,
always keeping the boundary surface between them, edge 0, for finite values of magnetic flux density.
The RHS of equation (21) reduces to

B n1 dS B n2 dS

0
for x = 0.Then the condition on the normal components of B since there are no isolated magnetic
charges,
Bn1 = Bn2
---- (22)
i.e., The normal component of magnetic flux density is always continuous across the boundary.